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Learning
Chapter 7

How Do We Learn?
Through associative learning: Certain events occur together
(classical conditioning); stimuli that are not controlled are
associated and the response becomes automatic (respondent
behavior)

Through consequences: Association between a response and a

consequence is learned (operant behavior)

Through acquisition of mental information that guides behavior:

Cognitive learning

Classical Conditioning

§ Pavlov
§ Studied digestive system; won Russia’s first Nobel Prize (1904)
§ Demonstrated associative learning via salivary conditioning

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Classical Conditioning
Watson

• Influenced by Pavlov
• Believed the theoretical goal of the science of
psychology is prediction and control of behavior

Behaviorism

• Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2)

studies behavior without reference to mental
processes.
• Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but
not with (2).

The Basics

§ Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which

one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate
events.

§ Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that

unconditionally—naturally and automatically—
triggers an unconditioned response (UR).
§ Conditioned response (CR): A learned response
to a previously neutral, but now conditioned
stimulus (CS).

§ Conditioned stimulus (CS): An originally neutral

stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned
stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned
response (CR).

The Basics
§ Unconditioned response (UR): An unlearned,
naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to
an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the
mouth).

§ Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that

unconditionally—naturally and automatically—
triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

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§ Acquisition
§ Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and
an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral
Classical stimulus begins triggering the conditioned
Conditioning response

§ Higher-order conditioning
§ A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in
one conditioning experience is paired with a
new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often

Classical §
weaker) conditioned stimulus
An animal that has learned that a tone predicts
Conditioning food might then learn that a light predicts the
tone and begin responding to the light alone.
§ Also called second-order conditioning

§ Extinction
§ Diminishing of a conditioned response
§ Occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not
follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Classical
§ Spontaneous recover y Conditioning
§ Reappearance, after a pause, of an
extinguished conditioned response

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§ Generalization
§ Tendency, once a response has been
conditioned, for stimuli similar to the

Classical conditioned stimulus to elicit similar

responses

Conditioning § Discrimination
§ Learned ability to distinguish between a
conditioned stimulus (which predicts the
US) and other irrelevant stimuli

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Practice

Maria eats fried chicken that has E. coli in it and ends up vomiting for hours
that night. Luckily, she recovers within a day, but now just the thought (or the
sight or the smell) of fried chicken makes her nauseated.

§ Unconditioned stimulus

§ Unconditioned response
§ Conditioned stimulus

§ Conditioned response

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Practice

You ride a roller coaster and get sick afterward. Now, whenever you are
near a roller coaster, you feel queasy.

§ Unconditioned stimulus

§ Unconditioned response
§ Conditioned stimulus

§ Conditioned response

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§ Most psychologists agree that classical

conditioning is basic learning form.

Classical § Many other responses to many other stimuli can be

classically conditioned in many other organisms.
Conditioning:
§ Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can
Pavlov’s
be studied objectively.
Legacy
§ Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning
that applies to all species.

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§ Pavlov’s principles are used to influence

human health and well-being.
§ Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion,
health, psychological disorders, and therapy
§ Addicts are counseled to avoid stimuli that may
Applications trigger cravings.

of Classical § Pairing a particular taste with a drug that

influences immune responses may eventually

Conditioning lead to response to the taste alone.

§ Pavlov’s work provided a basis for Watson’s

ideas that human emotions and behaviors,
though biologically influenced, are mainly
conditioned responses.

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§ Watson and Rayner applied classical

conditioning principles in the studies of “Little
Albert” to demonstrate how specific fears might
be conditioned.
Applications § A white rat and a frightening noise were paired.
of Classical § After the pairing was repeated 7 times, the 11-

Conditioning month-old child cried at the sight of the rat alone.

§ Five days later, the child’s startled fear reaction was
generalized to the sight of a rabbit, a dog, and a
sealskin coat.

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§ Edward L. Thorndike
§ Law of effect: Principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences
become more likely, and that behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely.
§ B. F. Skinner
§ Operant chamber (Skinner box): A
chamber containing a bar or key that an
animal can manipulate to obtain a food
or water reinforcer; attached devices
Operant
record the animal’s rate of bar pressing. Conditioning
§ Behavior operates on the environment to
produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.

§ Organisms associate their own actions with

consequences.
§ Actions followed by reinforcement increase;
actions followed by punishments often
decrease.

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§ Positive reinforcement

Operant
§ Increases behaviors by presenting
positive reinforcers

Conditioning: § Any stimulus that, when presented after a

response, strengthens the response

Types of § Negative reinforcement

Reinforcers § Increases behaviors by stopping or

reducing negative stimuli
§ Any stimulus that, when removed after a
response, strengthens the response

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Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers

Primary: Unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli

Conditioned (secondary): Gains power through

association with primary reinforcer

Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior

Delayed: Involves time delay between desired

response and delivery of reward

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Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement • A pattern defines how often a desired response

schedule will be reinforced.

Continuous
• Reinforces the desired response every time it
reinforcement occurs.
schedule

Partial • Reinforces a response only part of the time; results

in slower acquisition of a response but much
(intermittent) greater resistance to extinction than does
reinforcement continuous reinforcement.

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Fixed
Ratio Every so many: reinforcement after
every nth behavior, such as buy 10
coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers
per product unit produced
Variable
After an unpredictable number: reinforcement
after a random number of behaviors, as when
playing slot machines or fly fishing

Interval Every so often: reinforcement for Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior
behavior after a fixed time, such as after a random amount of time, as when
Tuesday discount prices checking our phone for a message

Schedules of Reinforcement

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Operant Conditioning

§ Punishment administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws

something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a
behavior (a child’s disobedience).

§ Positive punishment
§ Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is
exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future

§ Negative punishment
§ Removing a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior
is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the
future

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§ Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten.

Four Major This temporar y state may (negatively) reinforce

parents’ punishing behavior.

Drawbacks § Punishment teaches discrimination among

situations.

of Physical § Punishment can teach fear.

Punishment § Physical punishment may increase aggression

by modeling aggression as a way to cope with
problems.

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Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning

At school: Computer and adaptive learning

software used in teaching and learning

In sports: Behavioral methods implemented in

shaping behavior in athletic performance

At work: Rewards successfully used to increase

productivity

In parenting: Basic rules of shaping used in

parenting

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Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Basic idea Learning associations between events we do not Learning associations between our behavior
control. and its consequences.

Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on environment.

Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US and Associating a response with a consequence
becomes CS. (reinforcer or punisher).

Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented Responding decreases when reinforcement

alone. stops.

Spontaneous The reappearance, after a rest period, of The reappearance, after a rest period, of
recovery an extinguished CR. an extinguished response.

Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar Responses learned in one situation occurring
to the CS. in other, similar situations.

Discrimination Learning to distinguish between a CS and other Learning that some responses, but not others,
stimuli that do not signal a US. will be reinforced.

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

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§ Skinner

§
§ Discounted the importance of cognition

Evidence of cognitive processes

Cognition
§ Animal’s responses to a fixed-interval Processes
and Operant
reinforcement schedule
§ Development of a cognitive map in rats

§
(latent learning)
Destruction of intrinsic motivation by
Conditioning
excessive rewards

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Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Biological influences Natural predispositions constrain Organisms most easily learn behaviors similar to
what stimuli and responses can their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors
easily be associated. instinctively drift back toward natural ones.

Cognitive influences Organisms develop an expectation Organisms develop an expectation that a response
that CS signals the arrival of US. will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit
latent learning, without reinforcement.

Biological and Cognitive Influences on Conditioning

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Learning by Observation

§ Obser vational learning

§ Higher animals learn without direct experience
by watching and imitating others.

§ Bandura
§ Pioneer researcher of observational learning

§ Modeling: The process of observing and

imitating a specific behavior
§ Bobo doll experiment focused on vicarious
reinforcement and vicarious punishment

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Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

§ Mirror neurons
§ Include frontal lobe neurons, which some scientists believe fire
when performing certain actions or when observing another
person doing so

§ Brain’s mirroring of another’s action

§ May enable imitation and empathy

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§ Prosocial effects
§ Behavior modeling enhances learning of
communication, sales, and customer service skills
in new employees.
Applications
of § Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar
behavior in others.
Observational
§ In a study conducted across seven countries,
Learning viewing prosocial media increased later helping
behavior.

§ Socially responsive toddlers tend to have a strong

internalized conscience as preschoolers.

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§ Antisocial effects

Applications of § Abusive parents may have aggressive children.

Observational § Watching TV and videos may teach children

some unwanted lessons:

Learning § Bullying is an effective tool for controlling others.

§ Free and easy sex has few later consequences.
§ Men should be tough; women should be gentle.

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