9/15/21, 9:54 AM Eigenstrain-based simulation of additive manufacturing processes - SIMULIA User Assistance 2021

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Searching the Documentation Eigenstrain-based simulation of additive

Preface
manufacturing processes
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Abaqus Abaqus/Standard offers a general framework for See Also

eigenstrain-based simulations of additive manufacturing Static stress analysis
Abaqus Release Notes
processes. This section provides an overview of special
Progressive element
Abaqus Introduction & Spatial Modeling techniques that are available for, but not limited to,
activation
eigenstrain-based simulations of additive manufacturing
Abaqus/CAE processes. These techniques can be applied to other Toolpath-mesh
processes, such as welding. intersection module
Analysis
An eigenstrain analysis of additive manufacturing Special-purpose
Analysis Procedures processes: techniques for
is a computationally efficient method for the prediction of additive
Analysis Solution and Control
part-level distortion and residual stresses introduced manufacturing
Analysis Techniques during the additive manufacturing process; Table collections,
consists of a single stress analysis with a predefined set parameter tables,
About analysis techniques
of eigenstrains that are applied to each element upon and property tables
Analysis Continuation Techniques activation and that represent the inelastic deformation
induced by the processes; Event series
Modeling Abstractions simplifies the definition of the problem by eliminating the
need to specify detailed processing conditions; In Other Guides
Special-Purpose Techniques
is generally a more approximate solution with a shorter
modeling and simulation time than a thermal-stress Pattern-based
Additive Manufacturing Process Simulation eigenstrain analysis
analysis; and
About additive manufacturing process can be followed by analyses of support removal, and/or
simulation mechanical performance tests, etc.
Toolpath-mesh intersection module The following topics are discussed:
Thermomechanical simulation of additive About eigenstrain
manufacturing processes Eigenstrain-based simulation of additive manufacturing
processes
Eigenstrain-based simulation of additive
Progressive element activation and eigenstrains
manufacturing processes application
About eigenstrain Resolving convergence difficulties
Input file template
Eigenstrain-based simulation of additive
manufacturing processes
Progressive element activation and Products: Abaqus/Standard
eigenstrains application
Resolving convergence difficulties
About eigenstrain
Residual stresses in mechanical parts are stresses that exist in the absence of externally
Input file template
applied loads. Almost all manufacturing processes, including additive manufacturing,
Special-purpose techniques for additive introduce residual stresses into mechanical parts. Residual stresses are sometimes
manufacturing introduced intentionally to improve the in-service response, such as in prestressed
concrete slabs used in bridge construction. However, manufacturers often try to
Adaptivity Techniques minimize residual stresses because they can cause fracture during the manufacturing
process, lead to unwanted distortions, and significantly impact fatigue behavior. Three
Optimization Techniques
primary classes of manufacturing effects lead to residual stresses:
Eulerian Analysis Techniques Mechanical (for example, inelastic deformation);
Particle Methods Thermal (for example, nonuniform thermal expansion or incompatible thermal
strains generated during melting and solidification in the process zone); and
Sequentially Coupled Multiphysics Analyses Changes in material microstructure (for example, phase transformations).
Co-simulation Eigenstrain (also referred to as inherent strain, assumed strain, or "stress-free" strain)
User Subroutines and Utilities is an engineering concept used to account for all sources of inelastic deformation that
lead to residual stresses and distortions in manufactured components. Thermal strains
Design Sensitivity Analysis are a subset of eigenstrains.

Parametric Studies In a linear elastic deformation, the stress induced by an eigenstrain can be represented
as
Sitemap

Benchmarks σ = D
el ∗
: (ε − ε ) = D
el
: ε
el
,

Constraints

Elements where

Example Problems σ is the Cauchy stress;

el
Execution D is the elastic matrix;

Getting Started with Abaqus/CAE ε is the total strain;

ε
∗
is the eigenstrain; and
GUI Toolkit
ε
el
is the elastic strain.
GUI Toolkit Reference
Using constitutive equations (such as the one shown above) eigenstrains can be used to
Interactions compute residual stresses coming from mechanical, thermal, and microstructural
Keywords sources.

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Materials An eigenstrain in three dimensions is represented as a standard strain tensor with six
components:
Output

Prescribed Conditions ε
∗

11
⎧ ⎫
Scripting ⎪
⎪
⎪ ε
∗ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 22 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
Scripting Reference ⎪
⎪
⎪ ε
∗ ⎪
⎪
⎪
33
∗
ε = .
Theory ⎨ ∗ ⎬
ε 12
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
User Subroutines ⎪
⎪
⎪
∗ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ε 13
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
Verification ⎪
⎩
⎪ ∗
⎪
⎭
⎪
ε 23

fe-safe

Isight The components of the eigenstrain tensor are functions of many factors, including
material properties, manufacturing processes, and thermal history. Various methods can
SIMULIA Execution Engine
be used to determine appropriate eigenstrains for a given process:
Tosca Fluid Destructive and nondestructive tests of manufactured parts.
Tosca Structure Numerical simulation.
Analytical formulas for simple scenarios.
Installation, Licensing & Configuration
Once an appropriate eigenstrain field has been determined, it can be applied in an
eigenstrain analysis to predict the distortions and residual stresses in an additive
manufactured part.

Eigenstrain-based simulation of additive manufacturing

processes
An eigenstrain analysis of an additive manufacturing process consists of a single static
stress analysis of a printing part with a predefined field of eigenstrains that are applied
to each element upon activation representing the inelastic deformation induced by the
process. These inelastic deformations become the main source of residual stresses and
overall part distortion; therefore, the objective of an eigenstrain analysis is to predict
distortions and residual stresses in the part. Eigenstrains applied to a newly deposited
layer can induce residual stresses and distortion on layers underneath. Figure 1 shows a
simple example of an additive manufacturing process of a two-layer build with the
following conditions:

1. The first layer is added.

2. The first layer is unconstrained—it contracts when negative eigenstrains are applied.
3. The second layer is added on top of the first layer and bonded to the first layer.
4. The contraction of the second layer is constrained by the bonding of the first layer,
causing the part to distort and inducing residual stresses.
The eigenstrain analysis can also include support structures (if required for the build) and a
substrate where the part and support are built to consider their influences on part distortions
and residual stresses. In general, an eigenstrain analysis provides a more approximate
solution than a thermal-stress analysis. However, because only a static procedure is required,
an eigenstrain analysis often has a shorter run time.
Figure 1. Distortion due to eigenstrains in a two-layer additive manufacturing
process.

Progressive element activation and eigenstrains

application
Material deposition in the additive manufacturing processes is modeled in
Abaqus/Standard by progressive element activation (see Progressive element
activation). Elements are activated in either a full or partially full state. In each

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increment during an analysis, you can use user subroutine UEPACTIVATIONVOL to control
the element activation and the volume fraction of material added to each element and
to define the eigenstrain tensor associated with the new material (see Applying
eigenstrains). Abaqus automatically applies the eigenstrain to the element, introducing
residual stress in the element.
By using user subroutine UEPACTIVATIONVOL, you have complete control over the
element activation sequence and the eigenstrain values to apply. You can access
toolpath-mesh intersection utilities that are specially designed to define and apply
eigenstrains for common additive manufacturing processes (see Toolpath-mesh
intersection module). Two types of eigenstrain analyses support this functionality:
trajectory-based and pattern-based.
Abaqus/Standard also provides streamlined solutions for common trajectory-based and
pattern-based eigenstrain analyses that do not require you to write user subroutines.
These techniques are described in Special-purpose techniques for additive
manufacturing.

Trajectory-based eigenstrain analysis

A trajectory-based eigenstrain analysis activates elements and applies eigenstrains
based upon a specified trajectory of new material being fused or bonded to the
underlying layer. For example, the trajectory of a powder bed fusion process is the same
as the heat source scan path, and the trajectory for directed energy deposition and
material extrusion processes is the nozzle path. The trajectory is defined using an event
series (in the form of time, spatial coordinates, and user-defined data of events; see
Event series for more details) and processed directly by the toolpath-mesh intersection
module. In user subroutine UEPACTIVATIONVOL, you can call the relevant toolpath-mesh
intersection utilities to obtain information about the change of volume fraction of
material and the eigenstrain values to assign to each element in each increment.
Optionally, you can update the material orientation to align it with the trajectory. The
analysis is similar to the stress analysis in thermomechanical simulations, except that it
is driven by eigenstrain loadings instead of temperature results for the thermal analysis.

Pattern-based eigenstrain analysis

A pattern-based eigenstrain analysis activates elements layer by layer and applies
eigenstrain based on a specified in-plane eigenstrain pattern for each layer. An
eigenstrain pattern is a domain that is partitioned by a "quilt" of one or more patches.
Each patch is an area that contains a specific value of eigenstrains or a rotation angle of
eigenstrains as a result of a specific trajectory in that area. For example, the eigenstrain
patterns for powder bed fusion processes are related to the in-plane scan pattern of the
heat source, and the eigenstrain patterns for directed energy deposition processes and
material extrusion processes are related to the in-plane moving pattern of the nozzle. A
pattern-based eigenstrain analysis does not require you to define a trajectory. The
analysis considers layer-by-layer building sequences and ignores the detailed sequences
of material deposition or scanning within layers. You define parameters and properties of
eigenstrain patterns using table collections (see Table collections, parameter tables, and
property tables) and access them using user subroutine UEPACTIVATIONVOL. In the user
subroutine you can activate elements in a layer-by-layer fashion, call the toolpath-mesh
intersection utilities to identify which eigenstrain patch an element in the last activated
layer belongs to, and apply the eigenstrains to the element. You can also update the
material orientation, such as aligning it with the rotation angle of the eigenstrain of the
patch.

Partial element activation in eigenstrain-based simulation

Eigenstrain-based simulations in Abaqus/Standard are supported with full and partial
element activation. In the case of partial element activation the volume fraction of
material added can be arbitrary; however, in practice the value should be larger than a
small threshold value to avoid numerical singularity problems. Full activation is a special
case of partial activation when the volume fraction of material added is restricted to 1.0.
For partial activation, when new material is added in an increment, both the old and
new material contribute to the stress response of the material. In general, the two
materials might be in different states; therefore, the homogenized values of state
variables are used to compute stresses. Abaqus homogenizes the variables using the
rule of mixtures in which the variables are computed using the volume weighed average
values. For example, for the linear elastic material model the response is computed
from:

f el el
σ = V D : ε ,

where

V
f
is the volume fraction of the material in the element; and

ε
el
is the homogenized elastic strain.
In general, the new material is added with the eigenstrain prescribed. In this case the
homogenized elastic strain is computed from the relation

f
f
V ΔV
el t el ∗
ε = Δε + ε − Δε ,
t
f f
V V

where
f
V
t
is the volume fraction of the material in the element in the previous increment;
f
ΔV
f
is the volume fraction of the material added to the element (ΔV f
= V
f
− V
t
);

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Δε is the total strain increment;
Δε
∗
is the eigenstrain in the material added; and

ε
el
t
is the elastic strain at the end of the previous increment.

The configuration at which the new material is added is stress free only if no eigenstrain
is prescribed. If the eigenstrain is specified, it causes a sudden increase of stress that
does not decrease when the time increment is cut. This behavior can cause convergence
difficulties, particularly when geometric nonlinearities are taken into account and
nonlinear material models, such as the elastic-plastic model, are used. In such cases
Abaqus provides the option of ramping up the eigenstrain linearly in the specified time
interval (see Progressive element activation). However, you must use caution when
choosing the ramping time value; it should be small relative to the analysis so that the
results are not strongly affected.

Displacement output
When using progressive element activation in Abaqus/Standard, you can control the
behavior of inactive elements to follow or not follow the deformation of active elements
in the model (see Controlling the behavior of inactive elements). The two behaviors are
expected to produce similar results in the limit of small deformation, with the exception
of displacements and rotations (U, UT, and UR).
An inactive element that follows the deformation, also referred to as a "quiet" element,
is always present in the model and participates in the solution, but it produces a
negligible contribution to the overall response. In this case a node attached to inactive
elements can experience nonzero displacements before any of its attached elements are
activated. The nodal output variables U, UT, and UR represent displacements and
rotations measured from the beginning of an analysis, containing contributions of
displacements during both inactive and active periods of a node. Abaqus/Standard also
provides nodal output variables UACT, UTACT, and URACT corresponding to the
displacements and rotations measured from the time when an element attached to the
node is first activated.
An inactive element not following the deformation does not contribute to the stiffness of
the model and does not participate in the solution. Any nodes attached to inactive
elements remain in their initial position. In this case the nodal output variables UACT,
UTACT, and URACT are the same as the output variables U, UT, and UR, respectively.
Regardless of the behavior chosen for inactive elements, the configuration of an element
upon activation is usually different from the original configuration because nodes shared
by active and inactive elements undergo displacements (see Initial configuration). When
an element becomes active, the configuration at the time of activation is the reference
for subsequent element calculations. Therefore, the output variable E represents strains
measured from the time an element is activated.

Time incrementation
The time increment used in eigenstrain analyses can influence the final results. Assume
that two eigenstrain analyses are performed to activate a row of elements using
different time increments: a small time increment activating one element per increment
and a large time increment activating two elements per increment. The initial
configuration of every second element is different between the two analyses, leading to
different results of residual stresses and distortions. You can choose an appropriate time
increment for a trajectory-based eigenstrain analysis by performing a time stepping
convergence study. For a pattern-based eigenstrain analysis, it is recommended that
you use a time increment less than the time taken to process one element layer.

Resolving convergence difficulties

In eigenstrain analyses convergence difficulties can occur when elements are activated
and the eigenstrain is applied.
Elements may distort excessively before they are activated and cause
convergence difficulties. In such situations you should specify that inactive
elements follow the deformation to prevent excessive element distortion (see
Controlling the behavior of inactive elements).
The analysis can have convergence issues if large eigenstrains are applied
instantaneously upon element activation. This issue cannot be resolved by
reducing the time increment. To overcome this issue, Abaqus provides an
option to ramp the eigenstrains over a period of time instead of applying them
instantaneously upon activation (see Applying eigenstrains). Ramping
eigenstrains can influence the accuracy of the analysis results. For example, if
the eigenstrains of elements in a layer are not fully ramped when the next
layer of elements is activated, the strain-free configuration of the newly
activated elements is different from the case when the eigenstrains are fully
ramped. You should use a ramping time constant smaller than the time
increment required for processing one layer.
If the material definition includes plasticity, the analysis may iterate
excessively due to the extrapolation scheme used to speed up the solution. You
can prevent this issue by turning off extrapolation (see Incrementation in
Abaqus/Standard).

Input file template

The following template shows the input for an eigenstrain analysis:
*HEADING
…
** Define material deposition motion (for trajectory-based eigenstrain analyses)

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*EVENT SERIES TYPE
*EVENT SERIES
** Define additional information (for example, predefined eigenstrain libraries, etc.)
*PARAMETER TABLE TYPE
*PROPERTY TABLE TYPE
*TABLE COLLECTION
*PARAMETER TABLE
*PROPERTY TABLE
** Define elements that can be activated during an analysis
*ELEMENT PROGRESSIVE ACTIVATION
…
*BOUNDARY
Data lines to specify zero-valued boundary conditions on displacement degree of freedom
…
*STEP, EXTRAPOLATION=NO
*STATIC
…
** Turn on progressive element activation in the step
*ACTIVATE ELEMENTS
table collection (if defined)
** Apply structural loads and boundary conditions
…
*END STEP

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