6

24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

Think about…
24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms
24.2 Specific defence mechanisms
24.3 Differences between non‑specific
and specific defence mechanisms
Recall Think about…
Concept map

2
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

Life in the bubble germ-free

Decades ago… protective bubble

people born
without functional
lymphocytes lived
inside a bubble to
prevent infections

3
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

Life in the bubble

Today, they can be cured by receiving a
bone marrow transplant (骨髓移植).

transplant

bone marrow from

a matched donor
4
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

How do lymphocytes protect us

from infections?

5
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

What would happen if a transplant

is received from an unmatched
donor?

6
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

Our immune system provides

body defence to protect us from diseases.

7
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

Defence mechanisms

non-specific defence specific defence

mechanisms mechanisms
(非特異性防禦機制) (特異性防禦機制)

physical and inflammatory

chemical phagocytosis responses
barriers (炎性反應)
8
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

Defence mechanisms

non-specific defence specific defence

mechanisms mechanisms
(非特異性防禦機制) (特異性防禦機制)

immune response
immune response
(免疫反應)
of T cells
of B cells
9
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

• provide immediate defences

• act against all types of pathogens
• include:
- physical and chemical barriers
- phagocytosis
- inflammatory responses
10
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

A Physical and chemical

barriers
• prevent pathogens from entering
our blood and other tissues
• form the first line of defence
(第一道防線)

11
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

1 Physical barriers
• prevent the entry
of pathogens by
mechanical means

12
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

1 Physical barriers
skin
inner wall of
respiratory tract

blood clot
at wounds

13
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

i) The skin
• covers almost the
whole body

14
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

i) The skin

layers of
dead cells
epidermis
(表皮)
layers of living
epidermal cells
sebaceous
glands (皮脂腺) (×40)
15
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

i) The skin

layers of
dead cells
form a tough and
impermeable barrier to
prevent the entry of
pathogens

16
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

i) The skin

layers of
dead cells
constantly shed and
replaced by new cells
from underneath

pathogens on the skin

surface are removed
17
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

ii) Blood clot

• If we have a cut on the skin…

blood clotting occurs

18
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

ii) Blood clot

damage in blood vessel

blood platelets attracted to wound

soluble protein
insoluble
fibrinogen
fibrin
(纖維蛋白原)
(纖維蛋白)
in plasma
19
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

ii) Blood clot a net of fibrin

red blood
cell
white
blood
cell

blood
platelet
20
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

ii) Blood clot

blood clot (血凝塊)
fibrin
blood
platelet
white
blood cell

red blood
cell (×3000)
21
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

ii) Blood clot

blood clot
• prevents further bleeding
• seals the wound
• protects
dries upthe underneath
injured tissue

scab (痂)

22
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

iii) Inner wall of the respiratory tract

(×250)
23
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

iii) Inner wall of the respiratory tract

cells are closely packed

to form a barrier

24
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

iii) Inner wall of the respiratory tract

pathogen
trap pathogens
in inhaled air
secretes mucus

mucus-secreting cell
25
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

iii) Inner wall of the respiratory tract

ciliated epithelial cell

cilium
• beats to sweep the
mucus with trapped
pathogens towards
the pharynx
26
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

iii) Inner wall of the respiratory tract

coughed up or
swallowed into the
stomach
to pharynx

27
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Chemical barriers
• secretions that kill pathogens or
inhibit their growth through
chemical reactions

28
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Chemical barriers
tears
saliva
sebum (皮脂)

gastric juice

vaginal secretion
29
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

i) Tears and saliva

tear gland

tears

30
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

i) Tears and saliva

salivary glands

saliva

31
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

i) Tears and saliva

• contain lysozyme (溶菌酶)

kills certain bacteria by

breaking down their cell walls

32
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

ii) Sebum

sebum antiseptic (抗菌劑)

which kills pathogens
on skin

sebaceous gland

33
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

iii) Gastric juice

• contains hydrochloric acid
• kills pathogens in the food in
the stomach

34
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

iv) Vaginal secretion

• acidic
• discourages the growth of
pathogens

35
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

24.1
Identifying features of the mammalian skin
that are related to body defence
Procedure
1 Examine a prepared slide of the mammalian
skin with a microscope under low-power
magnification or a skin model.
2 Identify the structures that are related to
body defence.
36
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

B Phagocytosis
• phagocytes move towards
the pathogens in the wound (×3000)
and engulf them
pathogen

phagocyte

37
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

pathogen
1 Engulfing a phagocyte
pathogen

nucleus
38
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Digesting the
pathogen with
enzymes
enzymes

39
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

3 Releasing the
waste
materials from
digestion

40
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

C Inflammatory responses
Animation 24.1

41
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

C Inflammatory responses
1 Damaged cells release chemicals
(e.g. histamine 組織胺).
skin surface knife

pathogen
chemical
capillary

42
 6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Arterioles dilate.

blood clot

blood flow to
injured tissue
increases

43
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Permeability of capillaries increases.

swelling
due to
more accumulation
phagocytes of tissue fluid
reach injured
tissue

44
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

3 Phagocytes engulf and digest the

pathogens.

Injured
tissue begins
to heal.

45
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

Symptoms of inflammation (炎症)

• Redness:
dilation of arterioles  ↑ blood flow
• Hotness:
increased blood flow  ↑ temperature
• Swelling:
increased permeability of capillaries
 more tissue fluid formed
 accumulation of tissue fluid
46
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

Symptoms of inflammation (炎症)

• Pain:
more tissue fluid formed
 presses against nerve endings
 stimulates pain receptors

47
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

Symptoms of inflammation (炎症)

• pus (膿) may form at the inflamed tissue

consists of

killed pathogens and

worn-out phagocytes

48
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

1 Physical barrier: skin

Protective mechanism
• The skin covers almost the whole
body.
• The outermost layer of dead cells
forms a tough and impermeable
barrier.
49
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

1 Physical barrier: skin

Protective mechanism
• Pathogens on the skin surface are
removed when the dead cells are
shed .

50
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

1 Physical barrier: blood clot

Protective mechanism
• The blood clot seals the wound.

51
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

1 Physical barrier: inner wall of the

respiratory tract
Protective mechanism
• The cells are closely packed
to form a barrier.
• Mucus can trap pathogens in
inhaled air.
52
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

1 Physical barrier: inner wall of the

respiratory tract
Protective mechanism
• Cilia beat to sweep the mucus
with trapped pathogens towards
the pharynx . The mucus is then
coughed up or swallowed.
53
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Chemical barrier: tears and saliva

Protective mechanism
Tears and saliva contain lysozyme
which can kill certain bacteria.

54
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Chemical barrier: sebum

Protective mechanism
Sebum is a natural antiseptic .

55
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Chemical barrier: gastric juice

Protective mechanism
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice
can kill most of the pathogens.

56
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

2 Chemical barrier: vaginal secretion

Protective mechanism
Vaginal secretion is acidic and can
discourage the growth of pathogens.

57
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

3 In phagocytosis , phagocytes
engulf pathogens. The pathogens
are then digested by enzymes
inside the phagocytes.

58
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

4 An inflammatory response
provides body defence when:
• Chemicals released by
damaged cells cause arterioles
to dilate , increasing
blood flow to the injured tissue.
59
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

4 An inflammatory response
provides body defence when:
• Chemicals increase the
permeability of capillaries.

60
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.1 Non-specific defence mechanisms

4 An inflammatory response
provides body defence when:
• More phagocytes come out of
the capillaries to engulf and
digest the pathogens.

61
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

• involve immune responses which are

specific to antigens (抗原) of the
pathogens
• produced by lymphocytes

62
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

A Antigens

Self-antigens Foreign antigens

produced by our usually come from
own body outside of the body

63
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

A Antigens

Self-antigens Foreign antigens

e.g. e.g.
membrane • proteins on the
proteins of our surface of
own body cells pathogens
• bacterial toxins
• membrane proteins
of cancer cells
64
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

A Antigens

Self-antigens Foreign antigens

normally do not stimulate an immune
stimulate an response
immune response

65
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

B Lymphocytes

only one type of

lymphocyte
receptor on surface

bind to a specific type

of antigen
specificity of
immune responses

66
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

B Lymphocytes

B cells T cells
(B lymphocytes) (T lymphocytes)
are formed and are formed in the
mature in the bone marrow and
bone marrow mature in the
thymus gland (胸腺)

67
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

B Lymphocytes

thymus gland

68
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

B Lymphocytes
• after maturation, B cells and T cells
circulate in the blood and lymph, or
gather at the spleen and lymph nodes

69
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

C Immune responses of
lymphocytes
• upon activation by a specific antigen,
B cells and T cells produce different
immune responses

70
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

1 Immune response of B cells

1 Only the B cell with a complementary
Animation 24.2

pathogen
receptor binds to the antigen and becomes
activated. antigen

receptor

activated
different B cells
71
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 The activated B cell divides to form a

group of identical B cells.

72
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

differentiate

plasma cell memory B cell

(漿細胞) (記憶B細胞)

73
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

remembers the type

of antigen
 responds quickly
if invaded again

plasma cell memory B cell

(漿細胞) (記憶B細胞)

74
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

releases

plasma cell
(漿細胞) antibodies (抗體)
act against the pathogen
75
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

a Y-shaped protein molecule

antigen-binding site

polypeptide chemical bond

chains

76
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

antigen-antibody complex
(抗原抗體複合物)
antigen

77
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

Production of antibodies is specific
 each type of antigen activates
B cells with a particular type of
receptors to produce antibodies

78
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

Action of antibodies is specific
 each type of antibody only acts
against a specific antigen

79
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
Animation 24.3

antigen

antibodies pathogen
80
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
1

antibodies bind
to antigens

81
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
1

attracts certain
proteins in blood
82
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
1

cause lysis
(溶菌) of the
pathogen
83
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
2

antigen

antibodies pathogens
84
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
2

pathogens clump
together
(agglutination
凝集)
85
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
2
phagocyte

facilitate
phagocytosis
86
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
3

antibodies toxins

87
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Antibodies and their actions

• Antibodies act in several ways:
3

antibodies act as antitoxins (抗毒素)

 bind to toxins and neutralize them
88
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Immune response of T cells

antigen of
pathogen
phagocyte presenting on
phagocyte

89
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

1 Only the helper T cell with a complementary

receptor binds to the antigen and becomes
activated.

different helper T cells

activated
(輔助T細胞)
90
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

secretes

lymphokines
(淋巴激活素) activated
91
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2
other T cell

activate
B cell

phagocyte

92
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

activate
immune
response

phagocytosis

93
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

divides…
identical T cells

94
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

differentiate

killer T cell memory T cell

(殺手T細胞) (記憶T細胞)
95
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

4 remembers the type

of antigen
 responds quickly
if invaded again

killer T cell memory T cell

(殺手T細胞) (記憶T細胞)
96
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

5 Killer T cells bind to infected cells and kill

them directly by making holes in their cell
membranes.

infected cell
burst and died
killer T cell
(殺手T細胞)
97
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Immune response of T cells

specific defence non-specific defence
mechanisms mechanisms

B cell T cell phagocyte

work together to
eliminate pathogens
98
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

1 Antigens are molecules that can

stimulate an immune response.
Self-antigens are produced by our
own body , whereas foreign
antigens usually come from
outside of the body.
99
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 B cells T cells
Formation Bone marrow
Bone Thymus
Maturation
marrow gland

100
 6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

3 Entry of pathogens into

the blood or other tissues
antigens of pathogens activate

B cells helper T cells

divide and activate secrete
differentiate
lymphokines
activate
plasma cells memory B cells
produce activate T cells
divide and
antibodies
differentiate
actions phagocytes
1 indirectly cause lysis of pathogens action killer T cells memory T cells
2 facilitate phagocytosis of
pathogens by agglutination phagocytosis action
3 act as antitoxins to neutralize
toxins released by pathogens kill infected cells
101
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

D Primary and secondary

responses
• primary response (初次反應)
occurs on the first exposure to
an antigen
• secondary response (再次反應)
occurs when the same type of antigen
enters the body again
102
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Primary response
• takes time for specific lymphocytes to
encounter the antigen, divide and
differentiate into plasma cells, killer T cells
and memory cells
 relatively slow

103
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Primary response
antibody level in blood

first exposure

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
104
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Primary response
antibody level in blood
primary response

several days before a rise in the antibody level

latent period
(潛伏期)

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
105
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Primary response
antibody level in blood
primary response

antibody needs 1–2 weeks to peak

level pathogens have time
to cause damage
 develop symptoms
0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
106
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Primary response
antibody level in blood
primary response

period of existence
of antibodies

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
107
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Secondary response
• faster, stronger and the protective effect
lasts longer
• memory cells recognize the antigen, divide
and differentiate into a larger number of
plasma cells, killer T cells and memory cells
within a shorter time
• kills the pathogens before they can multiply
to large numbers and cause a disease
108
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Secondary response
antibody level in blood
recovery

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
109
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Secondary response
antibody level in blood

second exposure

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
110
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Secondary response
antibody level in blood
secondary response

shorter
latent period

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
111
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Secondary response
antibody level in blood
secondary response

higher
antibody
level

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
112
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Secondary response
antibody level in blood
secondary response

longer period of
existence of
antibodies

0 7 14 21 28 35 time (day)
113
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
• introduction of a vaccine into the body
to induce immunity to a disease
• makes use of the specificity and
immunological memory (免疫記憶) of
specific defence mechanisms

114
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
Vaccine contains an antigen which can be:
• live, attenuated (減毒的) pathogens
• killed pathogens
• subunits of pathogens, e.g. viral proteins
• inactivated bacterial toxins

115
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
antigen in vaccine
stimulates
primary response
• production of some antibodies and
killer T cells
• production of memory cells that
‘remember’ the type of antigen
116
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
later invasion by the same type of antigen
stimulate memory cells
to produce
secondary response
• production of a larger amount of
antibodies and killer T cells within a
shorter time
• body shows an enhanced immunity
117
 6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
Vaccine may be given…

orally by injection as a nasal spray

118
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
• may require booster doses to
maintain the immunity

119
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
• may have mild and temporary
side effects
e.g. slight fever or
redness and swelling
at the injection site

120
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

E Principle of vaccination
• the health of the community is protected
if the majority of people are vaccinated

121
6 Nutrition in humans

Certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV) can

cause cervical cancer. Under the Hong Kong
Childhood Immunization Programme, girls receive
the first and second doses of the HPV vaccine when
they are in Primary 5 and Primary 6 respectively.

122
6 Nutrition in humans

The graph below shows the changes in the antibody

level of a girl when she receives the first and
second doses of the vaccine.
antibody level in blood
(arbitrary unit)

0
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 time
first dose second dose (month)
123
6 Nutrition in humans

a Contrast the patterns of antibody production

induced by the two doses of the HPV vaccine.
(4 marks)
antibody level in blood
(arbitrary unit)

0
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 time
first dose second dose (month)
124
6 Nutrition in humans

Suggested answer
a For antibody production induced by the second
dose of the HPV vaccine,
the increase in the antibody level occurs earlier. (1)
the antibody level increases more rapidly. (1)
the peak of the antibody level is higher. (1)
antibodies stay at a high level for a longer time. (1)

125
6 Nutrition in humans

Comparing and contrasting

• ‘Compare’ looks for similarities and

differences
• ‘Contrast’ looks for differences only

126
6 Nutrition in humans

Comparing and contrasting

• Some useful words in expressing
similarities and differences:
Expressing similarities Expressing differences
like unlike
also however
just as whereas
both but
similar to in contrast to
127
6 Nutrition in humans

Comparing and contrasting

• Comparative adjectives are also often used
in expressing differences.

128
6 Nutrition in humans

Comparing and contrasting

• Recall the answer to question a in learning
through examples...
For antibody production induced by the second
dose of the HPV vaccine,
earlier
• the increase in the antibody level occurs ______.
more rapidly
• the antibody level increases ___________.
• the peak of the antibody level is ______.
higher
• antibodies stay at a high level for a ______
longer time.
129
6 Nutrition in humans

Complete the following sentences with suitable

words to compare primary and secondary responses.
(11 marks)

130
6 Nutrition in humans

Just as / Similar to / Like (1) the primary

1 (a) __________________________
response, the secondary response is stimulated
antigen (1)
by an (b) _______________.

131
6 Nutrition in humans

both (1)
2 In (c) _______________ primary and secondary
antibodies / killer T cells (1)
responses, (d) __________________________
killer T cells / antibodies (1) are
and (e) __________________________
produced to act against invading pathogens.

132
6 Nutrition in humans

3 The primary response occurs on the first

whereas / but (1)
exposure to an antigen, (f) _______________
the secondary response occurs on
subsequent (1) exposures to the same
(g) _______________
antigen.

133
6 Nutrition in humans

4 The latent period of the primary response is long.

However (1)
(h) _______________, the latent period of the
short / shorter (1)
secondary response is (i) _______________.

134
6 Nutrition in humans

Unlike / In contrast to (1)

5 (j) __________________________ the
protective effect of the primary response, the
protective effect of the secondary response is
long-lasting (1)
more (k) _______________.

135
6 Nutrition in humans

b What causes the differences in the immune

responses? (3 marks)
antibody level in blood
(arbitrary unit)

0
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 time
first dose second dose (month)
136
6 Nutrition in humans

Suggested answer
b Some lymphocytes divide and differentiate into
memory cells when they encounter the antigen in
the first dose of the HPV vaccine. (1)
The memory cells recognize the same type of
antigen in the second dose of the HPV vaccine. (1)
The memory cells divide and differentiate into
plasma cells, resulting in the production of a larger
amount of antibodies within a shorter time. (1)
137
6 Nutrition in humans

c With reference to the efficacy of the HPV

vaccine, explain why it is best to vaccinate girls
who have never had sexual intercourse before.
(2 marks)
antibody level in blood
(arbitrary unit)

0
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 time
first dose second dose (month)
138
6 Nutrition in humans

Suggested answer
c Girls who have never had sexual intercourse
before are less likely to have been exposed to
HPV. (1)
The HPV vaccine works best if it is given prior to
exposure to HPV. (1)

139
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

F Active and passive immunity

What are they?

140
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

1 Active immunity (主動免疫)

• given by antibodies produced by
our own plasma cells

natural artificial
acquired
from recovering by
from an infection vaccination
141
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

1 Active immunity (主動免疫)

• requires exposure to an antigen
• takes time to develop
 the start is relatively slow
• produces memory cells
 long-lasting

142
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

• given by direct transfer of antibodies
from immune individuals or animals

143
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

natural

acquired

a when antibodies in
maternal blood enter
the foetal blood
placenta

144
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

natural

acquired

b when antibodies
in mother’s milk pass
to the baby via
breast-feeding

145
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

artificial

acquired

by injection of antibodies produced

by other people or animals

146
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

• does not require exposure to an antigen
• starts immediately
• does not produce memory cells and is
lost when antibodies break down
 lasts only a short time

147
 6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

antibody level in blood

time
injection of antibodies (day)
148
 6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

antibody level in blood

time
injection of antibodies (day)
149
 6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

antibody level in blood

minimum antibody
level needed to
provide immunity

time
injection of antibodies (day)
150
 6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Passive immunity (被動免疫)

antibody level in blood

minimum antibody
level needed to
provide immunity
body with body without
immunity immunity
time
injection of antibodies (day)
151
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Primary response:
1 first exposure to an antigen
activates

B cells helper T cells

activate
activate
T cells
plasma memory B
cells cells memory T
killer T cells
cells
antibodies
kill infected
act against antigen second exposure cells
152
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

Secondary response:
1 second exposure to the
same type of antigen
activates

plasma memory B memory T

killer T cells
cells cells cells

antibodies kill infected

cells
act against
antigens
153
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Primary
response
Secondary
response
Occurrence Occurs on the Occurs on
first exposure subsequent
to an antigen exposures to the
same type of
antigen
Cell B cells Memory B cells
activated and and
T cells memory T cells

154
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Primary
response
Secondary
response
Latent Longer Shorter
period
Production • Production is • Production is
of slower more rapid
antibodies • • Larger
Smalle
and killer T amounts are amounts are
r
cells produced produced

155
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

2 Primary
response
Secondary
response
Protective Lasts only a Long-lasting
effect short time

156
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

3 Vaccination makes use of the

specificity and immunological
memory of specific defence
mechanisms to develop an
enhanced immunity in the body.

157
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

3 The vaccine contains an antigen

which stimulates a primary
response in the body.

158
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

3 The same type of antigen in

subsequent invasions will
stimulate memory cells to
produce a secondary response ,
giving an enhanced immunity to
the disease.
159
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

4 Active
immunity
Passive
immunity
Antibodies Produced by Transferred from
one’s own immune
plasma cells individuals or
animals

Exposure to Required / Required /

an antigen Not required Not required

160
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

4 Active
immunity
Passive
immunity
Start of Relatively slow Immediate
immunity
Duration of Longer Shorter
immunity

161
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

5 Natural
Active immunity Passive immunity
When a person • When antibodies in
recovers from an maternal blood
infection pass through the
placenta and enter
the foetal blood
• When antibodies in
mother’s milk pass
to the baby via
breast-feeding

162
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.2 Specific defence mechanisms

5 Active immunity Passive immunity

Artificial By vaccination By injection of
antibodies

163
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.3 Differences between non‑ specific and specific defence mechanisms

Let’s summarize the differences between

non-specific and specific defence
mechanisms.

164
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.3 Differences between non‑ specific and specific defence mechanisms

Non-specific defence Specific defence

mechanisms mechanisms
They include: They include:
• physical and • immune response
chemical barriers of cells
B
• phagocytosis
• inflammatory • immune
T cells response
response of

165
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.3 Differences between non‑ specific and specific defence mechanisms

Non-specific defence Specific defence

mechanisms mechanisms
They are inborn and They are acquired
are always active. when the immune
system is stimulated
by antigens.
They can / They can /
distinguish between
cannot distinguish between
cannot
‘self’ and ‘foreign’. ‘self’ and ‘foreign’.
166
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.3 Differences between non‑ specific and specific defence mechanisms

Non-specific defence Specific defence

mechanisms mechanisms
They are They only act against
non-specific and act specific antigens.
against all pathogens.
Protection starts Protection starts
immediately or within more slowly (in days).
hours.

167
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.3 Differences between non‑ specific and specific defence mechanisms

Non-specific defence Specific defence

mechanisms mechanisms
There is no memory of Immunological
the type of pathogens. memory for the type
of antigen is produced
on the first exposure to
it.

168
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms 24.3 Differences between non‑ specific and specific defence mechanisms

Non-specific defence Specific defence

mechanisms mechanisms
They are They are adaptive .
non-adaptive . Protection improves in
Protection does not subsequent invasions
improve in subsequent by the same type of
invasions by the same antigen.
type of pathogens.

169
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

1 How do lymphocytes protect us from

infections?
Lymphocytes can be activated by antigens of
pathogens to produce immune responses. In the
immune responses, antibodies and killer T cells
are produced to act against the pathogens and
infected cells. Memory cells which ‘remember’
the types of the antigens are also produced to
respond quickly to the pathogens in any
subsequent invasion.
170
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

2 What would happen if a transplant is

received from an unmatched donor?
The immune system of the recipient would
recognize antigens of the transplant as ‘foreign’.
Immune responses are stimulated to attack the
antigens, resulting in rejection of the transplant.

171
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

Body defence
two kinds

non-specific specific
defence defence
mechanisms mechanisms

172
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

non-specific defence
mechanisms
include

physical chemical inflammatory

barriers barriers response

phagocytosis
173
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

physical chemical
barriers barriers

form

first line of
defence

174
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

phagocytosis

carried out by

phagocytes

175
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

specific defence
mechanisms
include
immune responses
carried out by

T cells B cells

176
6
24 Nutrition
Body defence
in humans
mechanisms

T cells B cells
can
activate secrete develop release
immunological
lymphokines memory
activate
activate
phagocytes antibodies
177