Networks Basics

A network is the combination of two or more computers and their

connecting links. A physical network is the hardware (equipment such as
adapters, cables, and telephone lines) that makes up the network. The
software and the conceptual model make up the logical network.

Network computing encompasses various models and paradigms for

organizing and accessing computational resources over a network. Here
are some common models of network computing:

Client-Server Model: In this model, there are two types of entities - clients
and servers. Clients request services or resources from servers. Servers
provide these services or resources in response to client requests. This
model is widely used in web applications, where web browsers (clients)
request web pages and servers deliver them.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model: In P2P computing, peers (individual nodes or

devices) communicate and share resources directly with each other without
a centralized server. This model is often used in file-sharing applications
like BitTorrent and for distributed computing tasks.
LAN stands for local area network. It is a group of network devices that allow
communication between various connected devices. Private ownership has
control over the local area network rather than the public. LAN has a shorter
propagation delay than MAN as well as WAN. It covers smaller areas such as
colleges, schools, hospitals, and so on.

MAN stands for metropolitan area network. It covers a larger area than LAN
such as small towns, cities, etc. MAN connects two or more computers that
reside within the same or completely different cities. MAN is expensive and
should or might not be owned by one organization.

WAN stands for wide area network. It covers a larger area than LAN as well as
a MAN such as country/continent etc. WAN is expensive and should or might
not be owned by one organization. PSTN or satellite medium is used for wide
area networks.
Differences between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Basis LAN MAN WAN

LAN stands for MAN stands for

WAN stands for
Full-Form local area metropolitan area
wide area network.
network. network.

Operates in small Operates in larger

Operates in large
Geographic areas such as the areas such as
areas such as a
Span same building or countries or
city.
campus. continents.

MAN’s ownership While WAN also

LAN’s ownership
Ownership can be private or might not be owned
is private.
public. by one organization.

While the
The transmission Whereas the
Transmission transmission
speed of a LAN is transmission speed
Speed speed of a MAN is
high. of a WAN is low.
average.
 There is a
The propagation Whereas, there is a
Propagation moderate
delay is short in a long propagation
delay propagation delay
LAN. delay in a WAN.
in a MAN.

There is less While there is Whereas there is

Congestion congestion in more congestion more congestion
LAN. in MAN. than MAN in WAN.

Whereas WAN’s
While MAN’s
design and
LAN’s design and design and
Design & maintenance are
maintenance are maintenance are
Maintenance also more difficult
easy. more difficult than
than LAN as well as
LAN.
MAN.

There is more While there is In WAN, there is

Fault tolerance fault tolerance in less fault also less fault
LAN. tolerance. tolerance.
 Network Services
Computer systems and computerized systems help human beings to
work efficiently and explore the unthinkable. When these devices are
connected together to form a network, the capabilities are enhanced
multiple-times. Some basic services computer networks can offer are.

Directory Services
These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be
variable value or fixed. This software system helps to store the
information, organize it, and provides various means of accessing it.

​ Accounting
In an organization, a number of users have their usernames and
passwords mapped to them. Directory Services provide means of
storing this information in cryptic form and make it available
when requested.
​
​ Authentication and Authorization
​
User credentials are checked to authenticate a user at the time of
login and/or periodically. User accounts can be set into
hierarchical structure and their access to resources can be
controlled using authorization schemes.
​
​ Domain Name Services
DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which the
internet works. This system maps IP addresses to domain
names, which are easier to remember and recall than IP
addresses. Because the network operates with the help of IP
addresses and humans tend to remember website names, the
DNS provides a website's IP address which is mapped to its name
from the back-end on the request of a website name from the
user.
File Services
File services include sharing and transferring files over the
network.

​ File Sharing
One of the reasons which gave birth to networking was file
sharing. File sharing enables its users to share their data with
other users. Users can upload the file to a specific server, which
is accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, a user can
make its file shared on its own computer and provide access to
intended users.
​
​ File Transfer
This is an activity to copy or move files from one computer to
another computer or to multiple computers, with the help of the
underlying network. Network enables its user to locate other
users in the network and transfers files.

Communication Services
​ Email
Electronic mail is a communication method and something a
computer user cannot work without. This is the basis of
today’s internet features. Email systems have one or more
email servers. All its users are provided with unique IDs.
When a user sends an email to another user, it is actually
transferred between users with the help of an email server.
​
​ Social Networking
Recent technologies have made technical life social. The
computer savvy people can find other known peoples or friends,
can connect with them, and can share thoughts, pictures, and
videos.
 ​ Internet Chat
Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two
hosts. Two or more people can communicate with each other
using text based Internet Relay Chat services. These days, voice
chat and video chat are very common.
​
​ Discussion Boards
Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple
peoples with the same interests.It enables the users to put
queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can be seen by all
other users. Others may respond as well.
​
​ Remote Access
This service enables users to access the data residing on the
remote computer. This feature is known as Remote desktop. This
can be done via some remote device, e.g. mobile phone or home
computer.

Application Services
These are nothing but providing network based services to the users
such as web services, database managing, and resource sharing.

​ Resource Sharing
To use resources efficiently and economically, a network provides
a means to share them. This may include Servers, Printers, and
Storage Media etc.
​
​ Databases
This application service is one of the most important services. It
stores data and information, processes it, and enables the users
to retrieve it efficiently by using queries. Databases help
organizations to make decisions based on statistics.
​
 ​ Web Services
World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet.It is used
to connect to the internet, and access files and information
services provided by the internet servers.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

Classification Of Switching Techniques:

1. Circuit Switching
2. Message Switching
3. Packet Switching
● Datagram Packet switching
● Virtual Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching:

○ Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.

○ In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.

○ Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

○ A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.

○ In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, or video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends
back the acknowledgement to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After
receiving the acknowledgment, a dedicated path transfers the data.

○ Circuit switching is used in public telephone networks. It is used for voice

transmission.

○ Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

○ Circuit establishment

○ Data transfer

○ Circuit Disconnect
 Circuit Switching

Application:

Circuit switching is used for connections that must be continuous for long
periods of time, such as long-distance communication.Traditional telephone
systems -- i.e., landlines -- are an example of a technology that uses circuit
switching.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

○ In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is

dedicated.

○ It has fixed bandwidth.

○ The rate of communication is steady as a dedicated path for transmission.

○ With the establishment of the circuit, there are no intermediate delays that
make it suitable for voice and data transmission.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

○ It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no

data can be transmitted.

○ It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is

required for each connection.

○ It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is

transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.

○ In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be

transferred even if the channel is free.
Message Switching

○ Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred

as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored
and forwarded.

○ In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path

between the sender and receiver.

○ The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching

provides dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate
nodes based on the information available in the message.

○ Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.

○ Each and every node stores the entire message and then forwards it to the next
node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.

○ Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Application of message switching:

Email is a common application for message switching.

Advantages Of Message Switching

○ Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.

○ Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in

the nodes.

○ Message priority can be used to manage the network.

○ The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore,
it supports unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching

○ The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them
to store the messages until the message is forwarded.

○ The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by
the message switching technique.

Packet Switching

○ The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in

one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

○ The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given
a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.

○ Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.

○ Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path possible.

○ All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

○ If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.

○ If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.
Application of packet switching:
Packet switching works well for data communication, transmitting
digital data directly to its destination.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

○ It is a packet switching technology in which a packet, known as a datagram, is

considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about
the destination and the switch uses this information to forward the packet to the
correct destination.

○ The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

 ○ In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

○ Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

○ Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

○ Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

○ In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before

the messages are sent.

○ Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.

○ In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
 ○ In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2
are the nodes.

○ Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between
the sender and receiver.

○ When a route is established, data will be transferred.

○ After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that

the message has been received.

○ If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to Node does not take any routing decisions.

forward the packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node is busy,

packets travel in different and it does not allow other packets to pass

directions. through.

It is more flexible as all the packets It is not very flexible.

are treated as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

○ Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require

massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some
extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a
cost-effective technique.

○ Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that
the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.

○ Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any

established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available
bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

○ Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that

require low delay and high-quality services.

○ The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and require
high implementation cost.

○ If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost

packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor
recovered.