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Book Title Advances in Electrical Control and Signal Systems
Series Title
Chapter Title Comparative Study of System Performances Using Integral Type LQR with DE and Z-N Optimized PID
Controller in AVR System
Copyright Year 2020
Copyright HolderName Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
Corresponding Author Family Name Pattnaik
Particle
Given Name Ashribad
Prefix
Suffix
Role
Division Department of EEE
Organization SUIIT
Address Jyoti Vihar, Burla, Odisha, 768017, India
Email ashripattnk@gmail.com
Author Family Name Rout
Particle
Given Name Bidyadhar
Prefix
Suffix
Role
Division Department of EE
Organization VSSUT
Address Burla, Odisha, 768018, India
Email
Author Family Name Patra
Particle
Given Name Akshaya Kumar
Prefix
Suffix
Role
Division Department of EEE
Organization Institute of Technical Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan
(Deemed to be University)
Address Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751030, India
Email

Abstract The low-frequency system oscillation is inherently present in a power system network. This oscillation
arises due to slow and gradual changes of load and power demand. The persistence of these oscillations
may seize power flow and decreases the terminal voltage in the synchronous generator of the power
systems. The required terminal voltage is improved by strengthening the field voltage in AVR system of
 the exciter in the synchronous generator by minimizing the oscillations. This paper presents the control
design of AVR in SMIB power system using an integral type LQR control technique with adjusting the
state weighting matrix and control the weighting matrix simultaneously. The terminal voltage of the
generator using integral type LQR technique has been compared with Z-N tuned PID and DE optimized
PID controller in AVR system. This paperwork is carried out in MATLAB platform.
Keywords Small-signal stability - AVR - PID controller - LQR - DE algorithm optimization
(separated by '-')
 Comparative Study of System
Author Proof

Performances Using Integral Type LQR

with DE and Z-N Optimized PID
Controller in AVR System

OF
Ashribad Pattnaik, Bidyadhar Rout, and Akshaya Kumar Patra

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1 Abstract The low-frequency system oscillation is inherently present in a power
2 system network. This oscillation arises due to slow and gradual changes of load AQ1

3 and power demand. The persistence of these oscillations may seize power flow and
4 decreases the terminal voltage in the synchronous generator of the power systems.
5

7
DP
The required terminal voltage is improved by strengthening the field voltage in AVR
system of the exciter in the synchronous generator by minimizing the oscillations.
This paper presents the control design of AVR in SMIB power system using an
8 integral type LQR control technique with adjusting the state weighting matrix and
9 control the weighting matrix simultaneously. The terminal voltage of the generator
10 using integral type LQR technique has been compared with Z-N tuned PID and DE
TE
11 optimized PID controller in AVR system. This paperwork is carried out in MATLAB
12 platform. AQ2

13 Keywords Small-signal stability · AVR · PID controller · LQR · DE algorithm

optimization
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14

15 1 Introduction
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16 The modern power system desires to supply power demanded by the consumer with-
17 out interruptions maintaining reliability, quality of power. However, the electrome-
18 chanical low-frequency oscillations are a common problem in power systems due
19 to mechanical inertia and small scale disturbances like gradual change of load and
20 power. On the other hand, large disturbances may also present in the power system,
CO

A. Pattnaik (B)
Department of EEE, SUIIT, Jyoti Vihar, Burla, Odisha 768017, India
e-mail: ashripattnk@gmail.com
B. Rout
UN

Department of EE, VSSUT, Burla, Odisha 768018, India

A. K. Patra
Department of EEE, Institute of Technical Education and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan
(Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1
G. Pradhan et al. (eds.), Advances in Electrical Control and Signal Systems,
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 665,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5262-5_25

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 2 A. Pattnaik et al.

which is closely related to dynamic behavior of the system. Persistence of these

Author Proof

21

22 oscillations and occurrence of disturbances in power system leads to the power sys-
23 tem instability. A small disturbance instability and the dynamics of power systems
24 are easily analyzed considering all the sub-systems of power system in first-order
25 transfer function. The cause of low-frequency oscillations instability and the remedy

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26 has been carried out in [1]. Moreover, the stability of a power system is divided into
27 two broad classes such as small scale and transient system stability.
28 The capability of power systems to maintain synchronism and voltage levels
29 within their limits at all buses under small disturbances is called small-signal stability.
30 The capacity of system to reach an acceptable steady-state working condition for

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31 a large disturbance or sequence of disorders is called transient stability.
32 The lack of insufficient damping torque caused by changing operating conditions,
33 the complex power systems exhibit low-frequency electromechanical oscillations [2].
34 The small disturbance due to low-frequency oscillations causes decrement of gener-
35 ated terminal voltage and objection to power flow. The automatic voltage regulator
36

37

38
DP
(AVR) maintains the generator voltage by regulating the field voltage of the excitation
system in synchronous machines [3]. The dynamic performance of system voltage
can be improved using classical controllers with AVR in power system [4]. The con-
39 troller parameters have been tuned using various methods such as pole placement
40 [5], Z-N tuning method [6], LQR [7, 8], Due to large computational time and diffi-
41 culties the optimum value of controller parameters are tuned with various heuristic
TE
42 optimization technique such as genetic algorithms (GA) [9], particle swarm optimiza-
43 tion (PSO) [10], Differential Evolution (DE) [11–13], and many recent optimization
44 techniques.
45 In this paper, the comparison of system performance has been carried out with
Z-N tuned PID-type AVR and designed integral type LQR based AVR. Further,
EC

46

47 the improved effectiveness of the above system performances is studied with DE

48 optimized PID controller. The paperwork has been done in MATLAB environment
49 and studied with time-domain analysis for system performances.
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50 2 System Description and Modeling

51 2.1 Automatic Voltage Regulator

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52 A simple linearized model of first-order AVR system of a synchronous generator in

53 the power system is shown in Fig. 1. The AVR keeps the generator terminal voltage
54 constant at various load levels under normal operating conditions. Therefore, the
55 objective is the designing of an AVR system for voltage regulation [4].
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56 An AVR system consists of an amplifier, an exciter system, and sensor associated

57 with generator model. All the parameters such as the AVR gain and the time constants
58 of AVR system are referred in [10].

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 Comparative Study of System Performances … 3

VF
Author Proof

Vs KA VR KE KG
TA.s+1 TE.s+1 TG.s+1
Ref. Voltage AMPLIFIER EXCITER GENERATOR

[Vt]

Generator

OF
Terminal
voltage
KR
TR.s+1
SENSOR

Fig. 1 Block diagram of AVR in power system

RO
59 2.1.1 Amplifier Model

60 The first-order dynamic of the amplifier represented by a gain K A and corresponding

61

63
62
time constant T A which is given by

VR (s)
=
KA
DP (1)
Ve (s) 1 + TA s

64 where the range of K A is the range of 10–400 and T A varies from 0.02 to 0.1 s.
TE

65 2.1.2 Exciter Model

The excitation system controls the field voltage VF with the input as regulator voltage
EC

66

67 VR . The first-order exciter is shown by

VF (s) KE
69
68 = (2)
VR (s) 1 + TE s
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70 where the exciter gain K E varies from 1 to 400 and time constant TE from 0.5 to
71 1.0 s.

2.1.3 Generator Model

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72

73 The synchronous generator is the important component of power system from which
74 the terminal voltage is available. However, the generator model is represented by the
75 first-order dynamic considering the terminal voltage and its field voltage is
UN

Vt (s) KG
77
76 = (3)
VF (s) 1 + TG s

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 4 A. Pattnaik et al.

where the constant K G which depends on load may vary in the range of 0.7–1.0, and
Author Proof

78

79 1.0 and 2.0 s varies from full load to its no load.

80 2.1.4 Sensor Model

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81 The sensor provides the feedback path to measure the generator terminal voltage and
82 compared with a given reference voltage. The error in voltage is given to the amplifier
83 for amplification. The sensor model is shown by the transfer function consisting of
84 gain and time constant is

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Vs (s) KR
86
85 = (4)
Vt (s) 1 + TR s

87 where K R is the sensor gain and time constant TR ranging from 0.001 to 0.06 s.

88 3 Control Structure
DP
89 In this paper, a classical PID controller is considered with the AVR to decrease the
TE
90 steady-state error and improvement of transient performances of system response.
91 Since the parameters of the system is known, the PID controller is useful in system
92 for analysis [5].
93 PID controller output is given below:
EC

Ki
95
94 C(s) = K p + + Kd s (5)
s
96 In this paper, the PID-type AVR controller is chosen in power system as shown
97 in Fig. 2 to improve the damping and stability. The control objective is to study the
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98 dynamic responses. The controller gain K p , K i , K d for PID controller are optimized
99 with Ziegler–Nichols tuning method and DE algorithm separately.
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100 4 Control Techniques

101 4.1 Ziegler–Nichols (Z-N) Tuning Method

The controller parameters of PID structure may be found from the Z-N empirical
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102

103 first method of non-first order with delay time and second method of rigorous Routh–
104 Hurwitz of manual computations [6].
105 In this study, the second method of Z-N tuning analysis is used as the system
106 dynamics is known. Using the proportional control action only, the close loop transfer

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 Comparative Study of System Performances … 5
Author Proof

KP

Proportional Gain
10 1 1
[Vt]
KI 1/s 0.1s+1 0.4s+1 s+1
Amplifier Saturation Generator Generator Terminal

OF
Vref Integral Integrator Exciter
Gain Voltage

KD du/dt

derivative Derivative
Gain 1

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0.01s+1
Voltage Sensor

Fig. 2 Control structure of PID-AVR

Table 1 Rule for Z-N tuning

method
Type of controller
P
PI
DP Kp
0.5K cr
0.45K cr
Ti
∞
0.833Pcr
Td
0
0
PID 0.6K cr 0.5Pcr 0.125Pcr
TE

107 function of AVR system was calculated. Then using the Routh - Hurwitz criterion
108 K p is calculated. Then the critical gain K cr is calculated. The frequency of oscillation
109 is obtained from the auxiliary equation.
110 The period of sustained oscillation is obtained as Pcr = 2π where ω in rad/s.
EC

ω
111 Here K cr and Pcr were found to be 1.7016 and 1.089 respectively.
112 By referring to Table 1 of second method of Z-N, K p , Ti , Td are determined. AQ3
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113 4.2 Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR)

114 The Linear Quadratic Regulator theory provides the optimal gain using pole place-
115 ment method [7]. The LQR method determines the feedback gain of infinite margin
which leads to guarantee stable system. The optimal gains were calculated by mini-
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116

117 mizing the cost function through solving the Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE). The
118 LQR method is implemented in this system since it is controllable and observable.
119 A controllable LTI system is represented in state-space as shown in Eq. (6)

120 ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)

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122
121 y(t) = C x(t) (6)

123 where A, B, C are system matrix, input, and output matrix respectively and x(t), y(t),
124 and u(t) are the state, control, and output matrices, respectively. The design problem

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 6 A. Pattnaik et al.

is to develop a LQR control law (7) as:

Author Proof

125

127
126 u(t) = −K x(t) (7)

128 In this paper, the amplifier output, the field voltage, the generator voltage, and

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129 the feedback sensor output are considered as system states. The control output is the
130 generator voltage which needs to be controlled through the proposed integral type
131 LQR controller. The control law minimizes the cost function of LQR as shown in
132 Eq. (8) which comprises a sum of mean square state control weight and mean square
133 control signal weight [8]. The control law is shown in Eq. (8) minimizes the LQR

RO
134 cost function.
∞
 
136
135 J= x T Qx + u T Ru dt (8)
0

137

138

139
control matrix.
The state feedback gain K can be calculated as
DP
where Q qualifies the semi-definite matrix and R qualifies the symmetric, definite

141
140 K = R −1 × B T × S (9)
TE

142 S is the solution for the algebraic Riccati equation which can be represented as:

144
143 AT × S + S × A − S × B × R −1 × B T × S + Q = 0 (10)
EC

145 The system matrix, input matrix, and output matrix are obtained through
146 MATLAB code without a controller as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−113.5 −43.3594 −7.373 −2.4414 4
⎢ 32 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
A=⎢ ⎥ ; B=⎢ ⎥ ;
RR

147
⎣ 0 16 0 0 ⎦ ⎣0⎦
0 0 2 0 4×4
0 4×1
149
148 C = 0 0 0 6.1035 1×4
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150 After augmenting the integrator with the plant, the augmented plant becomes
 
A 0 B
152
151 Ā = ; B̄ = ; C̄ = C 0
−C 0 2×2
0 2×1
1×2
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153 The LQR weights for the augmented system

 
155
154 Q = diag 1 1 1 1 100 ; R = 0.01

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 Comparative Study of System Performances … 7
Author Proof

1 x' = Ax+Bu [Vt]

-K- s y = Cx+Du K*u
Vref IntegralIntegrator Generator
AVR System states Output
Gain Terminal Voltage
Matrix

OF
K*u

Feedback Gain

Fig. 3 Control structure of integral type LQR with plant

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156 As the LQR has its own limitations, i.e., it cannot produce zero offset for which
157 an integrator-based LQR technique is implemented in AVR system to enhance its
158 performance. In Fig. 3 the feedback gain block consists of a row matrix K =
K 1 K 2 K 3 K 4 , whose values are given in Table 4.
159

DP
160 5 Differential Evolution Algorithm
TE
161 The DE is found as an effective and understandable optimization technique for opti-
162 mization problems [5]. DE involves mainly three operations, i.e., mutation, crossover,
163 and selection. The operations are described below.
164 Initialization:
165 Each controller parameters are initialized with a lower and upper bound in the form
EC

166 of, X JL , X UJ where, where J is the parameter and X JL is the lower limit and X UJ is
167 the upper limit of controlling parameter.
168 Mutation:
169 Three random vectors are selected and a resultant donor vector is created from the
weighted difference for any two vectors and added with the third vector as:
RR

170

 
172
171 Vi,G+1 = Vr 1,G + F ∗ X r 2,G − X r 3,G

173 where (r1 , r2 , r3 ) are distinct values and F varies from 0.2 to 0.8.
Crossover:
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174

175 A trial vector δ is created from the mutant vector and target vector X i,J with
176 probability ratio CR.

V j,i,G+1 if rand j,i ≤ CR
178
177 U j,i,G+1 =
X j,i,G+1 if rand j,i ≤ CR
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179 Selection:
180 If trial vector has better fitness than target, this is chosen as desired vector for next
181 generation.

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 8 A. Pattnaik et al.

The detailed flowchart and vector diagram of DE are given in Figs. 4 and 5,
Author Proof

182

183 respectively.
184 Simulation and Results Analysis:
185 Scenario 1: Figure 6 in scenario 1 shows the four various states such as amplifier
186 voltage, field voltage, sensor voltage and generator voltage in the proposed AVR

OF
187 system with the proposed integral based LQR controller. It is observed from the
188 figure that three states are converging to its initial condition except for generator
189 voltage that is converging at 0.16 p.u. However, the settling time of all states is at
190 1.1 s.
191 Scenario 2: The AVR model was disturbed by a step input as a reference voltage.

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192 The terminal voltage is considered as output and is investigated in Fig. 7. It can be

Start

DP
Parameters of DE were specified

Population was initialized

Gen.=1
Population was evaluated
TE

Offsprings were created and their fitness was

evaluated
EC

No
Is offspring’s fitness better than
parent’s fitness
Y es O ffsprings in
new popula tion
RR

Parents were replaced by offsprings w ere disc arded

in the new popula tion

Yes
N ew population size <
CO

O ld popula tion siz e

G en. = G en+1
No

No
G en. > M ax. G en ?
UN

Yes
Stop

Fig. 4 Flow diagram of DE algorithm

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 Comparative Study of System Performances … 9
Author Proof

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Fig. 5 Generation of new candidate solution from DE vector

0.3

0.2
DP Sensor voltage
Field voltage
Amplifier voltage
Generator voltage
States (p.u.)

0.1
TE

-0.1
EC

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (sec)

Fig. 6 Scenario 1: System states of AVR system

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193 observed that the response of AVR system is oscillatory in nature, which implies as
194 unstable system. Whereas the use of PID controller and LQR improves the system
195 significantly. The DE-based PID controller gives better results as compare to the Z-N
196 based tuning method. As it brings the dominant poles to −3.38 ± 7.32i. It is observed
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197 from Fig. 7 that LQR technique makes the system faster as compare to system with
198 no controller, but it gives rise to a large steady-state error and is sluggish in nature.
199 Due to this reason, an integrator-based LQR is used in this system. It can be observed
200 that the integrator-based LQR produces zero offset and has better convergence char-
201 acteristics than the rest of other controllers following optimal control law. The LQR
techniques performance depends upon the Q and R weighting coefficients. In this
UN

202

203 study, it has been observed that if weight coefficients are increased or decreased
204 from the value mentioned above in matrix then it hampers the system performance
205 by making the system sluggish or sometimes making the transient response worse.

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 10 A. Pattnaik et al.

2
Author Proof

LQR
No Controller
Z-N based PID Controller
1.5
DE optimized PID Controller
Integral based LQR
V t (p.u.)

OF
1

0.5

RO
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time in (sec)

Fig. 7 Scenario 2: Generator terminal voltage of AVR system with LQG control techniques and

AQ4 206
PID controllers
DP
So it’s very important to choose the Q and R matrix carefully. The quadratic func-
207 tion of performance index J following Riccati equation is minimized by selecting
AQ5 208 the proper values of Q and R (Tables 2, 3 and 4).
TE

Table 2 Time-domain specifications of AVR system with different techniques

Control techniques Dominant eigen values Damping ratio (Zeta) Settling time in (s)
Z-N −1.23 ± 4.35i 0.272 3.71
EC

DE −3.38 ± 7.32i 0.420 1.1

LQR with integrator −5.97 ± 8.45i 0.578 0.816

Table 3 Controller parameters of AVR PID System with Z-N and DE tuning methods
RR

Tuning methods Kp Ki Kd ITAE

X10e−3
Z-N 1.02096 1.875 0.1389 6.4
DE 1.5041 0.3946 0.2950 2.3
CO

Table 4 Gain of Proposed Control Technique

Proposed controller gain K1 K2 K3 K4 Integral gain
Integral type LQR 8.1936 27.0074 34.8523 149.3816 −100.00
UN

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 Comparative Study of System Performances … 11

6 Conclusion
Author Proof

209

210 In this simulation work, the time-domain analysis is carried out for AVR system
211 under the MATLAB platform. The controller parameters of PID-type AVR controller
212 are optimized using Z-N tuning methods and differential evolution algorithms. The

OF
213 system was also implemented with integral type LQR control technique and all the
214 results are compared with each other. The proposed integral type LQR controller
215 produces large negative eigenvalues and results in quick damping for the system
216 responses than other compared controller present. In summary, LQR with integrator
217 technique is suitable for the system and is more effective for stabilizing than other

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218 controllers. This proposed integral based LQR control technique may be further
219 implemented in SMIB and MMIB system.

References
220

221
DP
1. Demello, F.P., Concordia, C.: Concepts of synchronous machine stability as affected by
222 excitation control. IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. 88(4), 316–329 (1969)
223 2. Padiyar, K.R.: Power System Dynamics Stability. BS Publications
224 3. Ghfarokhi, G.S., Arezoom, M., Mahmoodian, H.: Analysis and simulation of the single-
TE
225 machine infinite-bus with power system stabilizer and parameters variation effects. In:
226 International Conference on Intelligent and Advanced System (2007)
227 4. Khalid, A., et al.: Comparative assessment of classical and adaptive controllers for automatic
228 voltage regulator. In: International Conference on Advanced Mechatronic Systems, Melbourne,
229 Australia, pp. 538–543, 30 Nov 30 2016–3 Dec 2016
230 5. Boyd, S., Barratt, C.: Linear Controller Design: Limits of Performance. Prentice-Hall
EC

231 publication
232 6. Ogata, K.: Modern Control Engineering, 4th edn. PEARSON Prentice Hall
233 7. Pradhan, R., Rout, B.: Enhancement of stability of SMIB using ZN-PID and LQR-PSS
234 as affected by excitation control. In: 2015 IEEE Power, Communication and Information
235 Technology Conference (PCITC) Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, India
8. Bandal, V., Bandyopadhyay, B.: Robust decentralised output feedback sliding mode control
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236

237 technique-based power system stabilizer (PSS) for multimachine power system. IET Control
238 Theory Appl. 1(5), 1512–1522 (2007)
239 9. N. Nimpitiwan, and C. Chaiyabut, Centralized Control of System Voltage/Reactive Power
240 Using Genetic Algorithm
241 10. Gaing, Z.L.: A particle swarm optimization approach for optimum design of PID controller in
AVR system. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 19(2) (2004)
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242

243 11. Storn, R., Price, K.: Differential evolution—a simple and efficient heuristic for global
244 optimization over continuous spaces. J. Glob. Optim. 341–359 (1997)
245 12. Panda, S.: Differential evolution algorithm for SSSC-based damping controller design
246 considering time delay. J. Franklin Inst. 348, 1903–1926 (2011)
247 13. Sun, Z., Wang, N., Srinivasan, D., Bi, Y.: Optimal tuning of type-2 fuzzy logic power system
248 stabilizer based on differential evolution algorithm. Electri. Power Energy Syst. 62, 19–28
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249 (2014)

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 Author Queries
Author Proof

Chapter 25

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Query Refs. Details Required Author’s response

AQ1 Please check and confirm if the author names and initials are
correct.
AQ2 Kindly note that to maintain book consistency, the affiliation
details of Organization name ‘Institute of Technical Education

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and Research, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be Univer-
sity)’ has been made consistent with other chapters ‘Chap. 75’.
Please check and confirm the edit made and amend if necessary.
AQ3 Kindly note that the cross citation of Table 2 has ben changed to
Table 1. Please check and confirm.
AQ4

AQ5
Tables 2 and 3. DP
Please provide a definition for the significance of bold in the

Please check and confirm if the inserted citations of Tables 2–4 are
correct. If not, please suggest an alternate citations. Please note
that figures and tables should be cited sequentially in the text.
TE
EC
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