莱斯文本类型理论指导下《真...维修手册》英汉翻译实践报告_康力

电子科技大学
UNIVERSITY OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF CHINA
专业学位硕士学位论文
MASTER THESIS FOR PROFESSIONAL DEGREE
论文题目莱斯文本类型理论指导下《真空抽水
马桶部件维修手册》英汉翻译实践报告
专业学位类别翻译硕士
学号 202022170207
作者姓名康力
指导教师汤朝菊教授
学院外国语学院
分类号密级公开
UDC 注 1
学位论文
莱斯文本类型理论指导下《真空抽水马桶部件维修
手册》英汉翻译实践报告
（题名和副题名）
康力
（作者姓名）
指导教师汤朝菊教授
电子科技大学成都
（姓名、职称、单位名称）
申请学位级别硕士专业学位类别翻译硕士

提交论文日期 2023 年 4 月 21 日论文答辩日期 2023 年 5 月 26 日
学位授予单位和日期电子科技大学 2023 年 6 月
答辩委员会主席周劲松教授
评阅人常晓晴高级翻译聂韬副教授
注 1：注明《国际十进分类法 UDC》的类号。
A Report on E-C Translation of Component
Maintenance Manual-Vacuum Toilet Based on
Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology
A Master Thesis Submitted to
University of Electronic Science and Technology of China
Discipline Master of Translation and Interpreting
Student ID 202022170207
Author Kang Li
Supervisor Tang Chaoju
School School of Foreign Languages

摘要
摘要
民航维修手册是保障飞行安全必不可少的技术资料，也是对飞机进行维修与
检查的科学依据。因此，翻译此类文本具有一定的现实意义。维修手册属于专业
性极强的文本，是典型的信息型文本，有其行业标准下固有的行文特点及排版特
点，对于此类文本的翻译，译者认为应将翻译重点落在“维修”的专业性及“手
册”的可读性上。莱斯提出，译文应与原文产生对等的效果，且需为读者营造出
熟悉的语言环境。可以理解为，译文的专业性不容丢失，同时应采取适当的翻译
方法以保证译文的可读性。鉴于此，译者认为莱斯的文本类型理论适合指导本次
翻译实践。
对于信息型文本的翻译，莱斯提出了“简洁直白”与“按需明晰”两种翻译
方法，但事实上，这两种所谓的“方法”并非传统意义上具体可操作的翻译方法，
而是译文所应达到的两种文本效果。因此，在案例分析中，译者将文本特点分析
时得出的六点文本特征：术语、缩略词、表格、描述步骤的短句、警示性无人称
句与被动句，与其所应产生的翻译效果进行了匹配，分析了做此匹配的原因，并
阐释了所采取的翻译方法的可行性。
通过本次翻译实践，译者有以下两点收获：一是对于专业性文本的翻译，在
无相关专业知识背景的情况下，译前阶段对于专业知识的适当补充，以及对平行
文本及查证工具的大量储备是极为重要的，既可以大幅提升翻译效率，又能保证
翻译质量；二是作为译者，在翻译时应充分考虑委托方（如有）的实际需求，才
能将译文发挥的实际效果最大化。望本报告能够为解决同类型文本的翻译提供一
些切实可行的思路。
关键词：民航维修手册，莱斯文本类型，信息型文本
I
ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
The civil aviation maintenance manual is a necessary technical documentation to

ensure air safety, and the basis for doing scientific aircraft maintenance and inspection.
Thus, the translation of such material has practical significance. The maintenance
manual is a typical informative text according to Reiss’s classification and definition of
text types. The translator thinks that translating a maintenance manual should focus both
on the professionalism of “maintenance” and the readability of a “manual”. Reiss
proposed that the target text should have the equivalent effect as the source text and
create a familiar language environment for target readers. Given this, Reiss’s text
typology theory is suitable to guide this translation practice.
Reiss put forward two translation methods for the translation of informative texts:
“plain prose” and “explicitness as required”. However, these two so-called “methods”
are not concrete and operable translation methods in the traditional sense, but are two
text effects the target text should achieve. Therefore, in case studies, the translator
matches the six text features, including terminologies, abbreviations, table-related
materials, short sentences describing steps, vigilant imperative sentences and passive
sentences, obtained from the analysis of the text characteristics with the translation
effects they should produce, analyzing the matching reasons and explaining in detail the
feasibility of the translation methods adopted.
The translator has learned the following two points from this translation practice:
first, when translating professional texts, in the absence of relevant professional
knowledge background, the appropriate supplements of professional knowledge in the
pre-translation stage, and a large reserve of parallel texts and verification tools are vital,
which can not only significantly improve the efficiency of the translation practice but
also guarantee the quality of the target text. Second, as a translator, the actual needs of
the trustor (if any) should be fully taken into account maximize the practical effect of
the translation. Hopefully, this report could provide useful ideas for translating the same
type of text.
Keywords: Civil Aviation Maintenance Manual, Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology,

Informative Text
II
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................ 1

1.1 Task Background................................................................................ 1
1.2 Task Significance ............................................................................... 1
1.3 Translation Process ............................................................................ 2
Chapter 2 Analysis of the Source Text........................................................ 4
2.1 Analysis of the Text Features ............................................................. 4
2.1.1 Terminologies in Aviation Industry .............................................. 4
2.1.2 Abbreviations in Aviation Industry .............................................. 5
2.1.3 Table-Related Materials ............................................................... 6
2.1.4 Short Sentences Describing Steps ................................................ 7
2.1.5 Vigilant Imperative Sentences ..................................................... 8
2.1.6 Passive Sentences ......................................................................... 9
2.2 Analysis of the Text Genre ................................................................. 9
2.3 Analysis of the Text Style ................................................................ 10
Chapter 3 Theoretical Framework ............................................................ 12
3.1 Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology ..................................................... 12
3.1.1 Two-phase Approach in Translation .......................................... 12
3.1.2 Translation Effects Towards Informative Texts ......................... 13
3.2 Application of the Theory to the Translation ................................... 15
3.2.1 Plain Prose .................................................................................. 15
3.2.2 Explicitness as Required ............................................................ 16
Chapter 4 Case Studies ............................................................................. 17
4.1 Translation Achieving Plain Prose ................................................... 17
4.1.1 Literal Translation and Paraphrase Translation to
Terminologies .................................................................................... 17
4.1.2 Transference to Abbreviations ................................................... 20
4.1.3 Omission to Table-Related Materials ......................................... 23
4.2 Translation for Explicitness as Required ......................................... 27
4.2.1 Combination to Short Sentences Describing Steps.................... 27
4.2.2 Addition to Vigilant Imperative Sentences ................................ 30
4.2.3 Conversion to Passive Sentences ............................................... 32
Chapter 5 Conclusion................................................................................ 35
5.1 Review from the Trustor .................................................................. 35
5.2 Implications ...................................................................................... 36
5.3 Limitations ....................................................................................... 38
References ................................................................................................. 39
Appendix Ⅰ Bilingual Glossary of Terminologies .................................. 41
Appendix Ⅱ Source Text.......................................................................... 48
Appendix Ⅲ Target Text ......................................................................... 142
Chapter 1 Introduction
This chapter, consisting of three parts, gives a basic introduction of the background,
the significance of the task, and the translation process.
1.1 Task Background

The translation task is entrusted by Chengdu Dong Ke Xin Airline Automation
Equipment Co., Ltd. Founded in 2004, Chengdu Dong Ke Xin is a privately-owned
enterprise for the research, development, and production of mechanical equipment,
focusing on aeronautical ground equipment, tools, and aircraft accessories maintenance
equipment. The company provides airlines and airports with pre- and post-flight check
equipment and tools for in-use aircraft and equipment-hosting maintenance services.
The source text, titled Component Maintenance Manual-Vacuum Toilet, is a
maintenance manual for the vacuum toilet in water and waste systems, which the
company introduced from MAG, an international aviation investment and operation
group.This maintenance manual is a series of instructions for the vacuum toilet,
specially configured for Airbus A319, A320, A321, and A330. The translated
maintenance manual intends to serve as a reference source for machinists and specialists
working in wet areas in the cabin in case of any troubles or repairs.
This source text has about 20,000 words, including seven parts:
DISASSEMBLY, CLEANING, CHECK, REPAIR, ASSEMBLY, FITS AND CLEARANCES,
and SPECIAL TOOLS, FIXTURES, AND EQUIPMENT. Importantly, the source text provided
by the company to the translator is not the full content of the maintenance manual, so
the page number of the source text does not start from page one.
1.2 Task Significance

With the continuous development of the society and economy, people’s living
standards have seen a substantial improvement, and the aircraft has become a preferred
means of transportation for journeys. Civil aviation flight safety is a highly important
social topic. However, in real life, aircraft failures often lead to delays or cancellations
of flights. Thus, aircraft maintenance technology is the basis to guarantee the general
operation of aircraft. The significance of aircraft maintenance technology lies in
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Master Thesis of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China
ensuring the flight safety of passengers, the safe operation of aircraft, and high-quality
flight services.
Aircraft maintenance, as small as a screw, as big as an engine, should all be taken
into consideration seriously, as this is the awe to life. Although a vacuum toilet is not
the most crucial part of a civil craft, it is an indispensable part of the airliner. If the toilet
breaks down during a flight, it would not only be a terrible flight experience for
passengers, but more severely, under the wet area near the cockpit is the electronic
cabin of the plane, so if the toilet leaks or accumulates water, there may be a short
circuit or other more serious failures, resulting in casualties. Nevertheless, it may sound
negligible to overhaul a toilet, but it is of great importance to do it professionally.
Therefore, a translated version of the component maintenance manual for the vacuum
toilet is in need.
Currently, the company does not have a standardized translation of the manual, and
maintenance staff often encounter words or sentences they do not understand during
reference. They can only refer to online dictionaries temporarily, which would greatly
affect their work efficiency. Meanwhile, they cannot guarantee the accuracy of the
translated words and sentences, so there is a risk of operational errors. Therefore,
helping maintenance personnel establish a standardized manual translation is the
meaning of this translation task.
1.3 Translation Process

In general, the translation process can be divided into pre-translation, in-translation,
and post-translation stages.
First, the pre-translation stage can be summarized into three parts: collecting
relevant materials, selecting translation tools, and preparing proper translation theories.
A large number of relevant materials have been collected through the literature
databases provided by university library, including maintenance manuals similar to the
source text. But most importantly, the translator obtained a translated version of the
similar maintenance manual provided by a domestic airline to its maintenance staff,
which is of great help to improve the professionalism and usability of the translation. By
reading the materials, specialized knowledge is stored, and the language style of the
original text can be further understood. After communicating with the maintenance
personnel, a civil aviation professional online English-Chinese dictionary named “Civil
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Aviation Assistant” is found, in addition to the commonly used English-Chinese

dictionary, which is of great help to the translation of technical and semi-technical
words in the text. The importance of an appropriate translation theory to guide the
translation activities is self-evident. For this translation report, Katharina Reiss’s text
typology theory is selected as the theoretical basis. The introduction of this theory and
its feasibility for the translation will be presented in detail in Chapter Three.
Second, those materials and specialized reference books mentioned above will
serve as a guidance during the in-translation stage. During translation, the translator
collated each terminology, both technical words and semi-technical words, into a corpus
to ensure the consistency and coherence of the target language. Of course, the
translation of all professional words will be verified by professional dictionaries. In
addition, all the difficulties encountered in the translation are summarized, and the
papers, books, and articles related to the chosen translation theory will be repeatedly
read to adopt appropriate translation methods to obtain a more accurate translation. The
translator adopts specific translation solutions for the key points during the translation.
Chapter Four will give a detailed introduction of these translation methods.
Third, in the post-translation stage, the translation will be done with repeated
proofreading and revision to ensure the quality. First, the translator conducted
self-proofing to determine whether there are omissions, mistranslations, misuse of
punctuation and typos. Then the translator checked the language usage of the translation
according to the corpus established by the translator to ensure that the language usage is
consistent. Finally, the target text was submitted to the entrusting party, asking the
maintenance personnel to give a check and review. Their revisions and comments are
summarized in Chapter 5.1. Based on these revisions, the translator made final
adjustments and modifications to the words and sentences. After completing all the
work above, the translation is typeset and submitted. The target text will be presented in
PDF format, and the maintenance personnel can read and consult at any time through
electronic products.
3
Chapter 2 Analysis of the Source Text
Analyzing the source text is indispensable before starting translation. Generally

speaking, the text features are the key points that should be paid attention to in
translation, since it is worth thinking about how to reflect the text characteristics of the
source text in the target text. Simply put, investigating the source text can be carried out
in three aspects: the analysis of the text features, usually referring to its linguistic
characteristics, the study of the text varieties, and the research of the text style. This
chapter examines the source text from the feature, variety, and style perspectives.
2.1 Analysis of the Text Features

Analyzing a text’s features generally refers to analyzing its external linguistic
characteristics, which can be carried out from the lexical to the syntactic level.
Translation begins from words, and only when the translation is accurate in the most
basic units will there be no significant deviation in conveying information between two
languages. In addition, the syntactic unit, formed by words, is the primary unit of
language use that expresses meanings. Chinese and English can achieve one-to-one
correspondence in word units, but there are significant differences at the syntactic level.
As for the source text, six text features are concluded below.
2.1.1 Terminologies in Aviation Industry

Terminology is the particular terms of a specific discipline and the representation
of the concept and category of the discipline (Fang, 2022). These words have specific
meanings for the field they belong to, such as an academic subject area or a profession.
In the source text, all terms belong to the aviation industry. Besides, there is a special
type of terminologies called semi-technical words, which refer to the general words of
the language vocabulary. Since endowed with extended scientific and technological
semantics in a specific technical context, these words can also be seen as terms in this
context. Semi-technical words can appear across disciplines, while terminologies are
easy to identify, and their meanings are not difficult to judge with the help of reference
books. Semi-technical words, as explained before, are familiar words but may have
unfamiliar meanings. For instance, “house” does not mean a place to live but an outer
4
shell, and “shop” does not mean going to buy something but to give an overhaul of
certain equipment.
It is imperative to ensure the accuracy of terminology translation. Still, since each
term does not appear only once, they should be consistent in the target text. To solve
this problem, the translator lists 200 terminologies from the source text in alphabetical
order in Appendix I for comparison and inspection. An excerpt example of these words
are presented in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1 Terminologies (Excerpt)
Source Text Target Text

abrasive pad 百洁布
back housing 后壳体
cable tie installation tool 系缆具
drain valve 疏水阀
external retaining ring 轴用弹性挡圈
flanged bushing 法兰衬垫
grounding strap 接地母线
loose scale 疏松氧化皮
male elbow fitting 外螺纹外牙弯头接口
outlet elbow 立体三通接头
2.1.2 Abbreviations in Aviation Industry

“Abbreviation” is a shortened form of a written word or phrase used in place of the
whole word or phrase, as explained in Webster. Opinions vary on the classification of
abbreviations. Zhang (2010:95) proposed that English abbreviations can be divided into
three categories: clipping, acronymy (including initialism and acronym), and blending.
This classification is believed as not a perfect one but by far the best one (Lu ,2013).
Basically, the abbreviations in the source text belong to the category of initialism,
which directly combines the first letter of each word in a phrase and can only be
pronounced according to one letter (Lu, 2013). These abbreviations appear because they
are originally long and are used repeatedly in the source text. For instance, the full name
of “CAGE” is “Computerized Aerospace Ground Equipment” (计算机化航空航天地面
设备), and “IPL” is “Illustrated Parts List” (图解零件清单).
5
It is evident that these abbreviations composed of the words’ first letters can save
both reading time and writing space. However, it is still necessary to make a judgment
on the specific translation problems whether to retain the original form or to explain it.
2.1.3 Table-Related Materials

The table is one of the effective ways of writing that can provide information
clearly and orderly. It is more common-seen in maintenance manuals. Since the source
text involves a large amount of tools and instruments, tables can visually show the
configuration and requirements of various required materials. As far as the tables in the
source text is concerned, two characteristics are noteworthy. One is that all the weights
and measurements are in English units but with metric equivalents in brackets followed,
as shown in Fig. 2-4(a), and the other is that proper nouns abound in tables, as
illustrated in Fig. 2-4(b), including the name of the manufacturer or the supplier, and the
type specification of the product.
First, weights and measurements are quantifiers for measuring length, volume, and
weight, existing in any language. The only difference lies in the weights and measures
used in various languages (Zhang, 2006). For instance, when measuring volume, jin is
commonly used in China, while pints and gallons are widely adopted in British and
American countries. Second, a proper noun refers to the name of a particular place, or
other things. Proper nouns in English, different from common nouns, are always
capitalized. Besides, the main function of proper nouns is to have the function of
information (Hu, 2006).
Since the table has its fixed format, it is likely to cause format errors due to the
number of words, font size and other problems in translation, so it is necessary to
balance the format of the table and the accurate output of the table content in translation.
Fig. 2-1(a) Weights and Measurements with Two Units
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Fig. 2-1(b) Proper Nouns
2.1.4 Short Sentences Describing Steps

For a manual, compound sentences are seldom used and are replaced by extended
simple sentences with simple structures. It is best to put forward only one requirement
for a sentence in the manual, following the principle of “one sentence, one command”.
Thus, it is remarkable that the length of sentences in the source text is generally short
and straightforward, which provides great convenience for target users to grasp and
master the information and instructions they need quickly and accurately.
Short sentences can be seen everywhere in the source text. However, there are two
situations for format. Take “Rinse Valve Assembly” as an example. One is each
sentence taking up one line, as seen in Fig. 2-2(a). Each point contains only one
instruction, or it can be said that there is only one verb per line. The other is that each
point contains at least two short sentences, as shown in Fig. 2-2(b). Alternatively, it can
be said that at least two verbs appear under each instruction. Nevertheless, no matter the
situation, these sentences are all simple sentences with a single structure and with only
one instruction. The key point is that when translated into Chinese, it is likely to make
the text lacking of logic and coherence in the context.
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Fig. 2-2(a) Short Sentences in Rinse Valve Assembly
Fig. 2-2(b) Short Sentences in Rinse Valve Assembly
2.1.5 Vigilant Imperative Sentences

An imperative sentence is used to demand or require an action to be performed.
A second-person subject, usually “you”, is generally implied. The extensive use of
imperative sentences is a prominent syntactic feature in a manual because these
sentences often express emphasis, orders, and warnings that need users to pay special
attention (Hou, 2007), which requires the statements and instructions in the manual to
be as clear and transparent as possible.
Although the short sentences discussed in 2.1.4 belong to imperative sentences,
they are mainly used to show steps and operability. As a text feature, however, the
imperative sentences discussed here are those with vigilant meaning, which are used as
an alert or a notice that needs to pay special attention to avoid any trouble or danger,
and serve as a primary point and requirement in a particular action. These sentences are
usually guided by WARNING, CAUTION or NOTE subheadings and are all capitalized,
sometimes bold, demonstrating the importance and vigilance of specific operation steps.
Examples are given in Fig. 2-3. In translation, emphasis should be placed on the ways to
retain the warning of “capitalized” symbols in the translation, such as font, color, bold,
highlighting and so on.
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Fig. 2-3 Vigilant Imperative Sentences
2.1.6 Passive Sentences

When it comes to passive sentences, it is often associated with objectivity in
English. Unlike other types of texts, the maintenance manual belongs to a professional
text, in which the content mainly describes a particular process, so the sentence’s focus
is not on who does it but on what to do and how to do it. It determines that the executor
of the action is not essential, so the passive voice is often used (Han, 2007).
Objectivity is critical for a manual’s writing. So the use of passive voice can make
the text more objective and enables the reader’s attention to focus on the thing or
process described, that is, the subject (Liu, 2001). For instance, in this sentence,
“Equivalent substitutes may be used for listed items,” the focus and emphasis should
fall on the subject, “equivalent substitutes”, obviously. Generally, converting passive
voice into active voice is one of the common translation methods, but other methods
should also be considered to enhance the readability of the target text.
2.2 Analysis of the Text Genre

The text genre refers to the type of a written discourse. It is determined by the
text’s purpose and function. Before translation, the characteristics of a certain genre
should be analyzed, identifying the intention and function of the source text so as to
choose translation methods correctly. Special-purpose texts have relatively fixed
internal structures and lexical and grammatical features, and genre analysis should be
fully used in translation (Xie & Liu, 2010). Genre analysis has been concerned with
analyzing and explaining nonliterary texts in relation to three basic features: context in
which texts occur, their communicative purpose(s), and resulting linguistic structure
(Swales, 1990:58). Therefore, the text genre of the source text is analyzed based on
these three aspects.
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First, for the context in which the text occurs, seen from the title of the original text,
it is not difficult to find that the text serves as a source of reference for machinists and
specialists working in wet areas in the aircraft when troubles or repairs occur. Then, the
communicative purpose of the source text is evident since the maintenance manual
describes the units and their operations, gives detailed information about components
accordingly, and provides shop maintenance instructions for maintaining and testing the
units. Last, the resulting linguistic structure can be summarized easily. This manual is a
series of instructions pertaining to vacuum toilets, with each part containing illustrations
and tables and every page being formatted and paragraphed clearly, showing the
accuracy and clarity of the maintenance manual.
In a word, the source text belongs to a practical writing with the distinct function
of providing information and serving as the reference for maintenance personnel.
2.3 Analysis of the Text Style

The analysis of the text genre lays a foundation to the analysis of the text style.
Texts of different genres have different communicative functions, so they have different
text styles naturally. The text style can be either literary or scientific, written or oral,
straight-forward or implicit, which can be judged quickly from the use of words and the
contents (Zhou, 2005). Nevertheless, no matter what style the text belongs to, consistent
translation strategies should be adopted. Thus, the analysis of the text style is an
essential step as well.
Practical writing mainly has three characteristics: (1) precise in purpose and strong
in function; (2) compact in structure and concise in the use of words; (3) standardized in
format (Zheng, 2004). Based on this statement, integrating the previous analysis of the
text features and genre, it can be concluded that the text style has the following
characteristics:
(1) With so many terminologies and abbreviations in the aviation industry, the
source text is professional, accurate, and unambiguous.
(2) With a large number of short sentences describing steps and tables listing
materials in a specific format, the source text is high-efficient in conveying information
and easy to be understood.
(3) The majority use of passive voice and imperative mood makes the text
objective and indicative.
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(4) Always starting with a problem that needs solving, the source text is
reader-driven.
Simply put, this manual serves the maintenance staffs’ immediate needs by
delivering timely materials. Therefore, the primary stylistic feature of the source text is
maximizing the ease with which the maintenance staff can extract relevant information
to their problems.
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Chapter 3 Theoretical Framework
Translation theory lays a foundation of a translation practice. Choosing an

appropriate theory as a guide can support the selected methods and strategies in
translation. This chapter will discuss the application and the guiding significance of
Katharina Reiss’s text typology to this practice.
3.1 Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology

In Translation Criticism: Potentials and Limitations, Reiss (2004) proposed the
function of the text as a criterion for translation criticism, that is, to evaluate the
translation in terms of the relationship between the functions of the source text and the
target text, which is based on the equivalence theory. Referenced by Bühler (1990:35),
who divided language functions into three categories: informative, expressive, and
appellative, Reiss proposed text typology theory. Reiss (2004:25) classified texts into
three main types plus a supplementary one in accordance with their respective functions,
namely informative texts, expressive texts, operative texts, and audio-medial texts.
3.1.1 Two-phase Approach in Translation

The text, not words or sentences, is the level of communication, and the level of
equivalence must be sought. Therefore, her text typology involves a two-phase
approach when translating to achieve equivalence: the analysis stage and the
re-verbalization stage (Reiss, 1977:113-14).
The analysis stage is the most important stage because it will guide the use of
translation methods. It mainly includes the determination of the text type, the study of
the text varieties and the text style. First, determining the source text type requires
analyzing the text’s features, which have been analyzed in detail in 2.1. As analyzed
before, the source text contains a large number of terminologies, abbreviations,
illustrations, and tables, with distinct and standardized format characteristics,
straightforwardly providing information. Next, the analysis of the text varieties is
related to the structure and language conventions of the text. However, Reiss explained
that different cultures may have different functional equivalence, but the important point
is that the consistency of functional equivalence should be found in the target language
12
culture. The variety Reiss refers to is the genre commonly used in daily life, like
reference books, poems, advertisements, official speeches, operating guides, and so on
(Zhang, 2009). As analyzed in 2.2, the maintenance manual source text belongs to
practical writing. Last, analyzing the text style has to do with a detailed semantic,
syntactic and pragmatic analysis of the language use (Reiss, 1971:166), which has
already been analyzed in 2.3 before.
The re-verbalization stage is actually the stage of translation practice. Here, two
points need to be clarified. First, translation strategies or specific translation methods
should be chosen appropriately based on the text type of the source text. Second, correct
language expressions should be matched according to the target language habits. With
the groundwork of the analysis stage, it is not difficult to carry out this stage. The
translation methods suggested for the source text will be discussed in the next section,
and the re-verbalization of the source text will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
3.1.2 Translation Effects Towards Informative Texts

As the first step of re-verbalization stage, the text type of the source text needs to
be determined. The characteristics of different text types should be examined before
deciding the source text type. Reiss (2004:27-43) summed up the features of each text
type as follows: informative texts are plain communication of facts, information,
knowledge, and opinions, where the content is the main focus; expressive texts have the
emphasis on aesthetics and artistic composition, which are exemplified by imaginative
artistic literature, and the author and the message are also highlighted; operative texts
have an appellative emphasis, which persuades, dissuades, requests and cajoles the
reader to behave in a certain way.
Clearly, the source text is a typical informative text. To choose appropriate
translation methods for informative texts, Reiss also proposed corresponding methods
for translators to deal with different text types. The functional characteristics and
translation methods are summarized by Munday (2001:74), as shown in Table 3-1.
13
Table 3-1 Functional characteristics of text types and translation methods
Text type Informative Expressive Operative
Informative
Expressive (expressing Appellative (making an
Language function (representing
sender’s attitude) appeal to text receiver)
objects and facts)
Language dimension Logical Aesthetic Dialogic
Text focus Content-focused Form-focused Appellative-focused
Transmit
TT should . . . Transmit aesthetic form Elicit desired response
referential content
‘Identifying’ method,
‘Plain prose’, ‘Adaptive’, equivalent
Translation method adopt perspective of ST
explicitness as required effect
author
As told from the list, for informative text, the translation methods Reiss gives are
“plain prose” and “explicitness as required”. However, the translation methods proposed
by Reiss are abstract and may not be suitable for all types of translation (Zhang, 2009).
For instance, informative texts should be translated as “plain prose”, but what kind of
translation method is “plain prose”? It is neither literal translation nor free translation. In
addition, a single translation method can not meet all translation needs in actual
translation processes. Thus, Reiss’s so-called “translation method” can be seen as the
effects of the target text should achieve.
For the text of informative text type, the translator needs to transmit all the
contents of the source text without redundancy so that the translation should be explicit
and brief (Chen & Zhang, 2020). As it happens, “plain prose” corresponds to the
professionalism of the translation, while “explicitness as required” matches the
readability.
14
3.2 Application of the Theory to the Translation

The source text is a maintenance manual for domestic aircraft maintenance
personnel. Undoubtedly, the professionalism of “maintenance” and the readability of a
“manual” are among the most important elements to be considered during the
translation. As discussed before, Reiss’s text typology theory exactly emphasizes the
professionalism and readability of the target text. Given this, the text typology theory of
Reiss is applicable to this translation practice. The following two parts will elaborate on
how the text features obtained in the analysis stage match with the translation methods
from this theory separately, so as to further verify the appropriateness and application of
the theory, and also lay a foundation for the re-verbalization stage, that is, the
translation stage.
3.2.1 Plain Prose

Many scholars have given their understanding of “plain” in writing, which can be
used as a reference for the translator. Nordquist (2018) states that plain style refers to
speech or writing that is simple, direct, and straightforward, and does not rely heavily
on figurative language, which is commonly associated with the matter-of-fact delivery
of information, as in most technical writing. Also, Kenner (1985) characterizes “plain
prose” as “the most disorienting form of discourse yet invented.” Moreover, Cmiel
(1990) explained that the plain style is completely unadorned and is straightforward and
void of any figures of speech.
The translation of terminologies should be absolutely accurate and professional,
verified by authoritative materials in specific field, which is presented in a
straightforward and direct way. Besides, the form of abbreviations should be retained
when translation without redundant explanation in the target text, because the use of
abbreviation is exactly to avoid verbosity. Additionally, the tables listing tools and
materials also need to be processed in a plain way to obtain information at a glance.
Thus, the translation of terminologies, abbreviations and tables listing tools should be
aimed at achieving the “plain prose” of the target language. The translation methods
adopted for these three points will be discussed in the next chapter.
15
3.2.2 Explicitness as Required

Explicitness means that the language is clear, organized, and detailed, without
confusion. Sometimes, the translation method of addition may be adopted to make the
translation clearer or to cross the language barriers between different cultures. Does this
run counter to the “plain prose” proposed by Reiss, which requires the translation to be
simple and straightforward? The answer is no. Because Reiss does not directly propose
that “explicitness” should be adopted in the translation of informative texts but adds a
qualification: “as required”. It shows that the language should not be completely explicit
in any case, so it does not conflict with the requirement of “plain prose”, which shows
again the importance of professionalism and readability when translating a maintenance.
When to be explicit depends on the functions of the source text and, sometimes,
the requirements from the entrusting party. The source text is a maintenance manual for
domestic aircraft maintenance personnel, so the function is to convey an explicit
information to the maintenance personnel void of any ambiguity. Therefore, for this
translation practice, the short sentences describing the steps should be reorganized to
maximize the explicitness of the entire procedure. As for the vigilant imperative
sentences, the translation needs to explicit the warning sense of “capitalized” symbols,
such as adding some words to clarify the special requirements. And the voice and word
order need to be conversed when translating passive sentences so as to make the
expression coherent and distinct. Also, the specific translation methods will be
discussed in the following chapter.
16
Chapter 4 Case Studies
This chapter discusses in detail the specific translations regarding each text
characteristic in this translation practice, including terminologies, abbreviations, passive
sentences, imperative sentences, short sentences, and lists, under the guidance of text
typology to achieve the desired translation effects, that are “plain prose” and
explicitness.
4.1 Translation Achieving Plain Prose

“Plain” refers to simple, direct and straightforward, which is the language
requirement of the maintenance manual. Because only in this way can the users capture
the information they need quickly and complete the operation under targeted guidance.
The translation of terminologies, abbreviations and tables in the source text should
achieve “plain prose”.
4.1.1 Literal Translation and Paraphrase Translation to Terminologies

As a highly technical aviation professional text, there exists a good deal of
terminologies. In terms of technical forms, there are mainly three kinds of English
scientific and technological vocabularies, that are specialized common vocabulary,
professional vocabulary, and newly-created vocabulary (Wei, 2014), in which
professional vocabulary can be understood as technical words limited to a particular
professional field, and specialized common vocabulary refers to ordinary words that are
introduced to a specific professional scientific and technological field to be given new
meaning, in other words, semi-technical words. Because of the differences between
technical words and semi-technical words, diverse translation methods are chosen
accordingly.
The translation of terminologies should strictly abide by the standard of
information equivalence in translation (Liu, 2004), which means that the translation
should be concise and standardized, keeping the amount of information and avoiding
mistranslation or under-translation. Adopting unified and standard terminologies for the
concept of repetitive things is the basic requirement of translation work (Fang, 2011).
So the technical and semi-technical words in the source text are collected and collated
17
into a corpus built by the translator to guarantee the target language’s coherence and
consistency.
For the translation of technical words, literal translation is chosen with the help of
the internet and professional dictionaries so as to make the translation of such words
accurate and direct. In addition to the traditional English-Chinese-English dictionaries,
the trustee recommended an online professional dictionary to the translator called Civil
Aviation Assistant. This online dictionary contains more than 400,000 terminologies in
civil aviation. The vocabulary sources include several authoritative professional
dictionaries, such as the Aircraft Common Expressions Dictionary, the Chinese-English
Dictionary of Aviation Engineering, the English-Chinese Dictionary of Civil Aviation,
and the English-Chinese Mechanical Dictionary. Also, the Chinese-English Bilingual
list of ATA-100 specifications is of great help. ATA-100 is a specification specifically
compiled by the American Air Transport Association (ATA) with aviation
manufacturers and airlines to unify the numbering of international technical data,
documents, telegrams, or reports, in the use, maintenance, and other aspects of various
civil aircraft products.
With the help of these professional materials, literal translation and paraphrase
translation are adopted. The specific case studies are as follows.
(1) Literal translation

The literal translation is to translate something word-for-word, which requires the
translator to express the source text’s meaning and be consistent with the source text. As
for the source text, this translation method is appropriate for technical words that have
conventional meanings in the target language.
Example 1
ST:
Remove left-hand switch and harness assembly (140) by removing two screws
(145), washers (150), and lock washers (155).
TT:
拆下两个螺丝（145）、垫圈（150）和锁紧垫圈（155），然后拆下左侧开关
和线束（140）。
18
Example 2
ST:
Slide heat shrink tubing into place over connection and shrink in place using a heat
gun (Table 601).
TT:
将热缩管滑至连接处，使用热风枪（表 601）将其加热收缩到位。
These two examples are selected from DISASSEMBLE and REPAIR respectively
of the source text. The terminologies include “switch”, “harness”, “screw”, “washer”,
and so on. As a maintenance manual, it is normal to have terms like various parts and
tools. The translation of these words has already existed and needs only be translated
literally according to the dictionary. The translation of technical words is very routine.
The only thing to ensure is that the target text should be straightforward and exact. So
the analysis of this text feature needs no further elaboration.
(2) Paraphrase translation

The paraphrase translation is to translate the actual meaning, which is adopted for
the translation of semi-technical words because these words have special meanings in
the professional field.
Example 3
ST:
Cut the cable tie (105) holding the vent tubing (110), then remove the vent
tubing(110) from the vent elbow of the flush valve assembly (240 or 240A).
TT:
剪断固定排气管（110）的电缆扎带(105)，将其从冲洗阀组件（240 或 240A）
的沟槽弯头处拆下。
Example 4
ST:
Disassemble the stack of planet gears, gear ring (25), carrier shaft (75), and plate
housing (15) from the stator (95) and end bell (85) as follows.
TT:
19
从定子（95）及端盖（85）处拆下行星齿轮、齿轮环（25）、支撑轴（75）
及外壳板（15）组套。
As for the translation of semi-technical words, Wu (2018) states that they cannot
be translated directly according to their literal meanings, so the translator needs to
search information and figure out the true meaning of these words so that the target
readers can have a better understanding. Example 3 and 4 are both from
DISASSEMBLY, and the special words are “vent elbow”, “plate housing” and “end
bell”. If the three phrases are translated literally, they will probably be like “通风肘”,
“ 底板房 ”, and “ 终端铃 ”, which obviously make no sense. So it is necessary to
paraphrase them and present their essential meanings.
Take “vent elbow” as an example. In the current context, the word “elbow”
obviously does not refer to a part of the body, but to a component of the vacuum toilet.
The dictionary interprets “elbow” as a part of a pipe, and the translation can be “弯处”
or “弯头”. The word “vent” has no other meaning, which means “通风孔” or “排气口”.
By combining these translating words, the translation names are a lot, such as “通风孔
弯处” and “排气口弯头”. Which translation is the most simple and straightforward one?
Or is there a more plain translation? The translator believes that for all the terminologies
in such a professional field, the simplest and most straightforward translation is the one
most commonly used by the targer readers.
Therefore, the translator first selected all the possible appropriate translation of
these terms according to the dictionaries and parallel texts. After sorting out all the
terminologies, the translator sent the English-Chinese glossary list to a professional
maintenance engineer for review and proofreading. The specific revision of the
translation of terminologies is shown in Chapter 5.1.
4.1.2 Transference to Abbreviations

In Chapter 2.2.1, the reasons for the use of abbreviations and the categories of the
abbreviations have already been analyzed. Abbreviations have the characteristics of
conciseness and clarity. If translated into Chinese, these words will be very lengthy, so
they remain untranslated in many cases. The translation methods to abbreviations
should be flexibly chosen according to the different target readers (Bao, 2020). When
translating maintenance manuals, operation manuals, or checklists, the target readers are
20
civil aviation practitioners with solid professional knowledge, and civil aviation
abbreviations are often used in their work, so the translation of abbreviations can be
simplified, adopting zero translation, for example.
Zero translation is one of the commonly-adopted methods when translating
abbreviations. Notably, zero translation is not equal to non-translation. There are two
types of zero translation: absolute zero translation and relative zero translation (Liu,
2002). Absolute zero translation refers to achieving the translatable effect without using
the words in the target language, and the common methods include omission and
transference; relative zero translation means using target language words flexibly to
present the meaning of the source language words, such as transliteration,
sound-meaning combination translation, literal translation with notes, adaptation and so
on.
The source text is a professional maintenance manual in aviation industry and the
target readers are maintenance personnel with abundant civil aviation knowledge, so it
is reasonable to remain the abbreviations as untranslated, that is to say, zero translation
is adoptable. Besides, in order to make the translation direct and simple, absolute zero
translation is more suitable in this translation practice. As for the methods involved in
absolute zero translation, omission is obviously inappropriate because it will cause
information gaps. Thus, transference is adopted to make the information retrieval as
straightforward as possible. Specific case studies are as follows.
Example 5
ST:
Disconnect the switch and harness S1 assembly (IPL Figure 5, item 140) connector
P5 from the FCU Board (IPL Figure 4, item 160) connector JU5.
TT1:
将开关和线束 S1（图解零件清单图 5，第 140 项）连接器 P5 从冲水控制组件
板（图解零件清单图 4，第 160 项）的接头 JU5 处断开。
TT2:
将开关和线束 S1（IPL 图 5，第 140 项）连接器 P5 从 FCU 板（IPL 图 4，第
160 项）的接头 JU5 处断开。
Example 6
21
ST:
If the shortened length of the wiring will not meet the mating connector without
strain, splice in a length of wire to make up the difference according to the methods,
techniques and practices shown in AC43.13-1B change 1, Chapter 11, sections 13
through 19, or those shown in CASA AC 21-99(0).
TT1:
如果剪短后的导线长度在没有拉紧的情况下无法与配对接头连接，则可按照
《咨询通告 43.13-1B》第 11 章第 13-19 节中所示方法、技术与操作法，或《澳大
利亚民航安全局咨询通告 21-99(0)》中所示的方法、技术与操作法，对导线长度进
行补充。
TT2:
如果剪短后的导线长度在没有拉紧的情况下无法与配对接头连接，则可按照
《AC 43.13-1B》第 11 章第 13-19 节中所示方法、技术与操作法，或《CASA
AC21-99(0)》中所示的方法、技术与操作法，对导线长度进行补充。
Examples 5 and 6 are extracted from DISASSEMBLE and REPAIR, respectively.

One thing needs to be clear before the analysis. Although some terms can also be
abbreviated to abbreviations, this does not mean that terminologies and abbreviations
are equivalent. They are two different concepts. That’s why they are discussed
separately. Abbreviations pay more attention to the simplification of expression while
the terms emphasize the clear meaning in a certain field.
In civil aviation, the timeliness of cockpit work and the simplicity of land and air
communication, flight English has more abbreviations (Zhang, 2006). Abbreviations are
commonly used, at least for a certain period or field. If it is not commonly used, there is
no need to create an abbreviated form. Therefore, the abbreviations appeared in this
highly professional maintenance manual because the compilers of the manual acquiesce
that the users of the manual are familiar with these abbreviations, which once again
provides support for the translator to adopt transference to these abbreviations.
Transference refers to transplanting the source language into the target language intact.
In example 5, “IPL” is the abbreviation of “Illustrated Parts List”, which means
“图解零件清单” and “FCU” is the abbreviated form of “Flush Control Unit”, which
means “冲水控制组件”. TT1 is gotten with the full names of the abbreviations being
translated, while TT2 has adopted the translation method of transference. Comparing
22
the two target texts, it is evident that TT2 is simpler and more direct in obtaining
information. In addition, abbreviations such as “IPL” and “FCU” repeatedly appear in
this manual, so there will be no such situation that these words will cause reading
comprehension obstacles to the reader.
In example 6, “AC” refers to “Advisory Circular”, which means “咨询通告”. In
the source text, the abbreviation is followed by specific chapter and section information,
so it can be inferred that “AC43.13-1B” is the name of a manual or book.
“AC43.13-1B” is issued by the US Federal Aviation Administration, Department of
Transportation, to inspect and repair non-pressurized areas of civil aircraft only without
manufacturer maintenance or maintenance instructions. Similarly, “CASA AC
21-99(0)” is a detailed manual published by Aircraft Technical Book Company
approved by the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) to provide in-depth
guidance on aircraft electrical work, covering topics raging from aged wiring inspection
to modern fiber optic installation, inspection, and repair. Therefore, as shown in TT1,
translating “AC43.13-1B” into 《咨询通告 43.13-1B 》 or translating “CASA
AC21-99(0)” into《澳大利亚民航安全局咨询通告 21-99(0)》is not only meaningless
but will create barriers to understanding for the users. From the point of view of
information acquisition, TT2 is more direct and convenient as well.
In the case of the two examples of abbreviation, the language forms of “IPL”,
“FCU”, “AC,” and “CASA AC” are retained, making the translation more
straightforward and plainer and also in accord with the characteristics of informative
text.
4.1.3 Omission to Table-Related Materials

The translation of tables should pay attention not only to the typesetting in the
target text but also to the content of the table. Regarding typesetting, the target text will
remain in the same format as the source text so that the order of the page numbers will
not be disturbed. As far as content is concerned, this section will discuss the two main
characteristics of the tables in the source text, which have already been analyzed in
Chapter 2.1.3. One is about two units of weights and measurements, and the other is
about the large number of proper nouns, which includes the manufacturers’ names and
the products’ type specifications.
23
First, the source text is a maintenance manual for maintenance personnel from
different countries to refer to, so it is not surprising that there are weights and measures
with two kinds of units in the source text. The conversion of weights and measures is a
key point in translation so as not to cause deviation in data and understanding. Although
the units are different, measurement words are basically one-to-one correspondence. In
the source text, all weights and measurements are in English units, but with metric
equivalents in brackets, so the source text has already been converted. Thus, the target
text can directly use the converted units that are in line with Chinese reading habits. For
the unneeded units, to achieve a desired purpose in the target language culture, it is
advisable to adopt a way of expression that conforms to the cultural point of view and
language habits (Zheng, 2004). Therefore, it is essential to make necessary deletions to
the source text. Thus, the method of omission can be adopted.
Second, the names of materials, specifications, and source companies in the table
all belong to proper nouns. Associating the text typology with the purpose of the
translation behavior, Hu (2006) proposed five methods for translating proper nouns,
including adopting established popular translation, back-translation, transliteration,
omission, and annotation. The premise of adopting the popular translated names is that
proper nouns have fixed translated names in China. However, some of the proper nouns
listed in the table are niche brands or have not yet been introduced in China, so this
method can not be applied to all proper nouns. Back-translation refers to the
re-translation of the text that has already been translated into another language back to
the source language. It is also a re-localization of the source language culture expressed
in another language (Yang & Yang, 2012). Obviously, for the source text, a manual
written by foreign experts, there is no translation from Chinese to a foreign language, so
this method does not apply to this translation practice. For proper nouns without popular
translated names, compared with omission, the translator prefers to adopt transference,
that is, to retain their original form, neither addition nor deduction. The purpose of this
choice is to ensure that the format and page number of the table will not be confused so
that the information can be presented more directly, so annotation or omission are not
adopted. Besides, if transliteration is carried out, it will make the translation
unprofessional and create obstacles for people who really want to get the source of
product information.
24
Therefore, considering comprehensively, the translator adopts the method of

omission, transference, and adopting the established popular translated names for
different text contents in tables. Here is a case to exemplify.
Example 7
ST:
Table 601: Repair Equipment (Continued)
Equipment’s Specification
Range
Source Representative
Equipment Characteristics Accuracy
or Type
Tolerance
CAGE (Model, Part No)
Code
Heat gun 120 VAC 400W / Weller 1095

1000W
790° / 1200° (V34772)
Oven 0 - 800° F Commercially available

(0 - 425° C)
Pin insertion/ 22 - 28 AWG Tyco Electronics Corp. 91067-1

extraction AMP Products Inc. (green/white)
tool
(V00779) -or-
M81969/1-01
25
TT:
表 601（续）：维修工具
规格
范围
特性厂家/CAGE 代表类型
工具精度
编码 (型号, 组件编码)
公差
热风枪 120 VAC 400W / 1000W Weller 1095

790° / 1200° (V34772)
烘箱 0 - 425° C 市面皆可
插针/ 22 - 28 AWG 泰科电子 91067-1

拔取工具安普 (绿/白)
(V00779) -或-
M81969/1-01
This table is selected from REPAIR and is analyzed in two parts. For the
translation of this table, this section discusses only two points, units of measurements
and proper nouns.
First, as for the units of measurement, the source text gives two kinds of units for
the temperature of the oven, Fahrenheit, and Celsius. As known to all, Chinese people
are used to expressing temperature in degrees Celsius, so for the Chinese maintenance
personnel, they only need to know the information about Celsius, while Fahrenheit is
deleted. It not only provides great convenience for Chinese readers to get the correct
information in a quick manner, but can also prevent misreading.
Second, as for the translation of proper nouns in the table, it mainly focuses on the
translation of the source names. As seen from the table, there are three proper nouns.
Through searching on the Internet, it is found that Weller has no popular translated
Chinese name, so it retains its form. Meanwhile, Tyco Electronics entered the Chinese
market in 1989 and also has factories in China, which is a more well-known domestic
enterprise. At the same time, AMP Products Inc. is a subsidiary of Tyco and an
extensive global enterprise with a conventional Chinese name. Therefore, for the three
26
proper nouns in this table, one is translated by transference, remaining Weller. Two
names are translated into their popular translated names in Chinese market: Tyco as 泰
科电子 and AMP as 安普.
The translated table is basically coherent with the source table format. Besides, as
for the translation of the terminologies and abbreviations apperaed in this table, they all
adopt the translation methods mentioned above, as detailed in Chapter 4.1.1 and 4.1.2.
4.2 Translation for Explicitness as Required

“Explicitness as required” is another so-called “translation method” proposed by
Reiss for informative texts. However, as already analyzed in Chapter 3, this “method” is
also believed to be an effect that the target text need to meet to achieve functional
equivalence. “Explicitness” refers to clear, unequivocal, and in detail. In order to meet
this, it may be necessary to adjust the sentence order, add logical words, and so on, but
this does not conflict with “plain prose” stated in Chapter 4.1. Because Reiss put
forward the point of “explicitness” with a limited condition, that is, “as required”. Thus,
“explicitness” can be carried out at an appropriate time. In the translation process, the
translator deals with short sentences, impersonal sentences, and passive sentences in the
source text to make the translation achieve “explicitness as required.”
4.2.1 Combination to Short Sentences Describing Steps

There are many simple-structural short sentences in the maintenance manual, but
this section only describes those containing specific steps of operation. As analyzed in
Chapter 2.1.4, there are two cases of short sentences describing steps. In the case shown
in Fig.2-2 (a), each step given in each line is so clear that there is no need for further
explicitness, so these short sentences are not specially translated and can be translated in
a general way. This section pays more attention on the situation shown in Fig.2-2 (b),
which means that each point contains more than two short sentences, and there are no
conjunctions between them.
Although the sentence structure of the maintenance manual is very simple, it does
not mean that the arrangement of these sentences is random. In a manual, the sentences
are as simple as possible for average logical analysis and expression (Liu, 2004).
Informative translation emphasizes the transmission of information and meaning, and it
requires breaking the shell of the language to take out the essence of its content.
27
Therefore, syntax as the shell of the language should be abandoned entirely, which
means that the target text does not have to adhere to the source text’s form in a rigorous
way. The maintenance manual belongs to a kind of sci-tech text. The format of sci-tech
English text is basically similar to that of sci-tech books, including cover, copyright
page, warranty page, catalog, chapter content, index, and back cover, and the content is
arranged strictly in the order of install, test/debug, operation,
maintenance/troubleshooting, and warranty (Zeng, 2004). Similarly, the specific
contents of an operation manual are acted out in light of the sequence of the operation
steps, which is the inherent logic between these short sentences.
Therefore, for these seemingly fragmentary but logically-tight short sentences, it is
appropriate to adopt the translation method of combination, that is, translating these few
short and scattered sentences into one sentence. The sentences presented in the source
text are already the core components with the simplest structure and the clearest
semantics. Combining short sentences to explicate the deep logic between them can not
only help users quickly find the focus of the operation according to the correct sequence
but also avoid information loss or misunderstanding. The surface structure of the target
text obtained by combination is a free expression transformed by the deep structure,
which can ensure the smoothness of the translation as much as possible (Shi & du,
2004). Smoothness, namely being organized and without any doubts or confusions,
which is in line with Reiss’s requirements for explicitness. Two cases are selected as
follows.
Example 8
ST:
Apply a thin coat of 111 lubricant (Table 702) to O-ring (200) before installation.
Place the O-ring (200) into position between the bowl (275 or 275A) and the bowl
elbow (205).
TT1：
在 O 形环（200）上涂一层薄薄的 111 润滑剂（表 702）。把 O 形环（200）
置于桶身（275 或 275A）与外牙弯头（205）之间。
TT2:
在 O 形环（200）上涂一层薄薄的 111 润滑剂（表 702），置于桶身（275 或
275A）与外牙弯头（205）之间。
28
Example 9
ST：
Affix one end of the vent tubing (110) into the flush valve’s vent elbow (IPL
Figure 4, 25). Affix the other end of the vent tubing (110) to the vertical upright (160)
using a cable tie. (105).
TT1:
将排水管（110）的一端固定到冲洗阀的沟槽弯头上（IPL 图 4，25）。将排
水管（110）的另一端用电缆扎带固定到立柱（160）上。（105）
TT2:
将排水管（110）的一端固定到冲洗阀的沟槽弯头上（IPL 图 4，25），另一
端用电缆扎带固定到立柱（160）上。（105）
Both examples are taken from ASSEMBLY. The source text numbers each
operating object because, with so many components, numbering is to help maintenance
personnel find the correct parts and the corresponding location, which also provides
help and guidance for combination. For example, in the source text, there are two short
sentences in ASSEMBLY said that “Apply a thin coat of 111 lubricant (Table 702) to
O-ring (235) before installation. Place the O-ring (200) in position between the flush
valve assembly (240 or 240A) and the bowl elbow (205)”. If carelessly, the two
sentences will very likely be combined together, but the two sentences do not refer to
the same object: one is the O-ring numbered 235, and the other is the O-ring numbered
200, so the combination cannot be adopted.
Back to the cases, although there are no conjunction words between these
sentences, the operation objects guided by the sentences are the same: Example 8 is for
the operation of the O-ring (200), and Example 9 is for the operation of vent tubing
(110). Therefore, they both meet the primary condition of adopting the translation
method of combination. In Example 8, the two sentences seem to perform two
operations, but they are actually two steps under one operation. The logic of TT1 is
obviously not as explicit as that of TT2. In addition, because of the repeated appearance
of the O-ring (200) in TT1, it will take the maintenance personnel more time to process
information, thus reducing the reading efficiency. After combining the two short
sentences, the target text is more coherent and organized. The same is for Example 9.
Since both ends of the same vent tubing (110) are operated, there is no need for
29
structural redundancy and fuzzy logic, as in TT1. Therefore, the combination translation
method is adopted for the short sentences with the same operation object and listed
under the same point in the source text.
4.2.2 Addition to Vigilant Imperative Sentences

In analyzing the mood structure of English imperatives, Halliday divides
imperative sentences into three types according to their functions: jussive, optative, and
causative (He, 2004). For the source text, almost all imperative sentences belong to the
category of jussive sentences with the second-person hidden. The extensive use of
imperative sentences is one of the significant textual features of the maintenance manual.
Although most of the short sentences, as analyzed in 4.2.1, are imperative as well, this
section is concerned with those sentences with vigilance meanings, in other words,
sentences guided by vigilant words such as WARNING and CAUTION. Such sentences
repeatedly appear in the source text and are in the form of full-text capitalization,
sometimes in bold. This is exactly what He (2004) pointed out that there is no mood
structure in the unmarked form of the second-person imperative sentence, but when it is
used for emphasis, various marked forms will be used, and the capital and bold format
in the source text is the marked point of this kind of sentences. Usually, such sentences
are used as a special reminder of a specific operation step.
In a sense, aircraft maintenance is also a high-risk occupation, and casualties
caused by various improper operations occur from time to time, so the language used in
the maintenance manual should be extremely careful. If the translation only concerns
the source language but ignores the target readers and their information acceptance
habits and psychology, no matter how faithful the translation is to the source text, it will
discount the purpose and the effectiveness of the target text (Yuan, 2005). For the
vigilant imperative sentences talking in this section, the biggest difference between
Chinese and English lies in modality. Modality can be divided into epistemic and
deontic, according to Lyons’s classification. The epistemic modality is generally about
the credibility of knowledge, while the deontic modality is about the the moral subject’s
morally permissible degree of behaviors (Li, 2000). The source of moral modality, for
the source text, is the compilers of the maintenance manual, who have absolute
authority and constraining force to remind users to strengthen their vigilance and sense
of responsibility to minimize the possibility of accidents. Cases are studied below.
30
Example 10
ST:
CAUTION: DO NOT ALLOW OVEN TEMPERATURE TO EXCEED 800º F
(427° C) OR DAMAGE TO THE BOWL MAY RESULT.
TT1:
特别提醒：烘箱温度不要超过 427°C，否则可能会对桶身造成损坏。
TT2:
警诫：烘箱温度切勿超过 427°C，以免对桶身造成损坏。
Example 11
ST:
WARNING: USE SOLVENT IN A WELL-VENTILATED AREA AWAY
FROM FLAME. AVOID BREATHING FUMES. FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH
THIS WARNING CAN RESULT IN INJURY OR DEATH TO PERSONNEL.
TT1:
警告: 使用溶剂时在通风良好远离明火的地方。避免吸入烟雾。不依从本条
警告会造成人员受伤甚至死亡。
TT2:
警告: 使用溶剂时请务必保持良好的通风条件并远离明火，避免烟雾摄入，
以免造成人员受伤甚至死亡。
Example 10 is extracted from REPAIR and Example 11 is from CLEANING. The

traditional Eastern culture often lay emphasis on the individual’s sense of duty for
society, respect for authority, and strict requirements for subordinates. This tendency is
reflected in the frequent use of high-value modal verbs such as “应该”, “必须” and “切
记 ” to express authority and responsibility, which is particularly evident in Chinese
product manuals and instructions (Meng, 2015). English tends to consider consumers’
psychology of acceptance and use a more euphemistic or polite tone to convey intention.
Chinese usually tends to express a strong meaning of responsibility and subjective
compulsion. In the description of reminding consumers to pay attention, there are
always high-value modal expressions such as “千万” and “不许” to remind consumers
to pay attention from the perspective of professional authority (Li, 2012).
31
Therefore, the different ways of thinking of users in different cultural backgrounds

lead to their different preferences for acceptance and interpretation. When translating
the meaning of modality, the readers’ reactions to different modal orientations should
take into account. Comparing TT1 with TT2, it is obvious that TT2 is more explicit and
clear in conveying information and, more importantly, arousing the users’ vigilance by
adding high-value modal words such as “切勿”, “以免” and “务必”, and adopting the
translation method of combination, which is introduced previously, for the translation of
short sentences. Of course, for the unnecessary unit conversions, like 800º F, are deleted,
which is also described in 4.1.3.
After communicating with professional maintenance personnel, the translator
learned that the content of WARNING is mainly about possible harm to people, while
the content of CAUTION is more about possible harm to aircraft, which are confirmed
by the two examples given in this section. The translator believes that the content led by
WARNING and CAUTION plays such an important role that it may not be enough to
serve as a warning if only keeping the format of the source text. Therefore, the
translator tried to apply the color level of meteorological disaster early warning signals,
under the principle of people-oriented, colored WARNING and its guided content in red.
Red has a strong visual impact, which can sharply contrast with other black characters,
thus playing a strong reminder role. As for CAUTION, the translator puts it in orange,
whose importance is only below red. There are also some sentences guided by NOTE,
the main contents of which are matters needing attention in operation, which are also
colored blue by the translator to serve as a reminder. However, such a translation is
opposed by the trustor, believing that the rich use of colors might distract the
maintenance staff from reading, thus having the opposite effect, thus, the translator did
not retain the color in the final target text.
4.2.3 Conversion to Passive Sentences

Passive sentences in English are more objective and impersonal. This feature, on
the one hand, shows that the speakers have an objective attitude towards the question,
so it is more euphemistic; on the other hand, scientific and technological texts often
describe an objective phenomenon or process. The source text is undoubtedly a kind of
scientific and technological articles, so there are a large number of passive sentences in
32
this manual. For the translation of passive sentences, conversion is one of the most
common translation methods. Because the probability of using passive voice in Chinese
is minimal, thus it would be better to make passive sentences conform to Chinese
reading habits and convert them into active voice. In addition, the purpose of conversion
is to adjust the word order to highlight the focus of information, making the translation
more logical and organized.
When translating scientific and technological articles, if lacking relevant
knowledge, it is not difficult to miss the focus of information in the source text so that
the information of the target text is disordered or the amount of information is reduced,
and the readers will be confused (Liu, 2004). If so, the translation is missing the point of
explicitness regarding the translation of informative texts. Therefore, when translating
passive sentences, the method of conversion is not only for the voice of the sentence but
also for the sentence pattern, that is, the conversion of word order.
Example 12
ST:
Parts may be cleaned using a steam cleaner or pressure washer if the operator
determines that they are safe for such procedures.
TT1:
在确保操作安全的前提下，零部件可以用蒸汽清洗设备或高压冲水机来清洁。
TT2:
在确保操作安全的前提下，可使用蒸汽清洗设备或高压冲水机对零部件进行
清洁。
Example 13
ST:
To guard against damage, moisture, and debonding, a clear protective coating
(Table 602) may be applied over the placard, sealing all edges.
TT1:
为防止损坏、受潮和脱落，透明保护涂料（表 602）可涂一层在标牌上，密封
所有边缘。
TT2:
33
可在标牌上涂上一层透明的保护涂料（表 602）以防损坏、受潮和脱落，密封
标语牌所有边缘。
At least one-third of the predicates in science and technology English (EST) use
the passive voice. The reason is that the writing purpose of EST is to emphasize the
object, which refers to the passive components in the passive structure, aiming to attract
the attention of the target readers. Second, it is sometimes difficult to point out the
issuer of a specific behavior that does not affect the expressive requirements of EST.
Third, since English is a language that emphasizes syntactic structure and expression
style, the extensive use of passive structure contributes to the coherent cohesion of
sentences in proper order; and fourth, the use of passive voice conforms to the
politeness principle and semantic connotation. But in both cases, the word “被” does not
appear in TT2.
In fact, the most significant difference between TT1 and TT2 is not reflected in
the conversion of voice but in the word order. As has been analyzed before, when
translating passive sentences, the conversion is about changing the voice and the word
order to highlight the information center of the sentence. Example 12 is selected from
CLEANING. Of course, the focus of the sentence is the tools used for cleaning, so it is
evident that “a steam cleaner or pressure washer” is the focus of the sentence,
emphasizing the cleaning tools that can be used in a specific scene, so the language of
TT2 is more apparent than that of TT1. Similarly, Example 13 comes from REPAIR,
and the source text places the “placard”, that is, the object of maintenance mentioned in
this sentence, at the back of the sentence, while TT1 is dealt with in the same way.
When reading this translation, it is difficult for the users to find the focus of the
sentence correctly, while the word order structure of TT2 is more explicit and
organized.
34
Chapter 5 Conclusion
This translation task, entrusted by Dong Ke Xin Airline Automation Equipment

Co., Ltd., is to translate the maintenance manual for the vacuum toilet in civil aircraft
from Chinese to English. Guiding by Text Typology of Katharina Reiss, the E-C
translation of the Component Maintenance Manual-Vacuum Toilet has been completed.
This chapter collects the review from the entrusting party and concludes the
implications and limitations based on the translation and the corresponding discussion
over the whole translation task.
5.1 Review from the Trustor

Submitting the translation to the entrusting party for review is of great importance
in the post-translation stage. It is a key step in testing the quality of the target text as
well. The translator submitted the translation and the bilingual glossary of terminologies
to the trustor after finishing the task. The comments and suggestions on revision are
concluded as follows.
(1) The translation of the terms are basically correct, though some have more
authentic expressions in the actual operation scene. The modifications of the
terminologies are listed in Table 5-1 (also in alphabetic order), and the final determined
expressions are as detailed in Appendix I.
Table 5-1 Revision of the Terminologies
English Chinese Revision

alcohol 酒精乙醇
ball 小球滚珠
break 间隙缝隙
caution 特别提醒警诫
drip loop 水落环管滴水回路
enclosure 围罩外罩
equipment 设备工具
float 浮子浮球阀
ground lug 接地片接地带
harness 导线线束
heat sink 散热装置散热器
knife 刀刀具
35
Table 5-1 Revision of the Terminologies (Continued)
English Chinese Revision

mounting bracket 安装支架托架
needle nose pliers 针头钳尖嘴钳
outlet 排放口接口
parent metal 母体金属母材
pin 管脚插销
primer 底层涂料底漆
ring terminal 环形端子 O 形端子
ring terminal connector 环形端子接头 O 形端子接头
shim 楔子垫片
strain relief 应变消除应力释放
tie 金属丝扎带
washer 衬垫垫圈
(2) It is advisable to adopt zero translation in the translation of abbreviations,

which is in line with the characteristics and requirements of the civil aviation
maintenance manual.
(3) The target text retains the format of the original manual. Also, the page
numbers of the Chinese and English manuals are consistent. In general, the translation is
qualified.
5.2 Implications
First, in the stage of pre-translation analysis, the translator made a detailed analysis
of the source text from the text features, text genre, and text style and draws the
conclusion that the source text has six main text features, including terminologies in the
aviation field, abbreviations in the aviation industry, tables involving materials, short
sentences describing steps, vigilant imperative sentences and passive sentences, which
are six key points to notice in translation as well. According to these textual
characteristics, it can be concluded that the genre of the source text belongs to the
practical text that provides information and reference for maintenance personnel. Based
on the text features and its genre, it can be analyzed that the text style is to maximize the
36
convenience for maintenance personnel to extract essential information suitable for a

particular problem from the manual.
Based on the thorough analysis of the source text, Reiss’s text typology theory is
chosen as the theoretical basis of this practice. Obviously, the source text is a typical
informative text. In translation, a two-phase approach is involved in this theory,
including the analysis stage and the re-verbalization stage. The analysis stage generally
includes the analysis of the text type, genre, and style; the re-verbalization stage is
basically about the adopting of appropriate translation methods. The translation methods
adopted for informative texts, as proposed by Reiss, are “plain prose” and “explicitness
as required”. However, the translator believes that these two so-called “translation
methods” are two translation effects that informative texts should achieve, and the
specific translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation,
should be chosen in line with actual situations.
In the case study of the fourth chapter, based on the six key points of the original
text, the translator discusses the translation objects that need to achieve the “plain
prose” effect and the translation objects that need to be dealt with “explicitness”, and
adopts appropriate translation methods for specific analysis. They are summarized as
follows.
For the translation achieving plain prose:
(1) Literal translation for technical words, and paraphrase translation for
semi-technical words;
(2) Transference for abbreviations;
(3) Omission for rarely-used units and transference for proper nouns without
popular translated names.
And for the translation for explicitness as required:
(4) Combination for short sentences describing steps;
(5) Addition for vigilant imperative sentences;
(6) Conversion of the voice and the word order for passive sentences.
Since the source text is entrusted out of the need of the company, so there is no
other Chinese translation of this maintenance manual on the market at present.
Therefore, this report is moderately unique. In addition, most practical or applied texts
seldom use Reiss’s text typology theory, but Newmark’s text type theory is more widely
used. The translator believes that Reiss’s text type theory, which belongs to the
37
functional translation school, is more suitable for translating practical texts. Therefore,
this report provides new argumentation support for Reiss’s text typology theory in
translating practical texts such as this manual. Successfully, some related cases that are
suitable for the theory are found.
From this translation task, the translator has harvested something important. First,
for the translation of professional texts, in the absence of relevant professional
knowledge background, appropriate supplements of professional knowledge in the
pre-translation stage, and a large reserve of parallel texts and verification tools are vital,
ensuring the translation efficiency and the quality of the target text. Second, as a
translator, the actual needs of the trustor should be fully taken into account, and the
trustor’s support should be found for some creative translation to maximize the practical
effect of the translation.
5.3 Limitations
This report provides a reference for the English-Chinese translation of similar
maintenance manuals. With the theoretical basis of Text Typology, this report could
finally be finished with much confidence. However, some limitations still exist.
First, since the content of the source text is restricted , the cases cited in this report
is not rich enough to cover all the situations in translating a manual, so the translation
methods adopted for this informative text are far from comprehensive. However, all the
cases selected in this report are typical, so what matters most to this report is not the
quantity of the cases, but the quality of the case analysis. Second, although the source
text is categorized as an informative text, it can not be denied that it still has some
characteristics of an operational text, so the strict distinction of text types is an eternal
problem.
Given that the translation of maintenance manuals requires a general ability to
learn different subjects, it is crucial to collect information effectively with an excellent
command of languages. Besides, there are many other translation strategies of manuals
that are worth learning and using for reference as well. In translation, not only does the
text type need to be considered, but also the requirements of the trustor, the function of
the translation, and other non-linguistic factors.
38
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41
Appendix I Bilingual Glossary of Terminologies
*The words in this table are arranged in alphabetical order.
English Chinese
abrasive pad 百洁布
acetone 丙酮
air charger 充气阀
alcohol 乙醇
anti-seize compound 防粘剂
armature 电枢
assembly 组件/装配
back housing 后壳体
backshell 底壳
ball 滚珠
barrier material 拦阻材料
bearing 轴承
bezel nut 盖母
binding 卡顿
bleach 漂白剂
bolt 螺栓
bowl 桶身
bowl elbow 外牙弯头
bracket 托架
break 缝隙
brush holder 刷握
bushing 衬套
cable tie 电缆扎带
cable tie installation tool 系缆具
calcium hypochlorite 次氯酸钙
cam 凸轮
42
cap 盖子
carrier shaft 支撑轴
catch basin 蓄水槽
caution 警诫
chafing 擦伤
characteristic 特性/性能
chlorine 氯漂白剂
coil 线圈
connector 接头
contact 接点
cotter pin 开口销
cover 罩壳
crack 裂缝
crimping tool 卷边工具
cure 固化
curved mounting plate 骑马卡
cut 割纹
defect 故障
de-magnetization 去磁反应
dent 凹痕
desiccant 干燥剂
disassembly 拆卸
distortion 变形
drain valve 疏水阀
drill bit 钻头
drip loop 滴水回路
electrical connection 电气连接
electrical short 电气短路
electrical wiring 电力线路
enclosure 外罩
end bell 端盖
equipment 工具
43
ether 醚类
excessive wear 过度磨损
external retaining ring 轴用弹性挡圈
extraction 拔取
face seal 端面密封件
fashion 成...（形）
fastener 紧固件
fault 故障
fault isolation 排故
fiberglass 玻璃纤维
finish coat 面漆
fixture 夹具
flanged bushing 法兰衬垫
float 浮球阀
fluoride 氟化物
flush valve 排水阀
fracture 断裂
fraying 磨损
front plate 前隔板
gasket 密封垫
gear 齿轮
general 概况
grit 细度
grommet 金属圈
ground lug 接地带
ground points 接地点
grounding strap 接地母线
harness 线束
heat gun 热风枪
heat shrinking tubing 热缩管
heat sink 散热器
housing 外壳
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hydrocarbon solvent 碳氢化合物溶剂

inspection 检查
insulator card 绝缘穿孔卡片
isopropyl 异丙基
knife 刀具
limit switch actuator 限位开关驱动齿轮
lock washer 锁紧垫圈
lockwire 保险丝
loose scale 疏松氧化皮
lug 接线片
male elbow fitting 外螺纹外牙弯头接口
marker sleeve 管套
material 材料
methyl-ketone 甲基酮
milliohmmeter 毫欧表
motor brush 电机电刷
motor mount housing 电机外壳
mounting bracket 托架
mounting pin 安装销
mounting tab 零部件
nature 性质/条件
needle nose pliers 尖嘴钳
neoprene 氯丁橡胶
nick 裂纹
note 注意
nut 螺母
outlet 接口
outlet adapter 接口转接器
outlet elbow 立体三通接头
oven 烘箱
overhaul 全面检修
overview 综述
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paint 涂装/涂料
parent metal 母材
pedestal 底座
personnel 维修人员
pin 插销
pin insertion 插针
planetary gear 行星齿轮
plate 托盘
plate housing 外壳板
plate positioning gear 定位板
poppet 提升活门
poppet valve 提升阀
poppet valve seal 提升阀密封圈
pressure sensitive backing 压敏背衬
primer 底漆
rear plate 后隔板
retaining ring 固定环
ring terminal O 形端子
ring terminal connector O 形端子接头
rinse valve 冲洗阀
RTV 室温硫化硅橡胶
rubber 橡胶
rupture 破裂
safety wire 保险丝
sandblaster 喷砂器
sanitary 卫生
schematics 电路图
scoring 划痕
screen 格网
sealant 密封胶
sealing compound 密封剂
shaft 轴杆
46
shim 薄垫片
shop 交付检修
silicone base 硅基
slide plate 推板
socket 插座
solenoid valve 电磁阀
source 厂家
specification 规格
spring retainer 弹簧固定器
standoff 支撑柱
stator 定子
stopwatch 码表
strain relief 应力释放
structural epoxy 环氧结构胶
stud 螺柱
switch 开关
switch actuating gear 开关驱动齿轮
switch actuator 开关致动器
swivel plate 旋转托盘
Tefolon 特佛龙
testing 测试
thermal protector 热保护器
threaded bolt 全螺纹牙棒
threadlocker 螺纹固定剂
threadlocking compound 防松螺纹油
tie 扎带
tie-wrap 系带
toilet bowl 马桶桶身
tolerance 公差
torque 扭矩
torque limit 扭矩限度
torsion spring 扭转弹簧
47
touch-up 补色
vacuum gauge 真空表
valve mounting bracket 阀门定位支架
vent elbow 沟槽弯头
vent tubing 排气管
visual 目视
warning 警告
washer 垫圈
watertight seal 水密密封
wear band 磨损带
wire harness 线束
wire stripping tool 剥线工具
wiring 导线
wiring diagram 线路图
48
Appendix II Source Text
*The source text is attached as a PNG file from the next page, retaining its format
and original coding.
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*为保留译文格式且不影响论文的整体排版，译文以图片的形式附上。
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莱斯文本类型理论指导下《真...维修手册》英汉翻译实践报告_康力

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电 子 科 技 大 学

UNIVERSITY OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF CHINA

申请学位级别 硕士 专业学位类别 翻译硕士

A Master Thesis Submitted to

University of Electronic Science and Technology of China

Discipline Master of Translation and Interpreting

Supervisor Tang Chaoju

School School of Foreign Languages

The civil aviation maintenance manual is a necessary technical documentation to

Keywords: Civil Aviation Maintenance Manual, Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology,

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................ 1

1.1 Task Background

1.2 Task Significance

1.3 Translation Process

Aviation Assistant” is found, in addition to the commonly used English-Chinese

Chapter 2 Analysis of the Source Text

Analyzing the source text is indispensable before starting translation. Generally

2.1 Analysis of the Text Features

2.1.1 Terminologies in Aviation Industry

Source Text Target Text

2.1.2 Abbreviations in Aviation Industry

2.1.3 Table-Related Materials

Fig. 2-1(a) Weights and Measurements with Two Units

Fig. 2-1(b) Proper Nouns

2.1.4 Short Sentences Describing Steps

Fig. 2-2(a) Short Sentences in Rinse Valve Assembly

Fig. 2-2(b) Short Sentences in Rinse Valve Assembly

2.1.5 Vigilant Imperative Sentences

Fig. 2-3 Vigilant Imperative Sentences

2.1.6 Passive Sentences

2.2 Analysis of the Text Genre

2.3 Analysis of the Text Style

Chapter 3 Theoretical Framework

Translation theory lays a foundation of a translation practice. Choosing an

3.1 Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology

3.1.1 Two-phase Approach in Translation

3.1.2 Translation Effects Towards Informative Texts

Table 3-1 Functional characteristics of text types and translation methods

Text type Informative Expressive Operative

Language dimension Logical Aesthetic Dialogic

Text focus Content-focused Form-focused Appellative-focused

3.2 Application of the Theory to the Translation

3.2.1 Plain Prose

3.2.2 Explicitness as Required

Chapter 4 Case Studies

4.1 Translation Achieving Plain Prose

4.1.1 Literal Translation and Paraphrase Translation to Terminologies

(1) Literal translation

(2) Paraphrase translation

4.1.2 Transference to Abbreviations

Examples 5 and 6 are extracted from DISASSEMBLE and REPAIR, respectively.

4.1.3 Omission to Table-Related Materials

Therefore, considering comprehensively, the translator adopts the method of

Heat gun 120 VAC 400W / Weller 1095

Oven 0 - 800° F Commercially available

Pin insertion/ 22 - 28 AWG Tyco Electronics Corp. 91067-1

热风枪 120 VAC 400W / 1000W Weller 1095

插针/ 22 - 28 AWG 泰科电子 91067-1

4.2 Translation for Explicitness as Required

电子科技大学

申请学位级别硕士专业学位类别翻译硕士