Practical 1 – uber ride

Sure, let's break down each task:

1. **Pre-process the dataset:**

- Handle missing values: Remove or impute missing values in the dataset.
- Convert categorical variables: Convert categorical variables (like pickup point, drop-off location)
into numerical representations using techniques like one-hot encoding.
- Normalize/Scale: Normalize or scale numerical features to ensure they are on a similar scale.

2. **Identify outliers:**
- Use statistical methods such as z-scores or IQR (Interquartile Range) to identify outliers.
- Remove or handle outliers appropriately, depending on the nature of the data and the outliers.

3. **Check the correlation:**

- Use correlation matrices to understand the linear relationship between variables.
- Identify highly correlated features and consider removing one of them to avoid multicollinearity.

4. **Implement linear regression and random forest regression models:**

- Split the dataset into training and testing sets.
- Train a linear regression model and a random forest regression model on the training set.
- Use libraries like scikit-learn in Python for implementation.

5. **Evaluate the models and compare their respective scores:**

- Use metrics like R-squared (R2), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE) to
evaluate model performance.
- For R-squared, a higher value indicates a better fit. For RMSE and MAE, lower values are desirable.
- Compare the performance of the linear regression and random forest regression models to choose
the one with better predictive capabilities.

**Definition of Terms:**
- **R-squared (R2):** A measure of how well the independent variables explain the variability in the
dependent variable. R2 values range from 0 to 1, where 1 indicates a perfect fit.

- **Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE):** The square root of the average of the squared differences
between predicted and actual values. It represents the standard deviation of the residuals.

- **Mean Absolute Error (MAE):** The average absolute differences between predicted and actual
values. It is less sensitive to outliers compared to RMSE.

- **Linear Regression:** A linear approach to modeling the relationship between a dependent

variable and one or more independent variables by fitting a linear equation to the observed data.

- **Random Forest Regression:** An ensemble learning method that constructs a multitude of

decision trees during training and outputs the average prediction of the individual trees for regression
problems.
Practical 2 – email
Certainly, let's go through the steps:

**1. Definition of Terms:**

- **Binary Classification:** A type of classification task where the goal is to categorize items into
two classes or groups (e.g., spam or not spam).
- **K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN):** A supervised machine learning algorithm for classification that
classifies a data point based on the majority class of its k-nearest neighbors.
- **Support Vector Machine (SVM):** A supervised machine learning algorithm that builds a
hyperplane to separate data into different classes, maximizing the margin between them.

**2. Email Spam Detection:**

- **Dataset Preparation:** Split the dataset into training and testing sets.
- **Feature Extraction:** Extract relevant features from emails, such as word frequency, presence
of certain keywords, etc.

**3. Implementation:**
- **K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN):**
- Train the KNN classifier on the training set.
- Tune hyperparameters, such as the number of neighbors (k).
- Evaluate the model on the testing set.

- **Support Vector Machine (SVM):**

- Train the SVM classifier on the training set.
- Tune hyperparameters, such as the choice of kernel and regularization parameters.
- Evaluate the model on the testing set.

**4. Performance Analysis:**

- **Metrics:**
- Use metrics like accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, and confusion matrix to analyze the
performance of each model.
- **Cross-Validation:**
- Perform cross-validation to ensure the robustness of the models.

**5. Interpretation:**
- **Accuracy:** The percentage of correctly classified instances.
- **Precision:** The ratio of true positives to the sum of true positives and false positives. It
measures the accuracy of positive predictions.
- **Recall (Sensitivity):** The ratio of true positives to the sum of true positives and false negatives.
It measures the ability of the model to capture all the relevant instances.
- **F1 Score:** The harmonic mean of precision and recall, providing a balance between the two.
- **Confusion Matrix:** A table that summarizes the performance of a classification algorithm.

**6. Conclusion:**
- Compare the performance of K-Nearest Neighbors and Support Vector Machine.
- Choose the model with better overall performance based on the chosen metrics.
Practical -3 Build neural networks

**1. Definition of Terms:**

- **Neural Network:** A computational model composed of layers of interconnected nodes (neurons) that
can learn patterns and relationships in data.
- **Classifier:** A model that assigns a label or category to input data.
- **Normalization:** Scaling features to a standard range, often between 0 and 1, to ensure consistent and
effective learning.

**2. Reading the Dataset:**

- Utilize a library like pandas to read and load the dataset.

**3. Distinguish Feature and Target Set:**

- Identify features (CreditScore, Geography, Gender, Age, Tenure, Balance, etc.).
- Define the target variable, indicating whether the customer will leave or not in the next 6 months.

**4. Divide the Dataset:**

- Split the dataset into training and testing sets using tools like scikit-learn.

**5. Normalize the Data:**

- Normalize both the training and testing sets to bring features to a standard scale.
- Common methods include Min-Max scaling or Standardization.

**6. Build the Neural Network Model:**

- Use a deep learning framework like TensorFlow or PyTorch.
- Define the architecture, specifying the number of layers, nodes, and activation functions.
- Compile the model with an appropriate loss function (e.g., binary cross-entropy for binary classification)
and optimizer.
- Train the model on the training set, specifying the number of epochs and batch size.

**7. Identify Points of Improvement:**

- Monitor the training process for signs of overfitting or underfitting.
- Experiment with hyperparameters (learning rate, batch size, number of layers) and consider techniques like
dropout or regularization to improve generalization.

**8. Evaluate the Model:**

- Assess the model's performance on the testing set using metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1
score.

**9. Print Accuracy Score and Confusion Matrix:**

- Calculate and print the accuracy score of the model on the test set.
- Generate and print the confusion matrix to evaluate true positives, true negatives, false positives, and false
negatives.

**10. Iterative Improvement:**

- Based on evaluation results, make iterative improvements to the model, adjusting hyperparameters or
model architecture.
Practical 4 k nearest neighbours on diabetes

Certainly, let's break down the steps and provide brief explanations of the terms:

**1. Definition of Terms:**

- **K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN):** A supervised machine learning algorithm used for classification.
It classifies a data point based on the majority class of its k-nearest neighbors.
- **Confusion Matrix:** A table used to evaluate the performance of a classification algorithm. It
shows the counts of true positives, true negatives, false positives, and false negatives.
- **Accuracy:** The ratio of correctly predicted instances to the total instances.
- **Error Rate:** The ratio of incorrectly predicted instances to the total instances.
- **Precision:** The ratio of true positives to the sum of true positives and false positives. It
measures the accuracy of positive predictions.
- **Recall (Sensitivity):** The ratio of true positives to the sum of true positives and false negatives.
It measures the ability of the model to capture all the relevant instances.

**2. Implementing K-Nearest Neighbors on diabetes.csv:**

- Read the 'diabetes.csv' dataset.
- Separate features (independent variables) and the target variable (dependent variable).
- Split the dataset into training and testing sets.

**3. Normalize the Data:**

- Normalize the feature values to ensure they are on a similar scale. This step is essential for KNN.

**4. Train and Predict:**

- Train the KNN model on the training set.
- Predict the target variable on the testing set.

**5. Compute Metrics:**

- Use the predictions and actual values to calculate:
- Confusion matrix: Counts of true positives, true negatives, false positives, and false negatives.
- Accuracy: (TP + TN) / (TP + TN + FP + FN)
- Error Rate: (FP + FN) / (TP + TN + FP + FN)
- Precision: TP / (TP + FP)
- Recall: TP / (TP + FN)

**6. Interpretation:**
- Analyze the results of the confusion matrix, accuracy, error rate, precision, and recall to evaluate
the performance of the KNN model.

**Note:** Implementation specifics, such as the choice of k in KNN, may vary based on the dataset
and problem. Additionally, libraries like scikit-learn in Python provide functions to compute these
metrics.
Practical K means clustering on sales data

Certainly, let's proceed with implementing K-Means clustering and hierarchical clustering using the
elbow method:

**1. Definition of Terms:**

- **K-Means Clustering:** A partitioning method that divides a dataset into K distinct, non-
overlapping subsets (clusters), where each data point belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean.
- **Hierarchical Clustering:** A method that builds a hierarchy of clusters. It can be agglomerative
(bottom-up) or divisive (top-down), merging or splitting clusters based on certain criteria.
- **Elbow Method:** A technique used to determine the optimal number of clusters for K-Means
clustering. It involves plotting the explained variation as a function of the number of clusters and
identifying the "elbow" point where the rate of improvement slows.

**2. Implementing K-Means Clustering:**

- Read the 'sales_data_sample.csv' dataset.
- Pre-process the data if necessary (handle missing values, encode categorical variables).
- Identify relevant features for clustering.
- Normalize the data if needed.
- Implement the K-Means algorithm with varying values of K.
- Use the elbow method to determine the optimal number of clusters.

**3. Implementing Hierarchical Clustering:**

- Similar to K-Means, preprocess the data and identify relevant features.
- Implement hierarchical clustering using agglomerative or divisive approach.
- Use a dendrogram to visualize the hierarchical clustering structure.

**4. Elbow Method:**

- For K-Means, run the algorithm for different values of K.
- Calculate the sum of squared distances (inertia) for each K.
- Plot the inertia values against the number of clusters (K).
- Identify the "elbow" point where the rate of decrease in inertia slows down. This point indicates a
good balance between the number of clusters and model performance.

**5. Determine the Number of Clusters:**

- Based on the elbow method results, determine the optimal number of clusters for K-Means.
- For hierarchical clustering, the optimal number of clusters might be determined based on the
dendrogram.

**6. Interpretation:**
- Analyze the clusters obtained from K-Means and hierarchical clustering.
- Understand the characteristics of each cluster and how well they represent distinct groups in the
data.

**Note:** The actual implementation details may vary based on the programming language and
libraries used (e.g., Python with scikit-learn for K-Means and SciPy for hierarchical clustering). The
choice of features and pre-processing steps will depend on the characteristics of the dataset.