6.1+RT Full 01

Radiographic Testing
level II
copyright AUGMINTECH
Radiographic Testing (RT)
Radiographic Testing (RT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method which uses either x-rays or gamma rays to
examine the internal structure of manufactured components identifying any flaws or defects.
Basic Principle
The transmitted radiation after passing through the object, is

recorded on a X-ray film. The image of an object produced on
an X-ray film shows optical density variation depending upon
the internal structure of the object.
Radiographic Film with latent image

Radiographic Testing (RT)
• The thicker and more dense areas will stop more of the
radiations
• The radiation that passes through the part will expose the
film and forms a shadowgraph of the part
• The film darkness will vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the test subject
Darker areas = More exposure (Higher Radiation Intensity)
Lighter areas = Low exposure (Lower Radiation Intensity)
This variation in the image darkness can be used to determine thickness and composition of material and reveal the
presence of any flaws and discontinuities inside the material
Conventional RT
Film is used
Types of RT techniques
Digital detector is used
Digital RT
Conventional RT-
Conventional radiography uses a sensitive film which reacts to the emitted radiation to capture an image of the
part being tested.
This image can then be examined for evidence of damage or flaws
Conventional RT-
Limitations
The biggest limitation to this technique is that films can

only be used once and they take a long time to process
and interpret
Also it takes a long time to process and interpret.
Girth weld radiography under progress on Gas Pipeline
Digital RT-
Digital RT doesn’t use films but it uses a digital detector to display radiographic images on a computer screen
almost instantaneously.
Electric Motor
Monoblock unit
Comprised of –
• Detector
• Batteries
• Control computer
• WiFi Module
Guiding Pipe Band
Number belts containing

Location markers
Digital RT-
Digital RT doesn’t use films but it uses a digital detector to display radiographic images on a computer screen
almost instantaneously.
Digital RT Benefits-
1 It allows for a much shorter exposure time so that the images can be interpreted more quickly
2 The digital images are much higher quality when compared to conventional radiographic images
3 The ability to capture highly quality images, the technology can be utilized to identify flaws in a material,
foreign objects in a system, examine weld repairs, and inspect for corrosion under insulation
Advantages of Radiographic Testing -
01 Can inspect assembled

components
Minimum surface
02 preparation required
Detects both surface and

03 subsurface defects
Provides a permanent
04 record of the inspection
Advantages of Radiographic Testing -
05 Verify internal flaws on

complex structures
Isolate and inspect

06 internal components
Automatically detect and

07 measure internal flaws
Measure dimensions and

08 angles within the sample
without sectioning
Disadvantages
RISK ACCESS SKILL LIMITED ABILITY

• Has limited ability
• High risk of radiation • Access is required to • Skilled radiographic to detect fine
hazard both sides of the interpretation is cracks
object Required • Relatively slow
• Require high capital • Skilled operator process
cost • Thickness
limitation of the
materials
APPLICATIONS
Radiographic Testing is widely used in :
• Petrochemical • Aerospace • Military • Packaging

• Offshore • Automotive • Power Gen • Refineries
• Marine • Transport • Waste
Management
Applications -
RT being used in
Gas Pipelines
Inspection
Applications -
RT being used in
Aerospace
Basic Radiation Physics-
Isotopes
Isotopes are members of a family of an element that all have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes , denoted 1H, 2H,

and 3H
Radioactivity
An unstable nucleus becomes stable by emitting radiations such as
alpha particle and Beta particle.
This process is known as Radioactivity.
A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive.
Therefore unstable isotopes are known as Radioactive isotopes
(Radioisotopes)
Radioisotopes
Unstable isotopes are known as Radioactive isotopes
(Radioisotopes)
Natural Radioisotopes-
There are some naturally occurring isotopes such as
Potassium 40
Carbon 14
Uranium 238
Artificial Radioisotopes-
Many other elements can be made by bombarding them with
charged particles and neutrons.
They are called artificially made isotopes.
Cobalt 60
Iridium 192
Cesium 137
Becquerel- One Bq represents a rate of radioactive decay equal to 1 disintegration per second, and 37 billion (3.7 x
1010) Bq equals 1 curie (Ci).
Specific activity is the activity per quantity of a radionuclide and is a physical property of that radionuclide
Energy of radiations-
Energies of various radiations are usually specified in electron volts.
One electron volt is the energy given to a single electron as it moves across a Potential difference of one volt.
Radioisotope Half life Main Gamma Energy Specific activity

[MeV]
Cobalt 60 5.27 years 1.77 & 1.33 Up to 150
Iridium 192 74.5 days 0.24-0.67 Up to 500
Thulium 170 129 days 0.08-0.05 Up to 22
Cesium 137 30.1 years 0.66 -

Half life- As the time passes, a given radioisotope continues to disintegrate and hence, its activity reduces.
The half life of a radioisotope is the duration in which its activity reduces to one half of its initial value.
Half life of a radioactive sample
After first After second After Third

Initial amount
Half life Half life Half life
100%
50% 25% 12.5%
N(t)= quantity of the substance remaining

N(0)= initial quantity of the substance
t= time elapsed
t_{1/2}= half life of the substance
Taking natural log on both sides
Alpha Particle
It consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
It is Positively charged
Alpha particles do not penetrate much in any material and they can be stopped by a sheet of paper or a thin foil
of aluminum 0.05mm
The nucleus which gives out alpha particle loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, the mass number decreases by 4 and
atomic number by 2.
Beta Particle
It is an electron
It is negatively charged
After emission of Beta particle, atomic number increase by one but mass number does not changes.
Beta radiation are more penetrating but it could be stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum(5mm)
Gamma radiation
If after the emission of a alpha or beta radiation, the nucleus has some extra energy, gamma radiation is
emitted.
Gamma radiation is highly penetrating and is similar to X-ray in its properties.
Gamma radiations are generally used for industrial radiography. Ac
X-rays vs Gamma Rays-
RT makes use of X-rays or gamma rays.
electrons Metal target

Heated (Tungsten) Isotope container
Projection
Filament Vacuum Tube
Wind-out
X-rays Wind pipe
X-rays are produced by an X-ray tube Gamma rays are produced by a radioactive isotope.
01 X-ray and Gamma ray have
similar properties
02 Gamma rays are emitted by

the nucleus
03
X-rays are generated outside the
nucleus when high speed electrons
interact
with the atoms.
Properties of Gamma and X-ray
01 •
•
They are electromagnetic radiations like visible light
They travel at the speed of 300000 km per second
02 •
•
They affect photographic films
X-ray have continuous energies Gamma have discrete energies
03 •
•
They can be scattered and reflected
They can penetrate material
04 • They can damage living tissues
05 • They can also cause ionization and excitation in the medium

through which they travel
Advantages of Gamma rays as compared to X-rays
01 No electrical or water supplies needed

Equipment smaller and lighter
02 More portable
Equipment simpler and more robust
03 More easily accessed

Less scatter
04 Equipment initially less costly

Greater penetrating power
Disadvantages of Gamma rays as compared to X-
rays
01 Poorer quality radiographs
02 Exposure times can be longer

Sources need replacing
03 Poorer geometric sharpness
04 Radiation cannot be switched off

Remote handling necessary
X- ray Generator
X rays are produced when a beam of high energy electrons collides with any material
The essential requirements for the production of

X- rays are- Electron Heavy Metal
Beam Target
Vacuum
❖ A source of electrons (heated tungsten
filament). A current is applied to filament
and free electrons clouds are generated Filament
❖ A high voltage supply to accelerate the

Cathode Anode
electrons
❖ A target, usually tungsten, to stop the

X ray Beam
electrons and convert their energy to
X-rays
Power
Supply
X- ray Generator
Thermionic emission is the emission of Electrons are
Heated Filament emits accelerated by
electrons from a heated metal (cathode).
Electrons by thermionic high voltage
As the temperature increases, the surface
emission
electrons gain energy. The energy acquired Anode
by the surface electrons allows them to
move a short distance off the surface thus
resulting in emission.
Thermionic
Cathode
Emission X-rays produced when
high speed electrons hit
the metal target
X- rays
In a X-ray machine, less than one percent of the electrical power is converted to X-rays and the
remaining power appears as Heat.
If this heat is not removed efficiently the target material may melt.
Selection of the target material is based on the following properties-

➢ It should have high melting point
➢ It should possess a high atomic number
➢ It should possess high thermal conductivity
(to dissipate the heat quickly)
Mostly Tungsten is used as target material
Certain anodes are hollow in construction so

that primary coolants can be circulated through
the same to remove generated heat.
Tungsten target
X- rays
The penetration of X-ray beam depends on the applied kilo voltage.
Its intensity is decided by the current flowing through the filament.
X-ray energy intensity

High atomic number
low atomic number
X-ray energy (keV)
X- rays
A material's half-value layer (HVL), or

half-value thickness, is the thickness
of the material at which the
intensity of radiation entering it is
reduced by one half.
I= 100% HVT I= 50%
HVL
I= Intensity
X- rays
Tenth value layers (TVL) is defined as

the thickness of a shield or an
I= 100%
absorber that reduces the radiation
level by a factor of one tenth of the
initial level.
I= 10%
TVT
TVL
I= Intensity
Energy carried by each Frequency of Thickness of material to halve number of
photon electromagneti Wavelength photons (half value thickness) (mm)
c wave (Hz) (pm, 1pm =
in electron- 10 -12m) Human Aluminium
in joules (J) Concrete Lead
volts (eV) tissue
1.602 X 10 -
1keV 16 2.418 X 10 17 1240 0.0009 0.00012 0.0018 0.0022
1.602 X 10 -
10keV 15 2.418 X 10 18 124 0.147 0.047 1.22 0.098
1.602 X 10 -
100keV 14 2.418 X 10 19 12.4 17.3 0.110 38.6 15.1
1.602 X 10 -
1MeV 13 2.418 X 10 20 1.24 46.4 8.60 93.3 41.8
1.602 X 10 -
10MeV 12 2.418 X 10 21 0.124 132 12.3 298 111
X- rays
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They
can be produced in parcels of energy called photons, just like light.
There are two different atomic processes that can produce X-ray photons.
Bremsstrahlung and is a
German term meaning K-shell emission
"braking radiation
They can both occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten. Tungsten is often the material
chosen for the target or anode of the x-ray tube
X- rays
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Bremsstrahlung electromagnetic radiation
produced by a sudden slowing down or
deflection of charged particles (especially
electrons) passing through matter in the Electron of
vicinity of the strong electric fields of atomic Filament
nuclei
X- rays
Bremsstrahlung electromagnetic radiation
produced by a sudden slowing down or
deflection of charged particles (especially X-ray
electrons) passing through matter in the Electron of Photon
vicinity of the strong electric fields of atomic Filament
nuclei
In generating bremsstrahlung, some

electrons beamed at a metal target in an X-
ray tube are brought to rest by one head-on
collision with a nucleus and thereby have all
their energy of motion converted at once
into radiation of maximum energy.
Electron diverted
With reduced
Kinetic Energy
X- rays
Relative Number of Photons Calculated X-ray Spectrum 100kV, tungsten target 13 degree angle
Photon Energy keV

X- rays
K- shell emission
Atoms have their electrons arranged in closed shells
of different energies M
Incoming L
The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom Photon K
➢ An incoming photon can give K-shell electron
enough energy to knock it out of its energy state
Electron
X- rays
K- shell emission
Scattered
M electron
of different energies
Incoming L
The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom Photon K
enough energy to knock it out of its energy state Hole
➢ This "hole" causes a domino effect where the

electrons above it cascade down to fill the hole
Electron
X- rays
K- shell emission Emitted
X-ray
of different energies M
L
Hole
The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom
K
enough energy to knock it out of its energy state
➢ This "hole" causes a domino effect where the

electrons above it cascade down to fill the hole
➢ an x-ray is emitted with the replacement of that

electron
Electron
X- rays
K- shell emission Emitted
X-ray
About 0.1% of the electrons produce K-shell Hole

vacancies, most produce heat
It produces higher intensity X-rays than

Bremsstrahlung and the X-ray comes out at a
single wavelength.
Electron
Radio Isotope (Gamma ray) Sources
• Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron
to atoms of the source material
.
• As the material gets rid of the neutron, energy is released in the form of
gamma rays
• Iridium-192 and Cobalt-6
• Cobalt-60 produces energies comparable to 1.25MV X-ray system

• Iridium-192 produces energies comparable to 460KV X-ray system
Radio Isotope (Gamma ray) Sources
This high energies make it possible to penetrate thick material with a relative
short exposure time.
Equipment used
Generally the physical size of isotope pellet is 1.5mm x 1.5mm
Depending upon the level of activity desired, a pellet or

pellets are loaded into a stainless steel capsule and sealed
by welding
The capsule is attached to a short

flexible cable called a pigtail
Radioactive Isotope Material

FOURTH OPTION
Equipment used

by welding

FOURTH OPTION
Equipment used

by welding

FOURTH OPTION
To make a radiographic exposure, a The crank-out cable is stretched as far
crank-out mechanism and guide tube as possible to put as much distance as
are attached to opposite ends of the possible between the exposure device
exposure device and the radiographer
The guide tube often has a To make the exposure, the radiographer
collimator(tungsten) at the end to shield
the radiation except in the direction
necessary to make the exposure
Working quickly cranks the source out of the
exposure device and into position in the
collimator at the end of the guide tube.
The end of the guide tube is secured At the end of the exposure time, the
in the location where the radiation source is cranked back into the
source needs to be produced the exposure device.
radiograph
Equipment used
A collimator is a device which narrows a beam of particles or waves
• Radiography is carried out based on the

geometrical shape of the material and the
required details of the image. The configuration of cylindrical objects like
pipelines and offshore structural members is more
• Best possible configuration is chosen, and critical.
the process of film placement and location
of radiation source is determined.
The radiographer must ask the following questions
01 Which arrangement will provide optimum image

quality and area of interest (weld) coverage?
10%
02
Which arrangement will provide the best view for
those discontinuities most likely to be present
within the material and the area of interest?
03 Will a multiple film exposure technique be required

for full coverage?
10%
04 Which arrangement will require the least amount of
exposure time?
Different Exposure Techniques
There are various exposure techniques used to
01
produce best possible image
(A) (B)
02
these technologies are very common in most of
plate and tubular construction
03
including piping,
(D) (E) pressure vessels,
(C)
boilers, and structural
fabrications and 10%
04pipelines
(F) (G)
Single-wall single-image (SWSI)

01
Exposure E is a similar arrangement in a pipe; the film is
placed in the pipe close to the weld. The source is outside
• This arrangement is simplest. It has good the pipe at a distance from the pipe to make a good
02
exposure geometry, and proper exposure.
positioning of radiographic tools is
possible. It is the most practical setup.
• The figure shows a plate butt-weld
(object) and a film placed below it. The
radiation source is placed opposite of the 03
film, keeping the object between the film
and the source. 10%
10%
04
01
In this setup, the first wall closest to the source is
considered nonexistent, and the source is offset. This
is a double-wall single-image (DWSI) viewing
02
Double-wall single-image (DWSI) technique.
• As contrasted with the earlier described
SWSI technique, in sketch B, the radiation
source is positioned on the outside of the
pipe wall with film placed on opposite
side. 03
10%
10%
04
Panoramic technique
• This is another variant of the SWSI 01
All these techniques produce a film that has radiation
penetrate through a single wall of the material, producing
technique. The technique is used for
the simplest image of the weld on the film.
02
cylindrical objects of relatively large
diameter greater than 90 mm (3.5 in.)
nominal diameter.
• The film(s) are placed on the outer
surface close to the weld (material), and
a source is placed in the pipe so that it
sits in the center of the pipe allowing
radiation to travel an equal distance to all 10%
10%
04
parts of the pipe's circular cross-section.
This allows the full girth of the pipe to be
exposed all at the same time.
01
If the wall thickness and the diameter permit the source to
be offset to obtain an elliptical image of the weld as shown in
sketch D, an experienced interpreter will be able make best
Double-wall double-image (DWDI)
• When the pipe diameter is relatively judgment of the type and location of any discontinuity
small, less than nominal diameter of
38 mm (1.5 in.), then the entire 02 viewed in the film.
circumferential weld is exposed straight

through both walls, as shown in sketch C.
Image of both walls is projected onto the
same film area.
• The determination of defect location 10%
10%
04
and depth is difficult in this DWSI viewing
• Radiography presents a two-dimensional image of the object. It is not
possible to determine the depth of any discontinuity.
• To meet this challenge, a technique is used with two exposures

(see sketch)
These two exposures are taken in the same setup, on two films with an
offset (D) in the location of the source, maintaining the focus to film
distance (h) as a constant. The resulting films provide parallax to reveal the
third dimension. With fixed-lead markers V1 and V2 on source and film side,
the shadow of flaw (F) and marker V1 will change position to ΔF and ΔV1.
If the thickness of the material being tested is t, then the distance of the
flaw above the film is calculated as:
Distance of the flaw from film X=t*ΔF/ΔV1
It is important to note that this calculation assumes that the image of the
bottom marker V2 remains essentially stationary with respect to the film.
This may not always be possible, for example, if the film cassette or film
holder is not in contact with the bottom surface of the test object or a
larger source shift is used. In these instances, the location of the flaw may
be computed by the following formula:
Distance of the flaw from film X=h*ΔF/D+ΔF

where:
X = Distance of flaw above film
h = Focus to film distance
ΔF = Change of position of flaw image
D = Distance source has shifted from L1 to L2
Geometrical Unsharpness
Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the result of geometric factors of the radiographic
equipment and setup.
Source Focal Spot (f)
Object
d= source to object distance Ug= Geometrical Unsharpness

t= Object to film distance t
Source to film distance(SFD)=
d+t
Detector(film)
copyright AUGMINTECH (Ug)

Geometrical Unsharpness
Ug= (f*t)/d
It is clear from this expression, that Ug can never be zero.
Its magnitude can only be minimized by proper selection of exposure variables.
Recommendations for optimum results are-

1. Source of focal spot size should be as small as practicable.
2. Source to object distance should be as large as possible.
3. The film should be in close contact with the object.
4. Source location should be such, that radiation pass normal through object.
Maximum Geometric Unsharpness:
Material Thickness
• Under 2 in. (50mm) = max. Ug. 0.020in (0.50mm)
• 2 in. through 3 in. (50 - 75mm) = max. Ug. 0.030in (0.75mm)
• Over 3 in. - 4 in. (75 - 100mm) = max. Ug. 0.040in (1.00mm)
• Over 4 in. (100mm) = 0.070in. (1.75mm)
Contrast
Radiographic contrast is the density difference between neighboring regions on a plain radiograph.
It depends on –
• Subject contrast
• Film contrast
Subject contrast is defined as the ratio of X/Gamma ray intensities transmitted through two different areas
Of a specimen.
• It depends upon the radiation quality, intensity distribution and scattered radiation.
• Higher the radiation energy lower would be the subject contrast.
Contrast
Film contrast refers to the slope of

characteristic curve of the film at a
given density.
• It depends upon the type of film,
processing conditions and optical
density.
Density
• It is independent of radiation quality.
Film contrast or gradient is defined as

the change in density recorded on a film
for a given change in radiation Intensity.
Log relative exposure
Radiographic Films
A radiograph is actually a photographic recording produced by the passage
of radiation through a subject onto a film, producing what is called a latent
image of the subject.
01
A latent image is an image that has been created on the film due to the
interaction of radiation with the material making up the film.
02
This latent image is not visible to the naked eye until further processing has
taken place. To make the latent image visible the film is processed by
exposure to chemicals similar to that of photographic film.
03
10%
04
Radiographic Films
01
02
Protective layer ( 1-5 micron)
Emulsion ( 10- 15 micron)
Film Base ( 175 microns)
03
10%
04
Radiographic Films
There are three important parts to a radiographic film-
01
The principle function of the base is to provide support
02
for the emulsion
• Cellulose nitrate
• Polyester
• typically 200μm
03
It is not sensitive to radiation, nor can it record an image
10%
04
• The clarity or transparency of the film base is an
important feature
• Radiographic film must be capable of transmitting
light
Radiographic Films
01
EMULSION The heart of a film is emulsion which contains grains
02
(crystals of silver halides ) in gelatin
• Gelatin
• grain (size: 0.1-3
03
μm Dia Gelatin is suitable due to-
• AgBr • it keeps grains well dispersed
• AgI • it prevents clumping and sedimentation of grains
• KI 10%
• it protects the unexposed grains from reduction by a
04
developer
• it allows easy processing of exposed Grains
• it is neutral to the grains in terms of fogging, loss of
sensitivity
Radiographic Films
01
EMULSION
• Gelatin
02
03
μm Dia
• AgBr
• AgI
• KI 10%
Electron micrograph of grain in gelatin
Radiographic Films
01
• These grains are sensitive to radiation and forms the latent image
EMULSION on the film.
• Gelatin
02
• During manufacturing of the film, silver bromide is added to the
solution of dissolved gelatin.
• When the gelatin hardens the silver bromide crystals are held in
suspension throughout the emulsion.
03
μm Dia
• Upon exposure of the film to radiation, the silver bromide crystals
• AgBr
become ionized in varying degrees forming the latent image.
• AgI
• KI 10%
AgBr + EXPOSURE (photons) Ag+ + Br-
Radiographic Films
01
High energy electron interacts with Ag+ and becomes metallic silver
EMULSION (Black colour Atom)
• Gelatin
02
Ag+ + e- Ag Metallic silver
Black in colour
03
μm Dia Br-
• AgBr
• AgI e-
• KI
Ag+
Ag+
Radiographic Films
PROTECTIVE
01
• It has the important function of protecting the softer
LAYER
02
emulsion layers below
• a very thin skin of gelatin protecting the film from
scratches during handling
Made of Gelatin
03
10%
04
Screens
Metallic
When an object is radiographed without Foil
using screens, there are two disturbing There are two types of
factors- radiography screens Screens
• There is lesser absorption of transmitted commonly used in
radiation intensity in film, which results industrial practice-
in longer exposure time.
• Low energy scattered radiation is
absorbed more, which spoils the image.
Fluorescent
Screens
Screens
• Lead Screens are thin sheets of lead foil mounted on card

for ease of handling
• One is placed either side of x-ray film and in close contact
Metallic
with it, inside the cassette or film holder prior to exposure Foil
Screens
• Forward and backward scattered radiation are absorbed and
stopped by lead screens.
• Intensification action occurs due to the photoelectrons
emitted as a result of interaction of X-ray or Gamma ray CARDFluorescent
BOARD
with the metallic foil and therefore exposure time
decreases. Screens
FILM
LEAD SCREENS
Screens
Metallic
Foil
Screens
Lead screens for Radiography

Fluorescent
Screens
Screens
• Intensifying action of Salt/Fluorescent screen id due to

additional glow appearing as a result of interaction of X or
Gamma rays with the salt screen material. Fluorescent
• A material which has its light emission in blue or UV region
Screens
is used for this purpose.
• Most commonly used material for this purpose is Calcium

Tungstate.
Screens
• During X or Gamma ray exposure, each crystal in salt screen

emits light and this light diverges in all directions and gives
image unsharpness.
• Due to poor quality image, they are not much used in Fluorescent
industrial radiography. Screens
Radiations
Fluorescent Screen
Blue or violet light
Radiographic Testing Procedure
Depending on project requirement the radiographic testing procedure will vary a little.
The following paragraphs provides a sample procedural steps for radiographic testing.
1 2 3
4 5 6
Surface Preparation:
Surface irregularities must be removed so that they can not
mask or confuse the image as defect. The finished surface
of all butt welded joints should be flushed with the base
material.
Selecting the right radiation

source and radiographic film:
Depending on radiographic sensitivity and material
thickness radiation source (x-ray or gamma-ray) must be
decided. Fine grain high definition radiographic films can be
used.
Selection of Penetrameter:
As per SE 142 or SE 1025 (for whole type) and SE-747 (for
wire type), ASME V & ASME Sec VIII Div I, whole type or
wire type penetrameter need to be selected.
Penetrameter is tool to measure the contrast or change in
density on an image for a known change in thickness in the
specimen. It provides an effective check on the overall
quality of the radiographic inspection.
Radiographic testing
technique:
Single or Double wall exposure technique is used. Source to
object and object to source distance must be established
beforehand.
Defect inspection and

removal:
The radiograph to be studied for probable defects and
repaired if defect is observed.
Recording:
All data need to be properly recorded.
Acceptance criteria for
For process Piping: The acceptance criteria for For structural steel: The acceptance criteria for non-
radiographic testing shall be as per table 341.3.2 tubular structure shall be in accordance with the
A of ASME B 31.3 for normal fluid service, with requirement section 6.12.1 of AWS D1.1 and for
the exception of piping class E. tubular joints section 6.12.3 of AWS D1.1
Film Processing
• When an X-ray film has been exposed,
it must be processed in order to
produce a 01 Development
• permanent visible radiographic image
02 Wash [stop bath]

that can be kept without deterioration
for a number of
• years.
• Processing transforms the latent
03 Fixing and Hardening

image into a visible image
04 Washing
05 Dry
Film Processing
01 Development
• Exposed radiographs that contain a latent image should be processed as
soon as possible as they are more sensitive to energy.
• Film packets are only to be opened in the darkroom or under safe-light
conditions. [ in a daylight loader]
The function of developer solution is to reduce only exposed grains of silver

bromide into metallic silver and leave unexposed the unaffected grains.
• The developer chemically reduces the energized ionized silver bromide

crystals by donating electrons, removing the halides and precipitating
metallic silver in the emulsion layer. The negative charge attracts
positively charged free silver ions and is reduced to black metallic atoms.
• This precipitation corresponds to the black (radiolucent) areas on the
radiograph.
Film Processing
02 Wash [stop bath]

• The second step in the development process
is the stop bath. This bath is comprised of a
glacial acetic acid and water.
• It is important to recognize that alkali’s and
acid’s neutralize each other.
• The function of the stop bath is to quickly
neutralize any excessive development of the
silver crystals.
• Over development of the silver crystals
results in a radiographic image that is
virtually impossible to interpret.
Stop bath Chemical Stop bath arrangement
Film Processing
03 Fixing and Hardening

• The third step in development is the fixer.
• Its function is to permanently fix the image on the film.
• The fixer must first remove any unexposed silver crystals and then
harden the remaining crystals in the emulsion.
• It is this process that is used to preserve the radiographic image
over time.
• The fixer reacts with undeveloped silver bromide in the film and
transforms it into a water-soluble compound Which gets dissolved
in washing operation
Film Processing
04 Washing
• The purpose of the final wash is to remove residual fixer
chemicals i.e. acid, thiosulfate and
silver salts from the film.
• Insufficient washing results in the film turning brown as all
the chemicals have not been washed away.
• If the temperature difference between developer and / OR
fixer and water exceeds 15 F, there is a possibility of unequal
swelling and shrinkage of the emulsion layer, commonly
referred to as reticulation.
• Also, prolonged washing tends to make the emulsion soft,
and it then scratches more easily.
Film Processing
05 Drying
Once the film has been properly developed and rinsed in water
then it is dried so that it may be visually examined
• Wet films are subject to damage from scratching and

abrasion if not handled properly.
• If there is dust in the air, dirt will become easily embedded
within the emulsion.
• Do not remove wet radiographs from their hangers until they
are completely dry.
Dark room for film development
Films should be Expiry date
handled carefully to should be
avoid physical strains checked before
such as pressure and using films.
friction on it.
Films should be
held by edges in
Handling For long storage
order to prevent films should be
finger marks Of kept in cool place
like refrigerator
Films
Films should be Should be protected from-

protected from X-rays • High humidity
& Gamma rays to • High temperature
copyright AUGMINTECH avoid fogging
ASME SE
Standard Method for Controlling
Quality of Radiographic testing
CODES ASME SE 94
& Recommended Practice for
STANDARDS
ASTM E 801
Standard Practice for Controlling
Quality of Radiological Examination
of Electronic Devices
API 1104
Welding of Pipelines and Related
Facilities: 11.1 Radiographic Test
Methods
CODES AASME SE V
& Boiler and Pressure Vessel –
Non-Destructive Testing
STANDARDS
ASTM 1161
Standard Practice for Radiologic
Examination of Semiconductors and
Electronic Components
ISO 10675-1, Non-destructive testing of welds ASTM E 1815, Standard Test Method for
– Acceptance levels for radiographic testing – Classification of Film Systems for Industrial
Part 1: Steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys Radiography
SNT-TC-1A: Recommended Practice for

Personnel Qualification and Certification in EN 12681, Founding – Radiographic
Non-destructive Testing examination
ASTM E 592, Standard Guide to Obtainable

ASTM Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity ASTM E 1032, Standard Test Method for
for Radiography of Steel Plates Radiographic Examination of Weldments
ASTM E 1030, Standard Test Method for ISO 4993, Steel and iron castings –
Radiographic Examination of Metallic Castings Radiographic inspection
For ASNT NDT Level 2 Certification, contact us
Email: augmintech@gmail.com
WhatsApp: +919661473085
Visit: https://augmintech.com/courses/ndt-level-2-course/

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Radiographic Testing

The transmitted radiation after passing through the object, is

Radiographic Film with latent image

Darker areas = More exposure (Higher Radiation Intensity)

Lighter areas = Low exposure (Lower Radiation Intensity)

This image can then be examined for evidence of damage or flaws

The biggest limitation to this technique is that films can

Also it takes a long time to process and interpret.

Girth weld radiography under progress on Gas Pipeline

Guiding Pipe Band

Number belts containing

01 Can inspect assembled

Detects both surface and

05 Verify internal flaws on

Isolate and inspect

Automatically detect and

Measure dimensions and

RISK ACCESS SKILL LIMITED ABILITY

• Petrochemical • Aerospace • Military • Packaging

Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes , denoted 1H, 2H,

Radioisotope Half life Main Gamma Energy Specific activity

Iridium 192 74.5 days 0.24-0.67 Up to 500

Thulium 170 129 days 0.08-0.05 Up to 22

Cesium 137 30.1 years 0.66 -

Half life of a radioactive sample

After first After second After Third

N(t)= quantity of the substance remaining

Taking natural log on both sides

RT makes use of X-rays or gamma rays.

electrons Metal target

02 Gamma rays are emitted by

04 • They can damage living tissues

05 • They can also cause ionization and excitation in the medium

01 No electrical or water supplies needed

03 More easily accessed

04 Equipment initially less costly

01 Poorer quality radiographs

02 Exposure times can be longer

03 Poorer geometric sharpness

04 Radiation cannot be switched off

The essential requirements for the production of

❖ A high voltage supply to accelerate the

❖ A target, usually tungsten, to stop the

Selection of the target material is based on the following properties-

Mostly Tungsten is used as target material

Certain anodes are hollow in construction so

X-ray energy intensity

low atomic number

X-ray energy (keV)

A material's half-value layer (HVL), or

I= 100% HVT I= 50%

Tenth value layers (TVL) is defined as

In generating bremsstrahlung, some

Photon Energy keV

➢ This "hole" causes a domino effect where the

➢ This "hole" causes a domino effect where the

➢ an x-ray is emitted with the replacement of that

About 0.1% of the electrons produce K-shell Hole