2017 21st International Conference on System Theory, Control and Computing (ICSTCC)

Nonlinear Model and Control of a Quadcopter

Marius Costandin Petru Dobra Beniamin Costandin
Faculty of Automation and Faculty of Automation and NTT Data Cluj-Napoca
Computer Science Computer Science Romania
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Email:Beniamin.Costandin@nttdata.ro
Romania Romania
Email: Marius.Costandin@aut.utcluj.ro Email: Petru.Dobra@aut.utcluj.ro

Abstract—This paper presents the derivation, in great detail, system of N rigid bodies with n degrees of freedom is
of the full nonlinear model for a quad-copter, using D’Alembert’s
principle. The final model is presented in a form suitable
for simulation and control. Finally, the quad-copter model is δW =
n N  N 
!
implemented and a simple control law for the attitude and T ∂~v T ∂~ωi
X X ˙ i
X
~˙ i
altitude are derived. Numerical results are presented at the end = F~i − P~i + T~i − L δqj
of the paper. j=1 i=1
∂ q̇j i=1
∂ q̇j
Keywords—quad-copter modeling, D’Alembert’s principle,
nonlinear control ≡0 (1)

I. I NTRODUCTION where q1 , . . . , qn are the generalized coordinates,

The quad-copter presented here, is a flying device composed ~v1 (t), . . . , ~vN (t) are the velocities of the center of mass
of four arms in a plane with 90 degrees between them, for each body, ω ~ 1 (t), . . . , ω
~ N (t) are the angular velocities for
each having a motor driving a propeller. They are simple each body, F~1 (t), . . . , F~N (t) are the resultants of the applied
mechanical devices, having six degrees of freedom and the forces for each body and T~1 (t), . . . , T~N (t) are the resultants
minimum numbers of input actuators, four. Upon some linear of the applied torque about the center of mass for each body.
transformation the four motor velocities can be transformed in Also P~ (t)1 , . . . , P~ (t)N and L(t) ~ 1 , . . . , L(t)
~ N denote the
four inputs like thrust along an axis orthogonal on the plane linear respectively angular momentum of each rigid body.
of motors and torque about all three axis of the body attached Hence, if there are no constraints, one has:
coordinate system.
In the present decade quad-copters have been intensively  T T
studied and used for of all sort of activities, in special for air 

PN  ~
F i − ~˙i ·
P ∂~vi
+
PN  ~
Ti − ~˙ i ·
L ∂~
ωi
=0
 i=1 ∂ q̇1 i=1 ∂ q̇1

filming and surveillance. According to [1], there are papers [2],

..
[3], [4], [5], [6] concern with linear or quadratic control of the  .
vehicle, and [1] [7] [8], [10] and [11] presenting nonlinear
 T T
PN F~i − P~˙i · ~˙ i ·
  PN  ~
∂~vi ∂~ωi
+ T − L =0

i=1 ∂ q̇n i=1 i ∂ q̇n
control either for linearized model either using differential
geometry for control of the nonlinear model. In [12], the author (2)
uses Newton-Euler and Euler-Lagrange equations to obtain the
model of the quad-copter and then proposes a stabilization and This is a system of n equations fully describing the motion
trajectory control law. of the system of rigid bodies. All the forces, moments and
The paper however, begins with a section presenting in a velocities are expressed in world frame. Therefore, in the
convenient form, some known results in theoretical mechanics following we are interested in expressing the linear and angular
about rigid body dynamics. These results are used in the next velocity and momentum as well as the applied forces and
section to obtain the full nonlinear model of the quad-copter. torques in the world frame using the generalized coordinates
The mathematical model is the main focus of the paper, hence q = [q1 , . . . , qn ]T
this section is the most consistent one. At the end, some
control techniques are presented, for stabilizing the machine.
B. The geometric model of the quad-copter
The techniques are concerned with linearizing the model by
state feedback and linearization about an equilibrium point. We apply the above theory to obtain the nonlinear model
of a quad-copter. The generalized coordinates are: x, y, z
II. M ATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE QUAD - COPTER
representing the position in world frame of the center of
A. D’Alembert’s principle mass and θ, χ, φ denoting the rotation angles about ~k,~i, ~j
We begin with the presentation of the well known axis respectively. We denote ~i0 , ~j0 , ~k0 the axis of the world
D’Alembert principle of virtual work. The virtual work of a coordinate system and ~i1 , ~j1 , ~k1 the axis of a coordinate system

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 where q = [x, y, z, θ, χ, φ]T . The inertia matrix of the quad-
copter while moving is I(t) = RT (t)I0 R(t) where RT =
T T T
Rkθ Riχ Rjφ and I0 is the inertia matrix in body frame.
For simplicity we modeled the quad-copter as five mass
points, one for each motor of mass m and one in the center
hub of mass mh , hence
 2   
2r 0 0 Ixx0 0 0
I0 = m ·  0 2r2 0 = 0 Iyy0 0  (7)
0 0 4r2 0 0 Izz0

where r is the distance from the center of mass to the motors.

Here we assumed the distances to be equal.
3) Applied forces and torques: We consider that each
propeller develops a force along its axis, and a pure torque
about its axis both proportional with the square of its angular
velocity.

Fig. 1. Quad-copter geometric model    

0 0
F~motori = RT  0  T~motori = RT  0 
attached to the vehicle such that the ~i1 axis is along it’s first ai · ωi2 (−1)i · bi · ωi2
arm, see Figure (1). Hence (8)
~i1
    
cos(φ) 0 − sin(φ) 1 0 0 where i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}. The term −1 appears in the expression
~j1  =  0 1 0  0 cos(χ) sin(χ)  · of torque because some motors spin clockwise and some spin
~k1 sin(φ) 0 cos(φ) 0 − sin(χ) cos(χ) counterclockwise. The proportionality constants a1 = a2 =

cos(θ) sin(θ) 0 ~i0
 
~i0
  a3 = a4 and b1 = b2 = b3 = b4 are given in Section IV.
· − sin(θ) cos(θ) 0 ~j0  = Rjφ Riχ Rkθ ~j0  Remark II.1. The first motor situated at the coordinates
0 0 1 ~k0 ~k0 [r1 , 0, 0]T in quad-copter frame rotates the propeller counter-
(3) clockwise though air and because of the drag the motor feels
an clockwise torque. However, if the inertia of the propeller
C. The dynamic model of the quad-copter
is also considered then the torque applied to the quad-copter
1) The linear velocity, acceleration and momentum: For the by the first motor, in body frame, is
linear velocity of the center of mass one has   
      0
ẋ ẍ ẍ T~motor1 = −  0  + ω ~ 1 × (Iprop ω ~˙ 1  (9)
~ 1 ) + Iprop ω
˙
~v (t) = ẏ  ~a(t) = ÿ  P~ (t) = M · ÿ  (4) 2
b1 ω1
ż z̈ z̈
T
where M is the total mass of the quad-copter. where ω ~ 1 = [0, 0, ω1 ] and Iprop (t) = Rkψ Iprop0 Rkψ where ψ
2) The angular velocity, acceleration and momentum: For is the angle of the propeller and Iprop0 is the inertia matrix of
a rigid body, one can obtain the angular velocity ω
~ from the the propeller in a coordinate system attached to it. However we
rotation matrix R using ṘT = [ω]RT hence [ω] = ṘT R, will consider these inertial terms negligible, as many authors
where [ω] is the skew symmetric form of the vector ω. do, see [1], [10],[11], etc.
Therefore we obtain Besides the torques and forces due to motors there is also
the gravity, therefore the total applied force is:
     
0 χ̇ 0
T   T T  
ω
~ = 0  + Rkθ 0 + Rkθ Riχ φ̇ (5)        
0 0 0 0
θ̇ 0 0
F~ = RT P 0  +  0  = RT  0  +  0 
4 2
~
The angular momentum for a rigid body is L(t) = I(t) · ω
~ (t) i=1 ai ωi
−M g Fz −M g
˙~ (10)
~ × (I~
and it’s derivative is L(t) = ω ~˙ . Therefore for
ω) + I ω
the derivative of angular momentum, we need the derivative The total torque due to drag of the propellers is
of the angular velocity  
6 6 0
X ∂~
ω X ∂~ω T~1 = RT P 0 (11)
~˙ =
ω q̇i + q̈i (6)

∂q ∂ q̇ 4 i 2
i=1 (−1) bi ωi
i=1 i i=1 i

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The total torque due to the force developed by the propellers D. The equations of motion
is We use the theory briefly explained in the above section to
        obtain the equations of motion for the vehicle.
r1 0 0 0
T~2 = RT  0  ×  0  + r2  ×  0  + ∂~v T ~ ˙ ∂~ωT ~
(F (t) − P~ (t)) + ~˙
(T (t) − L(t)) = 0;
0 a1 ω 2 0 a2 ω 2 ∂ q̇i ∂ q̇i
   1    2 
−r3 0 0 0 ∀qi ∈ {x, y, z, θ, χ, φ} (16)
+ RT  0  ×  0  + −r4  ×  0  =
0 a3 ω32 0 a4 ω42 One can see that ∂∂~ v
q̇i = [0, 0, 0]
T
for qi ∈ {θ, χ, φ} and
∂~ω T

a2 r2 w22 − a4 r4 w42
 similarly ∂ q̇i = [0, 0, 0] for qi ∈ {x, y, z} hence we organize
T 
= R a3 r3 w32 − a1 r1 w12  (12) these six equations in the following form:
0
ẋ2
 

hence the total input torque due to propellers velocity is T~in =  

ẍ
ẋẏ 
 
 
ẋ
T~1 + T~2 ẋż 
A2 (q) ÿ  + A11 (q)  + A (q) ẏ  + A0 (q)+
1

 ẏ 2 

z̈   ż
a2 r2 w22 − a4 r4 w42 ar(ω22 − ω42 )
   
 ẏ ż 
T~in = RT aP 2 2 T 2 2
3 r3 w3 − a1 r1 w1  = R  ar(ω3 − ω1 )  = ż 2
4 i 2
P4
(−1) bi ωi b i=1 (−1)i ωi2
 
 i=1 Fz  
Tx  0
Tx  = 0
+ Ac (q)  (17)
= RT Ty  (13) Ty 
0
Tz Tz

Although we consider ai = aj , bi = bj and ri = rj for all θ̇2

 
i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}, the above equations give a more general    θ̇χ̇   
case, where these identities are not required. Some readers θ̈  
 θ̇φ̇  θ̇
might find this helpful. The torque due to gravity is: B2 (q) χ̈ + B11 (q)  2
 χ̇ 
 + B1 (q) χ̇ + B0 (q)+
φ̈  
χ̇φ̇ φ̇
φ̇2
         
r1 0 0 0
T~3 = R  0  ×  0  + R r2  ×  0  +
T T  
Fz  
0
0 −gm1 0 −gm2 Tx 
 = 0
          + Bc (q) Ty  (18)
−r3 0 0 0 0
+ RT  0  ×  0  + RT −r4  ×  0  Tz
0 −gm3 0 −gm4 where
     
r1 − r3 0 0
= r2 − r3  ×  0  = 0 (14) 
−M 0 0

0 −gm 0 A2 (q) =  0 −M 0  A11 (q) = O3×6
0 0 −M
since we assumed r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 and m1 = m2 =  
m3 = m4 . Hence the total applied torque on the vehicle is 0
T~ = T~in + T~3 = T~in A1 (q) = O3×3 A0 (q) =  0 
−gM
Remark II.2. We consider the control inputs to be 
0 0 0 0

Fz , Tx , Ty , Tz . The relation between these control inputs and Ac (q) = RT 0 0 0 0 (19)
the velocities of the propellers is given by the above equations 1 0 0 0
to be:
     2 and
Fz a a a a ω1  11 12 13 
b2 b2 b2
 11 12 13 14 
bc bc bc bc
2
Tx   0
 = ar 0 −ar  ω22 
 
B (q) = b 11
b 12
b 13 
B (q) = b21 b22 b23 b24
Ty  −ar 0 ar (15) 2
 2 2 2 c
 c c c c

0  ω3  b 11
b 12
b 13
b 31
b 32
b 33
b 34
Tz −b b −b b ω42  211 212 213 14 15 16 c
 c c c
b11 b11 b11 b11 b11 b11
 21 b22 23 24 25 26 
The determinant of that matrix is 8a3 br2 6= 0 so one can obtain B11 (q) = b11 11 b11 b11 b11 b11
the angular velocities for the motors from the input forces. A b11 b11 b11 b11 b11 b36
31 32 33 34 35
11
similar matrix can be found in other papers, see [10],[11]. B1 (q) = O3×3 B0 (q) = O3×3 (20)

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where columns of Bc (q), then
   
Fz Fz  
1) b11
2 = −Iyy0 sin(χ)2 − Izz0 cos(χ)2 cos(φ)2 − Tx  Tx  Tx
Ixx0 cos(χ)2 sin(φ)2 Ac (q) ·  
 = A1c (q)Fz Bc (q)   = Bc2,3,4 Ty 
Ty  Ty 
2) b12
2 = cos(χ) cos(φ) sin(φ)(Ixx0 − Izz0 ) Tz
Tz Tz
3) b13
2 = −Iyy0 sin(χ) (21)
4) b21
2 = cos(χ) cos(φ) sin(φ)(Ixx0 − Izz0 )
5) b22 2 2
2 = Izz0 cos(φ) − Ixx0 cos(φ) − Izz0
Remark II.4. In general the equations of motion result in the
23
6) b2 = 0 following form
7) b31
2 = −Iyy0 sin(χ)
M (q, q̇, q̈) = 0
8) b32
2 =0 This form, however, is difficult to use for simulation and con-
9) b33
2 = −Iyy0 trol, hence we propose the form of the Equations (17) and (18)
which explicitly show the derivatives of the parameters vector
hence B2 (q) is symmetric. For B11 (q) we have q. This way of writing the equations eases the simulation, the
liniarization and finally the control.
1) b11
11 = 0
1 III. T HE CONTROL OF THE QUAD - COPTER
2) b12
11 = 2 sin(2χ)(Ixx0 − 2Iyy0 + Izz0 − Ixx0 cos(2φ) +
Izz0 cos(2φ)) The machine has six degrees of freedom x, y, z, θ, χ, φ and
3) b13 2
11 = 2(Izz0 − Ixx0 ) cos(χ) cos(φ) sin(φ) four inputs Fz , Tx , Ty , Tz uniquely determined by ωi with i ∈
14
4) b11 = (Izz0 − Ixx0 ) cos(φ) sin(χ) sin(φ) {1, 2, 3, 4}. One can use Tx , Ty , Tz to control θ, χ, φ and then
5) b15
11 = − cos(χ)(Iyy0 + (Izz0 − Ixx0 ) cos(2φ)) Fz to control z. In order to further control x and y a cascade
6) b16
11 = 0 control is required.
1
7) b21
11 = − 4 sin(2χ)(Ixx0 − 2Iyy0 + Izz0 − Ixx0 cos(2φ) +
Izz0 cos(2φ)) A. Attitude control. Control of θ, χ, φ
8) b22
11 = 0
Form equation (18) and remark (II.3) one has
9) b23
11 = cos(χ)(Iyy0 − (Izz0 − Ixx0 ) cos(2φ))
 2
θ̇
10) b24
11 = 0  θ̇χ̇ 
11) b25
     
11 = sin(2φ)(Ixx0 − Izz0 ) θ̈ Tx 0
 
 θ̇φ̇ 
12) b26
11 = 0 B2 (q) χ̈ + B11 (q)   + Bc2,3,4 (q) Ty  = 0 (22)
 χ̇2 
13) b31 2
11 = −(Izz0 − Ixx0 ) cos(χ) cos(φ) sin(φ) φ̈  
χ̇φ̇ Tz 0
32
14) b11 = − cos(χ)(Iyy0 − (Izz0 − Ixx0 ) cos(2φ))
15) b33 φ̇2
11 = 0
1
16) b34
11 = − 2 sin(2φ)(Ixx0 − Izz0 )
     
Tx Tx1 Tx2
35
17) b11 = 0 Let Ty  = Ty1  + Ty2  such that
18) b36
11 = 0 Tz Tz1 Tz2
 2
For Bc (q) we have θ̇
 θ̇χ̇     
  Tx1 0
1) b11
c =0  θ̇φ̇ 
B11 (q)   + Bc2,3,4 (q) Ty1  = 0 ⇒
2) b12 = − cos(χ) sin(φ)  χ̇2 
c   Tz1 0
3) b13
c = sin(χ) χ̇φ̇
4) b14
c = cos(χ) cos(φ) φ̇2
5) b21
c =0  2
θ̇
6) b22
c = cos(φ)  θ̇χ̇ 
b23
 
7) c =0 Tx1  
 θ̇φ̇ 
−1
8) b24
c = sin(φ) 2,3,4
⇒ Ty1  = −(Bc (q)) B11 (q)   χ̇2 
 (23)
9) b31
c =0 Tz1 
χ̇φ̇

10) b32
c =0
11) b33 =1 φ̇2
c
12) b34
c =0 because for cos(χ) 6= 0 the inverse of matrix Bc2,3,4 (q) exists.
We are left with
We close this section with the following remarks about Ac
and Bc      
θ̈ Tx2 0
2,3,4
Remark II.3. Let A1c denote the first column of matrix B2 (q) χ̈ + Bc (q) Ty2  = 0 (24)
Ac (q) and Bc2,3,4 denote the matrix formed with the last three φ̈ Tz2 0

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The above equation is linearized (according to Taylor expan-
sion about the origin, by simply letting θ = 0, χ = 0, φ = 0 in         
ż 0 1 z 0 z
all of the coefficient matrices, except B0 (q), which happens = + az = Az + Bz az (30)
z̈ 0 0 ż 1 ż
to be O3×3 here) to obtain
      the output is z = [1, 0]qz hence this is a single input
θ̈ Tx2 0
2,3,4  single output system with an integrator so we use the control
B2l χ̈ + Bcl Ty2  = 0 (25)
technique presented in [9] page 739 about type one servo
φ̈ Tz2 0
systems.
where The state feedback matrix is Kz and is found such that

−Izz0 0 0
 
0 0 1
 Az − Bz Kz has the eigenvalues {−2, −3} using acker
B2l =  0 −Ixx0 0  2,3,4
Bcl = 1 0 0 function from M AT LAB R . This control will output az =
0 0 −Iyy0 0 1 0 z ∗ · Kz (1) − Kz qz . From here Fz2 = az cos(φ)Mcos(χ) . Here
(26) is the same discussion, as above, for controllability and the
choice of the closed loop poles.
Let qb = [θ, χ, φ, θ̇, χ̇, φ̇]T then
  IV. N UMERICAL RESULTS
    Tx2
O3×3 I3×3 O3×3
q̇b = q + Ty2  = The above derived quad-copter model was implemented
O3×3 O3×3 b −1 2,3,4
−B2l Bcl in Simulink M AT LAB R with the following parame-
Tz2
 
Tx2 ters values: m = 0.5, mh = 1, r = 0.3, a =
Abp qb + Bbp Ty2  (27) 3 · 10−6 and b = 1.14 · 10−7 . We obtained from (17)
0 0 5.55
Tz2 −1 2,3,4
−B2l Bcl = 11.11 0 0  and from here the
Let W be a matrix whose columns are the left eigenvectors 0 11.11 0
T matrices Abp and Bbp . The proposed control was imple-
of Abp . Because Bbp · W does not have any null column,
follows that the linear system is controllable. mented. Because Kb is a relatively large matrix to be re-
In the following we
 shall
 provide a simple
 ∗ linear stabiliza- produced here, we give the M AT LAB R command for it:
θ θ Kb = place(Abp , Bbp , [−2,  −3, −4, −5, −6, −7]). The
 alge-
tion law. Let Q2 = χ and let Q∗2 = χ∗  be the desired −0.01 2.14 −0.09
∗ braic prefilter matrix Fb =  0.41 −0.1 1.2  As for
φ  φ
Tx2 3.2 −0.0 0.99 
values for Q2 . In this conditions let Ty2  = Fb Q∗2 − Kb qb the control of the altitude i.e z we obtained Kz = 2 3
Tz2 As can be seen in Figure 2, the vehicle follows step
where Fb ∈ R3×3 is an algebraic filter matrix to be found references for θ, χ, φ, z with zero stationary error.
such that the stationary error to vanish for step inputs. The
eigenvalues of Abp are {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0} and we find Kb such
that the eigenvalues of Ab0 = Abp − Bbp Kb to be for instance
{−2, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7}. One might want an explanation
here for the choice of the closed loop poles, but because this
paper focuses mainly on modeling the device and not on its
control, the eigenvalues of the closed loop here were chosen
didactically. However, because as stated above, the system is
controllable, one can choose whatever closed loop poles he/she
wants. Hence we have q̇b = Ab0 qb +Bbp Fb Q∗2 and Q2 = Cb ·qb
where Cb = [I3×3 , O3×3 ] therefore Fb = −(Cb A−1 b0 Bbp )
−1

B. Altitude control. Control of z

From (17) and Remark (II.3) we have
−M z̈ − gM + cos(χ) cos(φ)Fz = 0 (28)
Let Fz = Fz1 + Fz2 such that −gM + cos(χ) cos(φ)Fz1 = 0
gM
therefore Fz1 = cos(χ) cos(φ) if cos(χ) cos(φ) 6= 0 therefore
we are left with
cos(χ) cos(φ) def
z̈ = Fz2 = az (29)
M
Let qz = [z, ż]T then Fig. 2. The control of θ, χ, φ and z

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 In Figure 3 one can see the velocities and position of the
uncontrolled degrees of freedom i.e x and y. As expected the
position on ~i0 of the center of mass of the quad-copter i.e
x, describes a parabola as long as χ 6= 0. Also the velocity
on ~i0 of the center of mass, i.e ẋ is a linear function with a
strictly positive or negative slope according to the angle χ 6= 0.
However, when χ vanishes at t ≈ 8, the slope vanishes too,
therefore the velocity ẋ remains constant, hence the position
x describes a line now. This is an expected scenario, because
there were no aerodynamic drag forces modeled. The same
phenomenon can be observed for the position on ~j0 axis, i.e
y.
[4] P. Castillo, R. Lozano, and A. Dzul, Stabilization of a mini rotorcraft
with four rotors, IEEE Control System Magazine, pp. 4555, 2005.
[5] S. Bouabdalla, P. Murrieri, and R. Siegward Towards autonomous indoor
micro VTOL Autonomous Robots, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 171183, 2005.
[6] E. Nice Design of a four rotor hovering vehicle, Masters thesis, Cornell
University, 2004.
[7] N. Guenard, T. Hamel, and V. Moreau, Dynamic modeling and intuitive
control strategy for an X4-flyer in Proceedings of the IEEE International
Conference on Control and Application, 2005
[8] S. Bouabdalla and R. Siegward, Backstepping and sliding-mode tech-
niques applied to an indoor micro quadrotor in Proceedings of the
IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2005, pp.
22592264.
[9] K. Ogata Modern Control Engineering, Fifth Edition Prentice Hall, 2010
[10] F. Goodarzi, D. Lee, and T. Lee Geometric Nonlinear PID Control of a
Quadrotor UAV on SE(3) in Proceedings of the IEEE European Control
Conference (ECC), 2013
[11] T. Lee, M. Leok, and N. H. McClamroch Nonlinear Robust Tracking
Control of a Quadrotor in Asian Journal of Control, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp.
118, May 2013
[12] Teppo Luukkonen Modelling and control of quadcopter School of
Science, Mat-2.4108, Espoo, August 22, 2011

Fig. 3. Position and velocities on ~i0 and ~j0

V. C ONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

A nonlinear model, suitable for simulation and control, of
the quad-copter was obtained, simulated and controlled using
fairly classical methods. This is a fundamental achievement
for the next step, which would be the trajectory control of
the machine in different scenarios. Hence for the future work,
some advanced control algorithms are to be developed. As the
model is written, it is obvious that upon elimination of the
quadratic terms in velocity, by nonlinear state feedback, the
remaining terms are bounded functions (sin, cos) of χ and φ,
hence some robust control techniques might fit very well. Also,
adaptive control and geometric control techniques present a
great possibility for obtaining remarkable trajectory control
algorithms.
R EFERENCES
[1] T. Lee, M. Leok, and N. H. McClamroch Geometric Tracking Control
of a Quadrotor UAV on SE(3) 49th IEEE Conference on Decision and
Control December 15-17, 2010, Hilton Atlanta Hotel, Atlanta, GA, USA
[2] M. Valenti, B. Bethke, G. Fiore, and J. How Indoor multi-vehicle flight
testbed for fault detection, indoor multi-vehicle flight testbed for fault
detection, isolation, and recovery in Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance,
Navigation and Control Conference, 2006.
[3] G. Hoffmann, H. Huang, S. Waslander, and C. Tomlin, Quadrotor
helicopter flight dynamics and control: Theory and experiment, in Pro-
ceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference,
2007, AIAA 2007-6461.

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