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Preface
Dear Civil Services aspirants,

Civils Front is happy sharing SARAANSH series Prelims comprehensive and to the point booklets for UPSC
prelims exam.
While preparing this document, we had a vision of making booklets which are one stop solution for prelims
covering every important aspect in a comprehensive manner with such presentation which makes things
understood directly and easily. What we cover as a topic in the booklet is very important aspect and more
than that how we cover it holds even more prominence because whatever topic is discussed must be
presented in such a way which makes it easy to understand quickly.

Also it is very important for us as a UPSC aspirant to understand and identify what is important from exam
perspective, so that we do not end up reading vast coverage of topics for hundreds of pages without even
knowing whether it is useful for our exam and conceptual understanding or not. As an aspirant I have always
realised this challenge of what to read and what not to read. As a mentor I think its very important to have
idea about it, because ultimately we have to finish syllabus, revise it several times and practice it enough to
bring accuracy and all this we need to do in time bound manner.

We have with all of our understanding and experiences, tried to bring important content, in single source
reducing the need to read multiple books for one subject. We have also put emphasis on keeping our notes to
the point so that we read only what is important and that has been done with research and analysis of UPSC
PYQ and micro level analysis of UPSC syllabus and its trend and pattern along with the core demand of the
subject.

We are very hopeful that you find this book useful and helpful for UPSC exam.
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Credits
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Editor: Mahendra Pratap Singh
Design and Graphics: Deepak Kumar
Research and development: Civils Front team

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Table of Content

Chapter Chapter name Page

no. number
1 Advent of the Europeans in India 3
2 India on the Eve of British Conquest 9
3 Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India 13
4 People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 24
5 The Revolt of 1857 32
6 Socio-Religious Reform Movements 35
7 Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 46
8 INC: Foundation and the Moderate Phase 48
9 Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) 51
10 First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917) 56
11 First World War (1914-1919) and Indian Nationalism 59
12 Era of Mass Nationalism (1919-1939) 63
13 Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Aandolan 67
14 Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary 70
Activities and Other New Forces
15 Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 74
16 Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table 77
Conferences
17 Nationalist Response in the Wake of World War II 85
18 Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, and the 89
INA
19 Post-War National Scenario 93
20 Independence with Partition 98
21 Economic Impact of British Rule in India 101
22 Survey of British Policies in India 105
23 Movements of various Classes 112
24 Development of Indian Press 119
25 Constitutional, Administrative, Judicial and 123
Educational Developments
26 List of Governor General and Viceroys 136
27 Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India 141
28 Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 144

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1 Advent of the Europeans in India

History is a seamless continuum, making it • Economic Development: Rapid economic
challenging to neatly demarcate the transition growth in Europe increased the demand for
from one period to another. While the modern era oriental luxury goods, leading to a desire for a
of Indian history is often marked by the arrival of direct sea route to India.
Europeans, its roots extend into the medieval • Political and Religious Factors: Venice and
period, back to the 15th century—preceding even Genoa, major trading cities, were unable to
the Mughal Empire's establishment. challenge the Ottoman Turks. Portugal, with its
anti-Islamic stance and exploratory zeal, took
The Portuguese in India the lead in seeking a new route.
Background Portuguese Endeavors
• Post-Roman Empire Era: After the decline of • Prince Henry the Navigator: Prince Henry of
the Roman Empire in the 7th century, Arab Portugal became obsessed with finding a sea
domination in Egypt and Persia led to reduced route to India to bypass Muslim-controlled
direct contact between Europeans and India. routes and spread Christianity.
• Ottoman Conquest: The fall of Constantinople • Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Portugal and
to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 further hindered Spain divided the non-Christian world, allowing
access to Indian commodities like spices, silk, Portugal to explore east of the designated line
and precious stones. in the Atlantic.
• Monopolized Trade Routes: The Red Sea trade • Bartholomew Dias: In 1487, Dias rounded the
route became a state monopoly under Islamic Cape of Good Hope, suggesting the possibility
rulers, while land routes to India were of a sea route to India.
controlled by the Arabs. • Vasco da Gama's Expedition: In 1497, a
European Motivations Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama
• Renaissance Spirit: The 15th-century set out for India, arriving in May 1498,
Renaissance in Europe fueled a desire for successfully establishing a sea route.
exploration and advancements in ship-building
and navigation.
Period Key Actions and Achievements
Governor
of office
1505- • Appointed first governor of Portuguese India.
1509 • Implemented Blue Water Policy.
Francisco De
• Built fortresses at Anjadiva, Cochin, Cannanore, and Kilwa.
Almeida
• Defeated combined Egyptian and Gujarat navies in 1508.
• Aimed to make Portuguese the master of the Indian Ocean.
1509- • Secured strategic control of the Indian Ocean.
1515 • Established Portuguese bases in East Africa, Ormuz, Malabar, and Malacca.
Alfonso de • Introduced permit system for ships.
Albuquerque • Acquired Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510.
• Abolished sati.
• Promoted intermarriage and development in Goa.
1529- • Shifted headquarters of Portuguese government in India from Cochin to
1538 Goa.
Nino da • Secured the island of Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
Cunha • Attempted to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal, with Hooghly as
headquarters.
• Involved in the killing of Bahadur Shah in 1537.

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Favourable Conditions for Portuguese in India
• Political Fragmentation: Northern India was
divided among many small powers, and the
Bahmani Kingdom in the Deccan was breaking
up into smaller kingdoms.
• Lack of Naval Power: None of the Indian
powers had a significant navy or plans to
develop naval strength.
• Chinese Restrictions: The Chinese emperor's
decree limited the navigational reach of
Chinese ships.
• Arab Competition: Arab merchants and ship-
owners, who dominated the Indian Ocean
trade, could not match the organization and
unity of the Portuguese, who also had cannons
on their ships.
Portuguese State in India
• Extent of Control: Within fifty years of Vasco
da Gama's arrival, the Portuguese controlled
many coastal parts of India, including a sixty-
mile coast around Goa, key ports from Mumbai
to Daman and Diu, and a chain of seaport
fortresses and trading posts in the south.
• Influence: The Portuguese had enough power
in Malabar to influence local rulers and
established military posts and settlements on
the east coast at San Thome and Nagapatnam,
as well as a wealthy settlement at Hooghly in
West Bengal.
• Diplomatic Relations: Envoys and
ambassadors were exchanged between Goa
and major Indian kingdoms, with treaties
signed and regularly renewed with the Deccan
sultans. The Portuguese played a role in the
power dynamics between various Indian
states.
• Longevity: The Portuguese were the first
Europeans to come to India and the last to
leave, with Goa, Daman, and Diu being
recaptured by the Government of India in
1961.
Portuguese Administration in India
• Viceroy: The head of the administration was
the viceroy, who served for three years and
was assisted by a secretary and, in later years,
a council.
• Revenue and Trade: The Vedor da Fazenda
was responsible for revenues, cargoes, and
dispatch of fleets.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Fortress Management: Fortresses from Africa
to China were managed by captains, assisted
by 'factors', whose power often led to personal
gains due to communication difficulties.
Religious Policy of the Portuguese
• Initial Tolerance: The Portuguese were initially
tolerant towards Hindus but were intolerant
towards Muslims, reflecting their conflicts with
Moors and Arabs in North Africa.
• Inquisition in Goa: Over time, the Portuguese
introduced the Inquisition in Goa, leading to
the persecution of Hindus as well.
• Jesuit Missions to Akbar's Court:
o First Mission (1580): Jesuits Rodolfo
Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate were
sent to Akbar's court but failed to convert
him to Christianity.
o Second Mission (1590): Ended similarly in
1592 without converting Akbar.
o Third Mission (1595): Established a more
permanent presence in Lahore, influencing
secular politics but not achieving
conversion.
• Jahangir's Reign:
o Initially neglected Jesuits but later
renewed favours in 1606.
o Allowed the Jesuits to retain a church and
residence in Lahore.
o Hopes of converting Jahangir to
Christianity were belied.
Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals
• Captain William Hawkins arrived in Surat in
1608 with a letter from King James I of
England, seeking trading permissions.
• Hawkins received a favorable reception from
Jahangir and was appointed as a mansabdar.
• Portuguese attempts to prevent English trade
were unsuccessful, leading to a truce between
the Portuguese and the Mughal emperor.
• Portuguese acts of piracy led to conflicts with
the Mughal government, resulting in the loss of
their advantages in the Mughal court during
Shah Jahan's reign.
Capture of Hooghly
• Portuguese settled in Hooghly, Bengal,
monopolizing salt manufacture and enforcing
duty on tobacco.
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• They engaged in slave trade, capturing Hindu
and Muslim children.
• Mughal siege of Hooghly in 1632 led to its
capture, with Portuguese fleeing and Mughals
taking prisoners to Agra.
• Prisoners were offered the option to convert to
Islam or become slaves, leading to persecution
of Christians, which gradually subsided.
Decline of the Portuguese:
• Lost commercial influence by the 18th
century, with some engaging in piracy.
• Decline due to the emergence of powerful
dynasties, rise of the Marathas, and
resentment towards their religious policies and
dishonest trade practices.
• Discovery of Brazil and union with Spain
diverted attention and resources, affecting
their monopoly in India.
• Competition from the Dutch and English, who
had greater resources, led to the loss of
Portuguese possessions.
Portuguese Contributions:
• Introduced naval power and military
innovations such as cannon, body armor, and
matchlock men.
• Influenced the use of field guns and artillery
by other powers like the Mughals, Marathas,
and Sikhs.
• Improved techniques at sea with multi-decked
ships and organized systems of pilots and
mapping.
• Contributed to the cultural field, especially in
the arts of painting, carving, sculpting, and
architecture, despite the negative impact of
religious persecution.
The Dutch UPSC (2022)
The Dutch in India
• The Dutch East India Company was formed in
1602 with powers to conduct war, conclude
treaties, and establish territories.
• Established their first factory in Masulipatnam
(1605) and expanded to various regions
including the Coromandel coast, Gujarat,
Bengal, and Bihar.
• Major trading centers included Surat, Pulicat,
Bimlipatam, Karaikal, Chinsura, Kasimbazar,
Balasore, Patna, Nagapatam, and Cochin.
5 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Traded in indigo, textiles, silk, saltpetre, opium,
and rice, and participated in the carrying trade
to the Far East.
Anglo-Dutch Rivalry:
• Faced competition from the English in Eastern
trade, leading to commercial rivalry and
warfare.
• The Amboyna massacre (1623) intensified the
rivalry, resulting in the massacre of Englishmen
and Japanese by the Dutch.
• The rivalry ended with a compromise in 1667,
with the British withdrawing from Indonesia
and the Dutch focusing on their trade in the
region.
Decline of the Dutch in India
• Drawn into the trade of the Malay Archipelago
and affected by the third Anglo-Dutch War
(1672-74).
• The battle of Hooghly (1759) was a significant
defeat for the Dutch, diminishing their
ambitions in India.
• Primarily focused on trade rather than empire-
building, with their main commercial interest
in the Spice Islands of Indonesia.
The English UPSC (2021)
Charter of Queen Elizabeth I
• Background: Francis Drake's global voyage in
1580 and the English victory over the Spanish
Armada in 1588 inspired British enterprise in
the East.
• Formation of Company: In 1599, English
merchants formed the 'Merchant Adventurers'
company. On December 31, 1600, Queen
Elizabeth I issued a charter granting exclusive
trading rights to the 'Governor and Company
of Merchants of London trading into the East
Indies'.
• Monopoly Extension: Initially granted a
fifteen-year monopoly, extended indefinitely
in May 1609. The English focused on India for
textiles and other commodities as the Dutch
concentrated on the East Indies.
Progress of the English Company
Foothold in West and South
• Initial Challenges: Captain Hawkins' mission to
establish a factory at Surat in 1609 was
unsuccessful due to Portuguese opposition.
• Establishment of Factories: Started trading at
Masulipatnam in 1611 and established a
factory there in 1616. Captain Thomas Best
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defeated the Portuguese off Surat in 1612,
leading to the establishment of a factory at
Surat in 1613.
• Sir Thomas Roe's Mission: As ambassador of
James I, Sir Thomas Roe secured privileges
from Jahangir between 1615 and 1619,
including permission to set up factories at
Agra, Ahmedabad, and Broach.
Expansion and Consolidation
• Bombay Acquisition: In 1662, Bombay was
gifted to King Charles II by the King of Portugal
as a dowry, and transferred to the East India
Company in 1668 for an annual payment of ten
pounds. Bombay became the headquarters of
the Western Presidency in 1687.
• Anglo-Dutch Compromise: The Dutch agreed
not to interfere with the English company's
trade in India, eliminating a major rival.
• Golden Farman: In 1632, the Sultan of
Golconda issued the 'Golden Farman', allowing
the English company to trade freely in
Golconda ports for a payment of 500 pagodas
a year.
• Madras Establishment: Francis Day received
permission in 1639 from the ruler of
Chandragiri to build a fortified factory at
Madras, which became Fort St. George and the
headquarters of English settlements in South
India.
Foothold in Bengal:
• Bengal, a rich province, was important for
English merchants.
• Shah Shuja allowed English trade in 1651 with
an annual payment of Rs 3,000.
• Factories established in Hooghly, Kasimbazar,
Patna, and Rajmahal.
• Hostilities with Mughals led to the sacking of
Hooghly in 1686.
• Job Charnock negotiated a return to Sutanuti
in 1690, establishing an English factory.
• In 1698, the English bought the zamindari of
Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata,
establishing Fort William.
Farrukhsiyar’s Farmans:
• In 1715, John Surman secured three farmans
from Emperor Farrukhsiyar, granting privileges
in Bengal, Gujarat, and Hyderabad.
• The farmans exempted the Company's imports
and exports from additional customs duties in
Bengal, allowed the issuance of dastaks, and
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
permitted the Company to rent more lands
around Calcutta.
• In Hyderabad and Surat, the Company was
granted freedom from duties and had to pay
an annual fee.
Merging of Two English Companies:
• After the English revolution of 1688,
opposition to the East India Company's
monopoly led to the formation of a rival
company.
• The two companies were amalgamated in
1708 under the title of 'United Company of
Merchants of England Trading to the East
Indies', marking the beginning of the East India
Company's rise to political power in India.
The French
Foundation of French Centres in India
• French interest in Eastern commerce began in
the 16th century, but their arrival in India was
late.
• The French East India Company (Compagnie
des Indes Orientales) was founded in 1664 by
Minister Colbert and King Louis XIV.
• The company was granted a 50-year monopoly
on French trade in the Indian and Pacific
Oceans and a concession for the island of
Madagascar.
• First French factory established in Surat in
1667 by Francois Caron, followed by another in
Masulipatnam in 1669.
• In 1673, the French obtained permission to
establish a township at Chandernagore near
Calcutta.
Pondicherry—Nerve Centre of French Power in
India
• Pondicherry was founded in 1674 by Francois
Martin, who became the French governor.
• The French company established factories in
other coastal regions, including Mahe,
Karaikal, Balasore, and Qasim Bazar.
• Pondicherry developed as the stronghold of
the French in India.
Early Setbacks to the French East India Company
• The French position in India was affected by
the war between the Dutch and the French,
with Pondicherry captured by the Dutch in
1693.
• The Treaty of Ryswick (1697) restored
Pondicherry to the French, but the Dutch held
it for two more years.
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• The War of Spanish Succession led to the • Background: The Anglo-French rivalry in India,
abandonment of French factories at Surat, manifested through three Carnatic Wars
Masulipatnam, and Bantam. between 1740 and 1763, was an extension of
• Francois Martin, the key figure in the their traditional rivalry in Europe. Initially
development of Pondicherry, died on drawn to India for trade, both British and
December 31, 1706. French were eventually entangled in the
Reorganisation of the French Company: politics of the region, aiming to establish
• In 1720, the French company was reorganised political dominance.
as the 'Perpetual Company of the Indies', • The uncertain political situation in South India,
reviving its strength. marked by the weakening of the Nizam's
• The company's position was enhanced under power in Hyderabad and the absence of strong
the leadership of governors Lenoir and Dumas rulers along the Coromandel coast, provided a
between 1720 and 1742. fertile ground for their ambitions. The rivalry
• The French presence in India was supported by concluded with the English emerging as the
their possession of Mauritius and Reunion in dominant European power in India, decisively
the southern Indian Ocean. defeating the French in the Third Carnatic War
and diminishing their political influence
The Anglo-French Struggle: the Carnatic Wars through the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
War Time Key Points
Period
First 1740-1748 Extension of the Anglo-French War in Europe.
Carnatic Ended with the Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle; Madras returned to the English.
War Battle of St. Thome: French under Captain Paradise defeated forces of
Anwaruddin, Nawab of Carnatic.
Second 1749-1754 French Governor Dupleix tried to increase French influence in South India.
Carnatic Caused by succession struggles in Hyderabad and Carnatic.
War Battle of Ambur (1749): Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib, and the French defeated
Anwaruddin.
Robert Clive captured Arcot in 1751; Chanda Sahib failed to retake Arcot.
Dupleix recalled in 1754; English and French agreed not to interfere in native
disputes.
Third 1756-1763 Result of the Seven Years’ War in Europe.
Carnatic Battle of Wandiwash (1760): English under General Eyre Coote defeated
War French under Count de Lally.
English emerged as the supreme European power in India.
Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) restored French factories but ended their
political influence.

Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India • Enhanced defenses of Pondicherry and

Rise of Dupleix
• Born in 1697, became Governor-General of
Pondicherry in 1741.
• Known for his administrative, diplomatic skills,
and political insight.
• Played a key role in the First and Second
Carnatic Wars, supporting Muzzaffar Jang for
Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib for Carnatic.
Dupleix as Administrator
• Balanced income and expenditure of the
French East India Company.
developed trade.
• Praised by Company Directors for his decisions.
Dupleix as Master of Diplomacy
• Used Nawab of Carnatic to protect French
settlements.
• Convinced Admiral La Bourdonnais to break
promises made to the English.
Fall of Dupleix
• Recalled in 1754 due to defeat in the Second
Carnatic War and heavy costs.

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• Criticized for over-sanguine temperament,
autocratic behavior, and lack of direct action in
battles.
• Failed to capture Trichinopoly due to inability
to turn plans into action.
The Danes
• The Danish East India Company was founded in
1616, with its first trading post established at
Tranquebar near Tanjore in 1620.
• Serampore near Calcutta emerged as the most
significant Danish settlement.
• Unlike other European powers, the Danes
focused primarily on missionary activities
rather than pursuing commercial or political
ambitions.
Reason for the success of the English in India
• Organizational Structure: Unlike the state-
controlled French and Portuguese companies,
the English East India Company was a private
enterprise, managed by a board of directors
and influenced by its shareholders, enabling
quicker decisions and greater enthusiasm.
• Naval Superiority: The Royal Navy's size and
technological advancement, superior to that of
the Portuguese and the French, allowed Britain
to secure victories and disrupt French sea links
with their Indian territories.
• Industrial Edge: The early onset of the
Industrial Revolution in England provided a
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
technological and economic advantage in
textiles, metallurgy, and agriculture,
supporting military and commercial expansion.
• Military Expertise: British forces, known for
their training and discipline, benefited from
innovative tactics and technological progress,
outmatching their European counterparts.
• Stable Governance: Britain's political stability
contrasted with the upheavals and wars in
other European nations, allowing for
uninterrupted focus on colonial expansion.
• Religious Tolerance: The British exhibited
lesser zeal in spreading Christianity, making
their rule more palatable to Indian subjects.
• Financial Strategy: The innovative use of debt
markets and the financial support of the Bank
of England enabled Britain to finance wars
effectively, outspending rivals like France,
which faced bankruptcy.
• Strategic Holdings and Focus: Holding key
locations such as Calcutta, Bombay, and
Madras, and balancing commercial interests
with territorial ambitions, provided a stable
financial base and strategic advantages over
the French, who were more focused on
territorial control at the expense of commerce.
• Leadership: The English benefited from
effective leadership, with commanders like Sir
Eyre Coote and Robert Clive, in contrast to the
French reliance on figures like Dupleix.
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2 India on the Eve of British Conquest

Introduction • Nadir Shah's Invasion (1738-39): Nadir Shah,

the Persian emperor, invaded India, defeated
• Decline of the Mughal Empire: The decline of
the Mughal army at Karnal, and looted Delhi,
the Mughal Empire began during the reign of
taking treasures like the Peacock Throne and
Aurangzeb (1658-1707), whose policies
the Kohinoor diamond.
weakened the stability of the state.
• Territorial Gains: Nadir Shah acquired strategic
• Post-Aurangzeb Era: The decline accelerated
Mughal territories west of the Indus, including
after Aurangzeb's death due to wars of
Kabul, making India vulnerable to north-
succession and weak rulers.
western attacks.
• Muhammad Shah's Reign: Muhammad Shah
• Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions (1748-67):
ruled for 29 years (1719-48), but his
Abdali, Nadir Shah's successor, invaded India
incompetence led to no revival of imperial
multiple times, capturing Punjab and Delhi,
fortunes.
and appointing an Afghan caretaker for the
• Rise of Independent States: During
Mughal emperor.
Muhammad Shah's reign, independent states
• Maratha Involvement: In 1758, Maratha chief
like Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh, and Punjab
Raghunath Rao expelled Najib-ud-Daula from
were established.
Delhi and captured Punjab.
• Maratha Ascendancy: The Marathas began to
• Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Abdali defeated
assert their dominance and aimed to inherit
the Marathas in a decisive battle, impacting
the imperial mantle of the declining Mughal
the power dynamics in northern India.
Empire.
• Final Invasion (1767): Abdali's last invasion
Challenges before the Mughals occurred in 1767, marking the end of his
military campaigns in India.
External
Internal challenges - Weak Rulers
Mughal Reign Period Key Facts and Events
Emperor
Bahadur 1709–March • Won war of succession at 63, killed his brothers for the throne.
Shah I 1712 Adopted pacific policies with Marathas, Rajputs, and Jats.
• Released Maratha prince Shahu, confirmed Rajput chiefs.
• Action against Sikh leader Banda Bahadur. Died in February 1712.
Jahandar March 1712- • Became emperor with Zulfikar Khan's help.
Shah February 1713 • Abolished Jaziya, introduced izara system.
• Short reign marked by prime minister Zulfikar Khan's influence.
Farrukhsiyar 1713-1719 • Ascended throne with Sayyid brothers' help.
• Abolished Jaziya and pilgrimage tax.
• Granted farmans to the British in 1717.
• Dethroned and killed by Sayyid brothers in 1719.
Rafi-ud- February 28 to • Ruled for the shortest period among Mughals.
Darajat June 4, 1719
Rafi-ud- June 6 to • Placed on throne by Sayyid brothers as Shah Jahan II. Known opium
Daula September 17, addict.
1719
Muhammad 1719-48 • Known as ‘Rangeela’ for his luxurious lifestyle.
Shah • Overcame Sayyid Brothers with Nizam-ul-Mulk's help.
• Saw the foundation of Hyderabad by Nizam-ul-Mulk.
• Defeated by Nadir Shah in 1739, lost territories west of the Indus.

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Ahmad 1748-1754 • Incompetent ruler, state affairs managed by Udham Bai and Javid
Shah Khan.
• Reign marked by negligence and decline.
Alamgir II 1754-1758 • Grandson of Jahandar Shah.
• Reign saw the Battle of Plassey.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded during his reign.
Shah Alam II 1759-1806 • Witnessed Third Battle of Panipat and Battle of Buxar. Under British
protection post-Treaty of Allahabad, issued farman granting Diwani to
the Company.
• Became a Maratha protégé, later a British pensioner.
Akbar II 1806-37 • Granted title of Raja to Rammohan Rai. Mughal coins stopped in 1835.
Bahadur 1837-1857 • Last Mughal emperor, involved in the Revolt of 1857.
Shah II • Exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862.
• Mughal Empire legally ended with Queen Victoria's declaration in
1858.

Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire

• Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars: During the medieval period, zamindars shared power with the
emperor, helping in revenue collection and local administration. The Mughals tried to curb their power
but were not entirely successful. The increase in the power of zamindars during Aurangzeb's reign
encouraged regional loyalties and contributed to the decline of the empire.
• Jagirdari Crisis: The nobility, comprising people assigned large jagirs and mansabs or appointed as
subahdars, played a central role in administering the empire. Divisiveness among the nobility based on
religion, homeland, and tribe led to mutual rivalry and contributed to the decline of the empire.
• Rise of Regional Aspirations: Powerful regional groups like the Jats, Sikhs, and Marathas defied Mughal
authority, weakening the empire. The Rajputs, initially suppressed by Aurangzeb, later battled against
the Mughals. The Marathas expanded their influence, further affecting Mughal might.
• Economic and Administrative Problems: The number of amirs and their ranks increased, leading to a
shortage of jagirs. Aurangzeb's solution to show enhanced income from jagirs on record only
antagonized the amirs and peasantry. Wars, luxurious lifestyles, reduction in khalisa land, and lack of
significant scientific and technological advances burdened the state. The empire's vast size made
efficient administration difficult with weak and incompetent rulers.
Rise of Regional States
Region Founder / Key Establishment / Key Events
Figure
Hyderabad Nizam-ul-Mulk Nizam-ul-Mulk defeated Mubariz Khan in 1724, assumed control of
(Kilich Khan) Deccan. Established Hyderabad as a major political and cultural center,
with Nizam-ul-Mulk serving as an autonomous ruler under nominal
Mughal sovereignty.
Awadh Saadat Khan Saadat Khan Founded Awadh, committed suicide under pressure from
(Burhan-ul- Nadir Shah. Succeeded by Safdar Jang. Awadh became a significant
Mulk) cultural and political hub, with Lucknow as its capital.
Bengal Murshid Kuli Made Bengal prosperous, succeeded by Shuja-ud-din and then Sarfaraz
Khan Khan, who was killed by Alivardi Khan in 1740. Bengal became a major
center of trade and commerce under their rule, with Murshidabad as the
capital.
The Rajputs Ajit Singh, Jai Attempted to re-establish independence, faced conflicts with Mughal
Singh II, ruler Bahadur Shah I. The Rajput states, including Mewar, Marwar, and

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Durgadas Amber, sought to regain autonomy and resist Mughal control, leading to
Rathor various military campaigns and alliances.
Mysore Haider Ali, Tipu Haider Ali took control of Mysore, followed by his son Tipu Sultan, both
Sultan engaged in warfare with the British. Mysore emerged as a strong military
power in South India, with significant modernization and expansion under
their rule.
Kerala Martanda Established independent state of Kerala with Travancore as capital,
Varma extended boundaries, modernized army. Martanda Varma's reign marked
the consolidation of Travancore and significant military and administrative
reforms.
The Jats Churaman, Established Jat state of Bharatpur, reached zenith under Suraj Mal,
Badan Singh, declined after his death in 1763. The Jats became a formidable regional
Suraj Mal power, engaging in conflicts with neighboring states and the Mughals, and
developing a strong agrarian economy.
The Sikhs Guru Gobind Transformed into a militant sect, Banda Bahadur led Sikhs until his defeat
Singh, Banda and death, Ranjit Singh established a strong kingdom of Punjab,
Bahadur, modernized army, died in 1839. The Sikhs emerged as a significant military
Ranjit Singh and political force, with Ranjit Singh's rule marking the peak of Sikh
sovereignty in the Punjab region.
The Peshwas Uprooted Mughal authority from Malwa and Gujarat, faced challenge
Marathas from Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), later
challenged the English for supremacy in India. The Marathas established
a confederacy with the Peshwas as de facto leaders, expanding their
influence across central and northern India and becoming a major
contender for power in the 18th century.
Rohilakhand Ali Established kingdom of Rohilakhand amidst collapse of authority in north
Muhammad India post-Nadir Shah's invasion. Suffered from conflicts with other
Khan powers. Rohilakhand became a strategically important region, with the
Rohillas playing a significant role in the power dynamics of North India.
Farukhabad Mohammad Established independent kingdom east of Delhi during the reigns of
Khan Bangash Farrukhsiyar and Muhammad Shah. Farukhabad emerged as a center of
Afghan power in the region, with Mohammad Khan Bangash asserting his
authority and establishing a dynasty.

Nature of these States • Jagirdari Crisis: Declining agricultural income

• Mughal Ties: Independent states-maintained
ties with the Mughal authority, acknowledging
the emperor's symbolic importance.
• Regional Polity: Polity was regional, supported
by local groups like zamindars and merchants.
Provincial rulers balanced local interests for
stability.
• Exceptions: Some states, like Mysore, did not
recognize local chieftains.
• Limitations: Regional states struggled with
financial, administrative, and military
organization, and were generally backward in
science and technology.
• Warfare: Constant warfare among regional
states prevented any from dominating and
establishing a stable all-India polity.
and increased contenders for surplus
intensified the crisis.
• Economic Stagnation: While trade prospered,
the rest of the economy, particularly
agriculture, stagnated.
Socio-Economic Conditions
• Eighteenth-century India experienced
economic, social, and cultural stagnation, with
extreme poverty and luxury coexisting. The
common populace lived in poverty, while the
rich enjoyed lavishness. However, the
condition of Indian masses was relatively
better than after 100 years of British rule.
• Agriculture: Agriculture was technically
backward but sustained by peasant labor.
Peasants were burdened with exorbitant

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payments to the state, zamindars, jagirdars,
and revenue-farmers, a situation that
worsened under British rule.
• Trade and Industry: India was self-sufficient in
handicrafts and agricultural products, with
exports exceeding imports. Trade was
balanced by the import of silver and gold. India
was known as a sink of precious metals.
• Items of Import and Export:
o Imports included pearls, raw silk, wool,
dates, coffee, gold, tea, sugar, porcelain,
and ivory.
o Exports included cotton textiles, silk
fabrics, indigo, saltpetre, opium, spices,
precious stones, and drugs.
o Important Centres of Textile Industry: Key
centers included Dacca, Murshidabad,
Patna, Surat, Ahmedabad, Varanasi,
Lucknow, Agra, Lahore, Masulipatnam,
and Kashmir for woollen manufactures.
• Ship-building Industry: Maharashtra, Andhra
region, and Bengal were leaders in ship-
building. Indian shipping also flourished on the
Kerala coast at Calicut and Quilon. The Zamorin
of Calicut and Shivaji Bhonsle's navy were
notable for their seafaring abilities. European
companies often bought Indian-made ships for
their use.
• Education: 18th-century education in India
was traditional, focusing on literature, law,
religion, philosophy, and logic, excluding
physical and natural sciences. Elementary
education was widespread, with pathshalas
and maktabs for Hindus and Muslims
respectively. Higher education centers
included Chatuspathis or Tols for Sanskrit and
Madrasahs for Persian and Arabic.
• Societal Set-up: Society was characterized by
traditional outlook and stagnation, divided by
caste, religion, region, tribe, and language. The
family system was patriarchal, with caste
playing a central role in social life. Despite
Islam's emphasis on social equality, Muslims
were also divided by caste, race, tribe, and
status.
• Position of Women: Women had little
individuality, with upper-class women
confined to homes and lower-class women
working outside. Social customs like purdah,
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
sati, child marriage, and polygamy hindered
women's progress. Efforts to promote widow
remarriage by Raja Sawai Jai Singh and
Prashuram Bhau failed.
• Menace of Slavery: Slavery was widespread,
with people selling their offspring due to
economic distress. Slaves were generally
treated as hereditary servants rather than
menials, with marriages among slaves resulting
in free offspring. The advent of Europeans
heightened slavery and slave trade, with
European trading companies purchasing slaves
from Bengal, Assam, and Bihar for the
European and American market.
Art, Architecture and Culture
• Patronage Shift: With the decline of the
Mughal Empire, talented individuals sought
patronage from newly established state courts
like Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur,
Murshidabad, Patna, and Kashmir.
• Architectural Developments:
o Asaf-ud-Daula built the Bada Imambara in
Lucknow in 1784.
o Sawai Jai Singh constructed the pink city of
Jaipur and five astronomical observatories
in various cities in the first half of the 18th
century.
o The Padmanabhapuram Palace in Kerala,
known for its architecture and mural
paintings, was constructed.
• Painting: New schools of painting, such as the
Rajputana and Kangra schools, emerged and
gained prominence, showcasing new vitality
and taste.
• Literature:
o The growth of Urdu language and poetry
was a distinct feature, with poets like Mir,
Sauda, Nazir, and Mirza Ghalib.
o Malayalam literature flourished under the
patronage of the Travancore rulers, with
Kanchan Nambiar as a noted poet.
o Tamil literature was enriched by sittar
poetry, with Tayumanavar being a
prominent exponent.
o Heer Ranjha, a romantic epic in Punjabi
literature, was composed by Warris Shah.
o In Sindhi literature, Shah Abdul Latif
composed Risalo, a collection of poems.
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3 Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India
Causes of British India Success
• Superior Arms, Military, and Strategy: The
English had better firearms and military
discipline compared to Indian forces. Indian
rulers attempted to adopt European arms and
training but could not match the effectiveness
of English armies.
• Regular Salary and Discipline: The English
Company maintained loyalty through regular
salary payments and strict discipline, while
many Indian rulers struggled with financial
constraints and undisciplined troops.
• Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System:
English officers were chosen based on skill and
reliability, whereas Indian administrators were
often appointed based on caste and personal
relationships, compromising their
competence.
• Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second
Line Leaders: The English had exceptional
leaders like Clive, Warren Hastings, and
Dalhousie, supported by competent secondary
leaders. Indian leaders, despite their brilliance,
lacked cohesive teams and often fought among
themselves.
• Strong Financial Backup: The Company had
adequate income to finance wars in India and
was supported by England's substantial profits
from global trade, providing a vast pool of
resources.
• Nationalist Pride: The British possessed a
sense of national pride and material
advancement, while Indians lacked a unified
political nationalism and materialistic vision,
contributing to the success of the English
Company.
British Conquest of Bengal
• Bengal's Richness: Bengal was the richest
province of the Mughal Empire, including
present-day Bangladesh, Bihar, and Odisha. It
was a significant center for exports to Europe,
including saltpetre, rice, indigo, pepper, sugar,
silk, cotton textiles, and handicrafts.
• English East India Company: The company had
vital commercial interests in Bengal, with
nearly 60% of British imports from Asia
13 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
consisting of goods from Bengal. They
established factories in Balasore, Hooghly,
Kasimbazar, Patna, and Dacca during the 1630s
and founded Calcutta in the 1690s.
• Rulers of Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan became
the Dewan of Bengal in 1700 and ruled until
1727, succeeded by Shujauddin and then
Sarfaraz Khan, who was replaced by Alivardi
Khan. Alivardi Khan stopped paying tributes to
the Mughal emperor and ruled until 1756.
• Prosperity of Bengal: Bengal experienced
unprecedented progress under these rulers,
largely escaping the disturbances that affected
the rest of India, such as inter-border disputes,
Maratha invasions, Jat revolts, and invasions
by Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali.
• Population Growth: The population of
Calcutta rose significantly, and other cities like
Dacca and Murshidabad also became highly
populous.
• Conflict with the English Company: Bengal's
governors resented the special privileges
enjoyed by the English company, leading to
friction between the company and the Bengal
government. This conflict eventually resulted
in the transfer of power from the Nawabs of
Bengal to the British between 1757 and 1765.
Key Information
• Alivardi Khan's Rise: Became Subahdar of
Bengal in 1741 after defeating Nawab
Sarfaraz Khan and consolidating his position
by paying the Mughal Emperor Muhammad
Shah.
• Rule and Challenges: Ruled for 15 years,
fending off Maratha incursions. Granted
permission to the English to fortify Fort
William but later became wary of European
power in the Carnatic region.
• Succession: Died in 1756, succeeded by his
grandson Siraj-ud-daula.
• Siraj-ud-daula's Challenges: Inherited a
troubled situation with rivals like Shaukat
Jang, Ghasiti Begum, and Mir Jafar, as well
as opposition from influential court figures
like Jagat Seth and Omichand.
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• Actions: Took decisive actions against his
rivals, including defeating and killing
Shaukat Jang, securing Ghasiti Begum, and
replacing Mir Jafar with Mir Madan.
Appointed Mohan Lal as the chief
administrator.
• Threat from the English: Faced growing
threats from the English Company's
commercial activities, leading to insecurity
and impulsive decisions.
Battle of Plassey (1757)
• Background: The English Company's misuse of
trade privileges, fortification of Calcutta
without permission, and asylum to Krishna Das
strained relations with Nawab Siraj-ud-daula.
The Nawab's attack on the English fort at
Calcutta escalated hostilities.
• The Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): Robert
Clive's arrival from Madras with a strong force
and his secret alliance with Siraj's officials,
including Mir Jafar and Jagat Seth, ensured
English victory. The battle resulted in the
defeat of Siraj's much larger force due to
internal betrayal.
• Aftermath: Siraj-ud-daula was captured and
murdered, and Mir Jafar was installed as the
Nawab of Bengal, rewarding the English with
large sums of money and the zamindari of 24
Parganas.
• Significance: The Battle of Plassey marked the
beginning of British rule in India, establishing
their military supremacy in Bengal and ousting
the French. It laid the foundation for the British
Empire in India, with the English gaining
control over Bengal's trade and commerce and
posting a Resident at the Nawab's court.
Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760
• Conspiracy with the Dutch: Mir Jafar
conspired with the Dutch at Chinsura, leading
to their defeat by the English at Bedara in
November 1759.
• Succession Dispute: A fight for the nawabship
of Bengal ensued between Mir Kasim, Mir
Jafar's son-in-law, and Miran's son after
Miran's death.
• Treaty of 1760: Mir Kasim signed a treaty with
the Company, ceding districts of Burdwan,
Midnapur, and Chittagong, agreeing to share in
chunam trade, paying outstanding dues,
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
financing the Company's war efforts, and
aligning enemies and friends.
• Resignation of Mir Jafar: Under Company
pressure, Mir Jafar resigned in favor of Mir
Kasim, receiving a pension of Rs 1,500 per
annum.
• Actions of Mir Kasim: Mir Kasim, the ablest
nawab after Alivardi Khan, shifted the capital
to Munger, reorganized the bureaucracy, and
remodeled the army for better efficiency.
The Battle of Buxar (1764)
• Mir Kasim's Defiance: Contrary to the
Company's expectations, Mir Kasim refused to
be a puppet, leading to tension over revenue
and authority issues, especially with the
misuse of the Company's dastak.
• Transit Duty Dispute: The dispute over transit
duty and misuse of trade permits by the
Company officials escalated tensions, leading
Mir Kasim to abolish duties, which was
protested by the British.
• Outbreak of Wars: Disputes led to wars
between the English and Mir Kasim in 1763,
with the English achieving victories in several
battles, forcing Mir Kasim to flee to Awadh.
• Formation of Confederacy: Mir Kasim formed
a confederacy with the Nawab of Awadh,
Shuja-ud-daulah, and Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II to recover Bengal.
• Battle of Buxar: The combined forces were
defeated by the English under Major Hector
Munro on October 22, 1764, marking a
significant victory for the English and
establishing them as a major power in
northern India.
• Aftermath: The victory at Buxar allowed the
English to demand concessions, including the
handover of districts for army maintenance
and permission for duty-free trade in Bengal,
firmly establishing English supremacy in the
region.
• Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Two treaties
were concluded by Robert Clive at
Allahabad, one with Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula
of Awadh and the other with Mughal
Emperor Shah Alam II.
• Terms with Nawab of Awadh: Nawab Shuja-
ud-Daula agreed to surrender Allahabad and
Kara to Shah Alam II, pay Rs 50 lakh as war
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indemnity to the Company, and give Mysore’s Resistance to the Company

Balwant Singh of Banaras full possession of • Emergence of Wodeyar Kingdom: After the
his estate. battle of Talikota (1565), the Wodeyar
• Terms with Shah Alam II: The Emperor kingdom emerged in Mysore in 1612, with
agreed to reside at Allahabad under the Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II ruling from 1734
Company's protection, issue a farman to 1766.
granting diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa • Rise of Mysore: In the second half of the 18th
to the Company for an annual payment of Rs century, Mysore became a formidable power
26 lakh, and provide Rs 53 lakh to the under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, posing a
Company for nizamat functions. threat to English interests in south India due to
• Strategic Considerations: Clive did not its proximity to the French and control over
annex Awadh to avoid obligations of Malabar coast trade.
protecting a large land frontier from Afghan • Rise of Haidar Ali: Haidar Ali, born in 1721,
and Maratha invasions, making Awadh a started as a horseman in the Mysore army and
buffer state and the Nawab a firm ally of the became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761.
Company. The arrangement with Shah Alam He modernized the army with French help and
II made the Emperor a "rubber stamp" of the used diplomatic skills to expand Mysore's
Company, legitimizing its political gains in territory.
Bengal. • Military Campaigns: Haidar Ali captured
• Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72): several territories and faced repeated Maratha
Introduced by Clive, it involved the rule of incursions. After the Maratha leader
both the Company and the Nawab, with the Madhavrao's death in 1772, Haidar Ali
Company controlling diwani and nizamat regained lost territories and expanded
functions. The Nawab was responsible for Mysore's domain during 1774-76.
maintaining peace and order but depended • The old Hindu dynasty of the Wodeyars was
on the Company for funds and forces. restored with Krishnaraja III as a minor ruler
• Administrative Breakdown: The dual under a subsidiary alliance. In 1831, William
system led to administrative chaos and Bentinck assumed control of Mysore due to
neglect of public welfare. Warren Hastings misgovernance, but in 1881, Lord Ripon
abolished the dual system in 1772 to returned the kingdom to its ruler.
improve governance.
Anglo Mysore War
War Period Key Points
First Anglo- 1767- • English confidence post Bengal success; treaty with Nizam.
Mysore War 69 • Haidar Ali neutralized Marathas, allied with Nizam, attacked Nawab of
Arcot. Inconclusive war; Treaty of Madras with mutual aid provisions.
Second Anglo- 1780- • English concerned about Haidar's friendship with French; tried to capture
Mysore War 84 Mahe. Haidar allied with Marathas and Nizam, attacked Carnatic.
• English under Sir Eyre Coote defeated Haidar at Porto Novo. Treaty of
Mangalore returned territories; Haidar Ali died in 1782; succeeded by Tipu
Sultan.
Third Anglo- 1792 • Dispute between Tipu and Travancore led to war with English siding with
Mysore War Travancore. English attacked Seringapatam, succeeded.
• Treaty of Seringapatam resulted in significant territorial changes; war
indemnity imposed on Tipu.
Fourth Anglo- 1799 • Tipu declared himself Sultan, sought to avenge humiliation by British. Lord
Mysore War Wellesley concerned about Tipu's French alliance; war began.
• English captured Seringapatam; Tipu defeated and killed. New maharaja
appointed under subsidiary alliance system.

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Anglo Maratha Conflict
• As the Mughal Empire weakened, the
Marathas rose to prominence, controlling
much of India by the mid-18th century. Under
Peshwa Bajirao I, a confederacy of Maratha
chiefs was established, including notable
families like
o Gaekwads of Baroda
o Bhonsle of Nagpur
o Holkars of Indore
o Sindhias of Gwalior
o Peshwa of Poona.
• However, the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761
and subsequent internal disputes weakened
their unity. In the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, the Marathas clashed with the
British in three wars, with the British
eventually emerging victorious.
• The British aimed to establish a government
similar to that in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa,
exploiting the Maratha succession disputes to
their advantage.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)
• Succession Disagreements: Conflict arose
within the Maratha leadership between the
Twelve Maratha chiefs, led by Nana Phadnavis,
and Raghunath Rao.
• Treaty of Surat (1775): Raghunath Rao sought
English assistance, ceding territories of
Salsette and Bassein to the English.
• Treaty of Purandhar (1776): British Calcutta
Council's agreement with the Maratha
regency, renouncing Raghunath Rao and
granting him a pension.
• Treaty Violation: Nana Phadnavis violated the
Treaty of Purandhar, leading to war. Maratha
army, led by Mahadji Scindia, employed a
scorched earth strategy.
• Treaty of Wadgaon: Resulted in English
surrender and return of all territories to the
Marathas.
• Warren Hastings' Disapproval: Governor
General in Bengal rejected the Treaty of
Wadgaon and assembled a force that defeated
Sindhia.
• Treaty of Salbai: Key provisions included
Salsette remaining under English possession,
restoration of territory to the Marathas,
maintenance allowance for Raghunathrao, and
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
peace agreements between allies of both the
Marathas and the English.
Second Anglo- Maratha War
• The English intervened in Maratha affairs due
to divisions among the Marathas, gaining an
advantage with the death of Nana Phadnavis in
1800.
• Bajirao II fled from Jaswant Rao and signed the
Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the English,
which included:
o The Peshwa receiving over 6000 troops
from the Company.
o The Peshwa surrendering the city of
Surat and ceding extra territories to the
Company.
o The Peshwa agreeing not to employ
Europeans from nations at war with the
English and subjecting his relations with
other states to English control.
• The Peshwa accepted the subsidiary alliance,
but the Scindia and Bhonsle families attempted
to preserve Maratha independence. However,
they were defeated by the English under
Arthur Wellesley, leading to the signing of:
o The Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (1803)
with Scindia.
o The Treaty of Devgaon (1803) with
Bhonsle.
• The defeat of the Holkars resulted in the
signing of the Treaty of Rajpurghat (1806).
Third Anglo Marath War
• Lord Hastings' Imperial Ambitions: Aimed to
impose British paramountcy. The end of the
East India Company's monopoly in China
(except for tea) by the Charter Act of 1813
necessitated new markets for trade expansion.
• Pindari Problem: Mercenaries lacking
employment due to Maratha weakness
resorted to plundering, including Company
territories. The English accused Marathas of
sheltering Pindaris. Leaders like Amir Khan and
Karim Khan surrendered, while Chitu Khan
escaped.
• Treaty of Bassein Repercussions: Viewed as a
complete surrender of independence by
Maratha leaders, exacerbating tensions.
• Maratha Confederacy's Reaction: United by
Lord Hastings’ actions against Pindaris,
perceived as a sovereignty breach. Bajirao II
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rallied Maratha chiefs in a final stand during
the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1817.
• War Developments: Peshwa attacked the
British Residency at Poona; similar aggressions
by Appa Sahib at Nagpur and Holkar's war
preparations. Marathas' deteriorated political
and administrative conditions led to inefficacy.
• Treaties Post-War:
o Treaty of Poona (June 1817): With
Peshwa.
o Treaty of Gwalior (November 1817):
With Sindhia.
o Treaty of Mandasor (January 1818): With
Holkar.
• Aftermath and Dissolution: The Peshwa's
defeat at Khirki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and
Holkar at Mahidpur led to the Maratha
confederacy's dissolution in June 1818. The
peshwaship was abolished; Bajirao II became a
British retainer at Bithur, and Pratap Singh was
installed as the ruler of Satara.
Reasons for Marathas' Defeat by the English
• Inept Leadership: Later Maratha leaders like
Bajirao II, Daulatrao Sindhia, and Jaswantrao
Holkar lacked the competence of English
officials such as Elphinstone, John Malcolm,
and Arthur Wellesley.
• Defective Nature of Maratha State: The
Maratha state lacked organized communal
improvement, education, and unification
efforts, making it precarious when facing a
well-organized European power.
• Loose Political Set-up: The Maratha empire
was a loose confederation with powerful
chiefs acting semi-independently, leading to
a lack of cooperative spirit and internal
hostility.
• Inferior Military System: Marathas were
inferior in organization, weapons, discipline,
and leadership compared to the English.
Their military system suffered from divided
command and inadequate adoption of
modern warfare techniques.
• Unstable Economic Policy: The Maratha
leadership failed to evolve a stable
economic policy, lacking industries and
foreign trade opportunities, which affected
political stability.
• Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage:
The English had better diplomatic skills and
17 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
a well-knit spy system, enabling them to
gather information and isolate enemies
effectively.
• Progressive English Outlook: The English
were influenced by the Renaissance,
focusing on scientific inventions and colonial
acquisitions, while the Marathas were still
steeped in medievalism and traditional
social hierarchy.
Conquest of Sindh
• In the early 19th century, the English showed
interest in Sindh, leveraging trade privileges
authorized by a Mughal Emperor's farman in
1630. Sindh was initially ruled by the Kallora
chiefs, with the English establishing a factory at
Thatta in 1758. However, the factory was
closed in 1775 due to an unfriendly ruler,
Sarfraz Khan.
• The Talpuras, a Baluch tribe, rose to power in
the 1770s, establishing their rule under Mir
Fath Ali Khan in 1783 and later divided the
kingdom among the "Char Yar" (four friends).
The Amirs of Sindh extended their dominion,
conquering regions like Amarkot, Karachi,
Shaikarpur, and Bukkar.
• The late 18th century saw fears of a potential
invasion by Napoleon and Tipu Sultan in
alliance with Shah Zaman of Kabul. Lord
Wellesley attempted to revive commercial
relations with Sindh in 1799 to counteract this
threat. However, negotiations failed, and the
British agent was expelled from Sindh in 1800,
with the Company quietly accepting the insult.
Treaty of 'Eternal Friendship' (1807):
• Background: Alliance of Tilsit between
Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon Bonaparte,
with plans for a combined invasion of India.
• British Response: Lord Minto sent delegations
to create a barrier between Russia and British
India, including Nicholas Smith to Sindh.
• Treaty Provisions:
o Professed eternal friendship between the
English and the Amirs of Sindh.
o Agreement to exclude the French from
Sindh.
o Exchange of agents at each other's court.
• Renewal (1820): Addition of clauses to exclude
Americans, resolve border disputes on the side
of Kachch, and reaffirm the treaty after the
defeat of the Maratha confederacy.
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Treaty of 1832:
• Sent by William Bentinck, Colonel Pottinger
negotiated the treaty with the Amirs.
• Provisions:
o Free passage for English traders and
travelers through Sindh.
o Use of the Indus River for trading
purposes, with restrictions on warships
and military cargo.
o No permanent settlement of English
merchants in Sindh; passports required
for travelers.
o Amirs could adjust tariff rates; no military
dues or tolls.
o Cooperation with the Raja of Jodhpur to
address robberies in Kachch.
o Confirmation of old treaties and mutual
non-jealousy.
Lord Auckland and Sindh (1836):
• Perspective: Protecting India from potential
Russian invasion and obtaining influence over
the Afghans.
• Strategy: Consolidate position in Sindh as a
first step towards plans on Afghanistan.
• Opportunity: Dispute between Ranjit Singh
and the Amirs over the frontier town of
Rojhan.
• Treaty Negotiations:
o Pottinger sent to Hyderabad to negotiate
a new treaty.
o Provisions for English protection in
exchange for Company troops stationed
in the capital or suitable concessions.
o Reluctant agreement by the Amirs in 1838
after pressure regarding Ranjit Singh's
potential alliances.
o British intervention allowed in disputes
between the Amirs and the Sikhs.
o Establishment of a British resident with
the freedom to travel escorted by English
troops.
• Outcome: Sindh turned into a British
protectorate in 1838.
Tripartite Treaty of 1838:
• Addressed the Afghan problem.
• Ranjit Singh agreed to British mediation in
disputes with the Amirs.
• Emperor Shah Shuja gave up sovereign rights
on Sindh, provided arrears of tribute were
paid.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Objective: Secure finances for the Afghan
adventure and territory for operations against
Afghanistan.
Sindh Accepts Subsidiary Alliance (1839):
• Amirs accepted a treaty under threat, allowing
a British subsidiary force at Shikarpur and
Bukkar.
• Amirs to pay Rs 3 lakh annually for
maintenance of Company's troops.
• Amirs barred from foreign negotiations
without Company's knowledge.
• Abolished all tolls on the Indus and provided
auxiliary force for the Afghan war.
Capitulation of Sindh:
• First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42) fought on
Sindh soil; Amirs disliked British presence.
• Amirs paid for British expenses but were
charged with hostility and disaffection.
• Ellenborough sent Outram to negotiate a new
treaty; Amirs ceded important provinces,
supplied fuel to Company's steamers, and
stopped minting coins.
• English intervened in a succession dispute,
leading to a war and the Amirs' revolt.
• Sindh capitulated, Amirs were banished, and
Sindh was merged into the British Empire in
1843 under Governor-General Ellenborough
with Charles Napier as its first governor.
Conquest of Punjab
Consolidation of Punjab
• The Sikhs, under the leadership of Banda
Bahadur, revolted against the Mughals but
faced defeat in 1715. The Sikh community then
split into two groups, Bandai and Tat Khalsa,
but reunited in 1721. In 1784, Kapur Singh
Faizullapuria organized the Sikhs into the Dal
Khalsa with two sections, Budha Dal and
Taruna Dal.
• The political chaos caused by the Mughals'
weakness and Ahmad Shah Abdali's invasions
allowed the Dal Khalsa to strengthen. The Sikhs
formed military brotherhoods called misls and,
between 1763 and 1773, established control
over the Punjab region from Saharanpur to
Attock and from the mountains in the north
to Multan in the south.
Sukarchakiya Misl and Ranjit Singh
• Ranjit Singh was born into the Sukarchakiya
misl, one of the 12 important misls in Punjab.
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• He became the leader of the Sukarchakiya misl
at the age of 12 after his father's death.
• He expanded his territory by exploiting the
disintegration of other misls and the civil war
in Afghanistan.
• In 1799, he was appointed governor of Lahore
by Zaman Shah, the ruler of Afghanistan.
• By 1805, he acquired Jammu and Amritsar,
making Lahore the political capital and
Amritsar the religious capital of Punjab.
Ranjit Singh and the English
• The threat of a Franco-Russian invasion of
India alarmed the English, leading to
negotiations with Ranjit Singh.
• The Treaty of Amritsar was signed in 1809,
with Ranjit Singh accepting the Sutlej River as
the boundary between his dominions and the
Company's territories. The treaty led Ranjit
Singh to focus his expansion westward,
capturing Multan, Kashmir, and Peshawar.
• In 1838, he signed the Tripartite Treaty with
the English but refused to allow British passage
through his territories to attack Dost
Mohammad, the Afghan Amir.
• Ranjit Singh's relations with the Company from
1809 to 1839 showed his weak position, and he
failed to organize a coalition of Indian princes
or maintain a balance of power. He died in
June 1839, marking the beginning of the
decline of his empire.
Punjab After Ranjit Singh
• The period following Ranjit Singh's death was
marked by internal strife and power struggles
within the Sikh court. Kharak Singh's
ineffective reign was followed by the deaths of
his son Nav Nihal Singh and successor Sher
Singh, leading to a state of anarchy in Punjab.
• The army's strength waned due to the loss of
key generals and growing discontent among
the troops. The Lahore government's friendly
stance towards the British allowed English
troops to pass through Punjab, causing further
unrest.
• Rani Jindan assumed regency for her minor
son, Daleep Singh, with Hira Singh Dogra as
wazir. However, Hira Singh was soon
assassinated, and his successor, Jawahar Singh,
faced the army's wrath and was also killed. Lal
Singh, Rani Jindan's lover, then took over as
wazir, with Teja Singh as the army commander,
19 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
setting the stage for further instability and the
eventual decline of the Sikh empire.
First Anglo-Sikh War
Causes of the war
• The Sikh army crossed the River Sutlej on
December 11, 1845, which was seen as a
provocation.
• Political instability in the Lahore kingdom
following Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death led to
a power struggle between the court and the
increasingly autonomous army.
• The Sikh army was uneasy about British
military activities in Afghanistan in 1842 and
the annexation of Gwalior and Sindh in 1841.
• The presence of a large number of British
troops near the border of the Lahore kingdom
increased tensions.
About the War and its Aftermath:
• The British managed to exploit internal
divisions within the Sikh ranks, leading to
successive defeats of the Sikh forces in various
battles. Lahore was eventually captured by the
British in 1846 without resistance.
• The Treaty of Lahore (1846) imposed harsh
terms on the Sikhs, including the
establishment of a British resident in Lahore,
annexation of the Jalandhar Doab by the
Company, and reduction of the Sikh Army.
Daleep Singh was recognized as the ruler under
the regency of Rani Jindan.
• The Sikhs were unable to pay the full war
indemnity, leading to the sale of Kashmir to
Gulab Singh, which caused anger and
resentment among the Sikhs and led to further
rebellion.
• The Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846)
established a council of regency for Punjab and
removed Rani Jindan from her position as
regent. The council, presided over by the
English resident Henry Lawrence, consisted of
eight Sikh sardars.
Second Anglo-Sikh War
Causes of Second Anglo-Sikh War:
• Treaty Humiliation: Sikhs felt humiliated by
the terms of the treaties of Lahore and
Bhairowal and their defeat in the first Anglo-
Sikh War.
• Treatment of Rani Jindan: Sikh resentment
increased due to the inhumane treatment of
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Rani Jindan, who was made a pensioner and
transferred to Benares.
• Rebellion in Multan: Governor Mulraj's
rebellion over being replaced and his
subsequent murder of two English officers.
About the War and its Aftermath:
• Annexation of Punjab: Lord Dalhousie used
the pretext of the rebellion to annex Punjab
completely. British victories at Ramnagar,
Chillhanwala, and Gujarat led to the Sikh
army's surrender at Rawalpindi.
• Governance: Dalhousie established a three-
member board to govern Punjab, comprising
the Lawrence brothers (Henry and John) and
Charles Mansel.
• Recognition: For his services, the Earl of
Dalhousie received thanks from the British
Parliament and a promotion in the peerage,
becoming the Marquess.
• Administration: In 1853, the board was
nullified, and John Lawrence became the first
chief commissioner of Punjab.
Key Administrative Policy
The British expansion and consolidation in India
from 1757 to 1857 involved both military
conquests and diplomatic strategies.
• Ring-fence Policy: Implemented by Warren
Hastings, it aimed to secure British territories
by creating buffer states around them.
• Subsidiary Alliance: Introduced by Lord
Wellesley, this policy required Indian states to
maintain British troops, pay for their upkeep,
and seek British approval for foreign alliances,
effectively reducing their sovereignty.
• Doctrine of Lapse: Enforced by Lord Dalhousie,
it allowed the British to annex states without a
natural heir, further expanding British control.
The Policy of Ring-Fence
• Introduction: Warren Hastings, as the
Governor-General, implemented the ring-
fence policy during a period when the British
faced threats from the Marathas, Mysore, and
Hyderabad.
• Objective: The policy aimed to create buffer
zones around British territories to protect
them from external threats, particularly from
Afghan invaders and the Marathas.
• Implementation: The policy involved
organizing the defense of neighboring states'
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
frontiers, such as Awadh, on the condition that
these states would bear the expenses of the
defending army. The defense of Awadh, for
instance, was crucial for the security of Bengal.
• Subsidiary Forces: Allies under the ring-fence
system were required to maintain subsidiary
forces, which were organized, equipped, and
commanded by British officers. The expenses
for these forces were to be paid by the rulers
of the allied states.
• Relation to Subsidiary Alliance: Wellesley's
subsidiary alliance policy was an extension of
the ring-fence system. It aimed to reduce
Indian states to a position of dependence on
the British government by having them
maintain British-controlled forces for their
own defense.
The Subsidiary Alliance System
The Subsidiary Alliance System, introduced by Lord
Wellesley during his tenure as Governor-General
from 1798 to 1805, was a strategic policy aimed at
expanding British influence in India.
• Permanent British Force: Indian rulers were
required to allow the stationing of a British
force within their territories and bear the cost
of its maintenance.
• British Resident: The presence of a British
resident in the Indian ruler's court was
mandatory, enhancing British influence in the
state's affairs.
• Restrictions on Employment: Indian rulers
were prohibited from employing any
European, other than the British, without the
Company's consent.
• Control over Foreign Affairs: Indian rulers
could not engage in war or negotiations with
other Indian states without the approval of the
Governor-General.
• Protection: In return, the British promised to
defend the allied ruler from external threats
and pledged non-interference in the state's
internal matters.
Objectives of the Subsidiary Alliance System
• Counter French Influence: The system aimed
to prevent the resurgence of French power in
India, especially in light of Napoleon's
eastward ambitions.
• Strategic Deployment: By stationing British
forces in allied states, the system allowed the
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Company to position its troops strategically to
counter any French advances.
• Expansion of British Control: The system
facilitated the gradual expansion of British
territory in India by bringing more Indian states
under the Company's influence.
Consequences for Indian Rulers
• Loss of Independence: The system
compromised the sovereignty of Indian rulers,
making them dependent on British support.
• Financial Burden: The cost of maintaining
British troops significantly strained the
finances of allied states.
• Weakening of Authority: The presence of a
British Resident and the restrictions imposed
by the alliance undermined the ruler's
authority and autonomy.
• Protection of Oppressive Rulers: The system
made it difficult to remove oppressive rulers,
as they were shielded by British support.
Stages of Application of Subsidiary Alliance
• The Subsidiary Alliance system, introduced by
the British East India Company, evolved
through four stages:
o Initial Assistance: The Company offered
military support to friendly Indian states
for their ongoing wars.
o Common Cause: The Company aligned
with the Indian state, combining its forces
with the state's soldiers for military
campaigns.
o Financial Support: Instead of manpower,
the Indian ally was required to provide
financial support. The Company promised
to recruit, train, and maintain a specified
number of soldiers under British command
for the state's protection and defense
against aggressors.
o Territorial Cession: If the Indian state
failed to pay the protection fee on time, it
was compelled to cede parts of its territory
to the Company as compensation.
o The British resident, installed in the state
capital under the treaty, played a crucial
role in initiating and accelerating the
process of eventual annexation.
States Accepting the Alliance:
• Nizam of Hyderabad (September 1798 and
1800)
• Ruler of Mysore (1799)
21 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Ruler of Tanjore (October 1799)
• Nawab of Awadh (November 1801)
• Peshwa (December 1801)
• Bhonsle Raja of Berar (December 1803)
• Sindhia (February 1804)
• Rajput states of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Macheri,
Bundi, and the ruler of Bharatpur (1818)
• Holkars, the last Maratha confederation to
accept the alliance (1818)
Doctrine of Lapse by Lord Dalhousie:
• Introduction:
o Policy introduced by Lord Dalhousie,
Governor-General of India.
o Aimed to strengthen British control by
exploiting succession issues in princely
states.
• Background:
o Indian princely states often had succession
disputes.
o British intervened to settle disputes under
their suzerainty.
• Key Principles:
o If a ruler died without a natural heir, the
state would be annexed by the British East
India Company.
o Based on British authority to decide the
legitimacy of succession.
• Implementation and Justification:
o Dalhousie argued it would prevent misrule
and instability.
o Believed British governance would
modernize the states.
• Controversies and Resistance:
o Opposition from Indian rulers and
subjects.
o Seen as an infringement on rights and
sovereignty.
o Annexations like Jhansi and Satara led to
local revolts.
• Impact:
o Annexation of several states, expanding
British territories.
o First state annexed was Satara (1848),
followed by others like Jaipur, Sambalpur,
Bhagat, Udaipur, Jhansi, and Nagpur.
o Eroded authority of Indian rulers,
increasing discontent and resistance.
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Annexation of Awadh
• The annexation of Awadh in 1856 marked a
significant turning point in British colonial
policy in India, leading to the Indian
Rebellion of 1857. The annexation was
prompted by financial difficulties faced by
the Nawabs of Awadh, who were accused of
mismanagement and maladministration.
• Lord Dalhousie, the British East India
Company’s Governor-General, claimed the
annexation was necessary to improve
governance and eliminate misrule. The
annexation sparked widespread resentment
and opposition, ultimately leading to the
First War of Indian Independence.
• The annexation of Awadh remains a
significant historical event, showcasing the
complexities of colonial rule and the
growing resistance against British
colonialism.
Relations between the British and Nepal
Expansion of Gorkha Rule in Nepal and Its Impact:
• Overthrow of Ranjit Malla and Gorkha
Ascendancy (1760): The Gorkhas ousted Ranjit
Malla from Bhatgaon, establishing their
dominance in Nepal.
• Expansion Beyond the Mountains (1760s-
1800s): The Gorkhas expanded their influence
beyond Nepal’s mountainous terrain.
• Shift Towards Southern Expansion (Late
1700s): The Gorkhas opted to expand
southward due to well-defended northern
borders.
• Company’s Border and Gorkha Border
Confluence (1801): The English East India
Company’s border converged with Gorkha
territory following the annexation of
Gorakhpur.
• Conflict Catalyst: Gorkha Seizure (1813-1823):
Tensions escalated due to the Gorkhas’
capture of Butwal and Sheoraj, leading to
conflict.
Treaty of Sagauli (1816):
• Resident of Great Britain: Nepal accepted a
British resident in Kathmandu.
• Territorial Concessions: Nepal ceded the Terai
region, Garhwal, and Kumaon districts to the
British.
• Withdrawal from Sikkim: Nepal withdrew
from Sikkim.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Benefits to the British:
• Expansion of Empire: The British gained
control over newly acquired territories.
• Trade Opportunities: Improved trade
opportunities with Central Asia.
• Hill Resorts: Establishment of hill resorts like
Shimla, Mussoorie, and Nainital.
• Recruitment of Gorkhas: A significant number
of Gorkhas enlisted in the British Indian Army.
Relations between the British and Tibet
• The relationship between the British Empire
and Tibet was marked by complex dynamics,
with Tibet's theocratic rule under Buddhist
lamas and China's nominal claims over the
region.
Pre-Curzon Era: Failed Attempts and Stagnation:
• British Diplomacy: Prior to Lord Curzon's
arrival in India, the British had struggled to
establish amicable ties and trade relations with
Tibet.
• Stalled Relations: Efforts to engage with Tibet
had hit a roadblock, resulting in a lack of
progress.
Growing Russian Influence and Chinese
Ineffectiveness:
• Russian Expansion: Russian influence in Lhasa
was on the rise, further complicating the
geopolitical landscape.
• Weak Chinese Control: China's nominal
control over Tibet was ineffective, leaving the
region susceptible to outside influences.
Rumors of Russian Involvement:
• Suspected Armament: Rumors circulated
about Russian weapons and ammunition
finding their way into Tibet, adding to concerns
in the region.
Curzon's Response and Special Mission:
• Alarming Situation: Lord Curzon, alarmed by
the geopolitical developments, decided to take
decisive action.
• Gurkha Contingent: Curzon dispatched a small
Gorkha contingent, led by Colonel
Younghusband, on a special mission to Tibet.
Tibetan Resistance and Rejection of Negotiations:
• Non-Violent Resistance: Tibetans offered non-
violent resistance to the British incursion,
showing their determination to protect their
sovereignty.
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• Stalled Negotiations: Despite the intrusion,
Tibet declined to engage in negotiations with
the British.
Lhasa Expedition and Dalai Lama's Flight:
• Invasion of Lhasa: In August 1904, Colonel
Younghusband led the Gurkha contingent in an
invasion of Lhasa.
• Dalai Lama's Departure: Faced with the
invasion, the Dalai Lama fled Lhasa, adding a
significant political dimension to the situation.
Treaty of Lhasa (1904):
• Indemnity Payment: Tibet agreed to pay a
monetary indemnity for the costs of the
military expedition and related expenses.
• Territorial Commitments: Tibet committed to
respect the boundaries of Sikkim and lease the
Chumbi Valley for 75 years.
• Trade Marts: Trade marts were established in
Yatung, Gyantse, and Gartok to facilitate
commerce between British India and Tibet.
• Infrastructure Restrictions: Tibet was
prohibited from constructing telegraph lines,
roads, or railways, limiting its modernization.
• British Influence: The treaty granted Great
Britain some control over Tibet's foreign
relations, reflecting British imperial ambitions.
Relations between the British and Afghanistan
• Emergence of Geopolitical Concerns:
Increased Russian influence in Persia and
British concerns over Russia's ambitions in the
region.
• Auckland's Forward Policy (1836-1842):
Aimed to secure British interests in India by
creating a buffer zone along India's northwest
borders.
• First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842): Sparked
by British concerns over Russian influence in
Afghanistan, resulting in the British invasion
and the Treaty of Sagauli.
• John Lawrence's Policy of Masterly Inactivity:
Focused on non-interference in Afghanistan's
internal affairs and maintaining peace on the
frontier.
• Lytton and The Policy of Proud Reserve:
Aimed to preserve "spheres of influence" and
advance scientific frontiers, leading to the
Second Anglo-Afghan War.
23 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870-1880):
Resulted from Sher Ali's diplomatic choices,
British frustration, and the Treaty of
Gandamak, which established British influence
in Afghanistan.
• Afghan Aspirations for Independence:
Following World War I, Afghanistan declared
war on the British in 1919 and regained
independence in foreign relations in 1921.
British India and the Northwest Frontier
• Territorial Expansion: Conquest of Sindh
(1843) and annexation of Punjab (1849)
extended British influence to the Northwest
Frontier, bringing them into contact with
Baluch and Pathan tribes.
• Nominal Afghan Suzerainty: Despite Afghan
claims, tribes maintained independence from
both British India and Afghanistan.
• British Occupation of Gilgit: Occupation of
Hunza and Nagar in the Gilgit Valley (1891-
1892) raised concerns for Afghan Amir Abdur
Rahman.
• Durand Line: The 1893 Durand Agreement
delineated the border between British and
Afghan territories, with certain districts given
to the Afghan Amir.
• Tribal Uprisings: The Durand Agreement failed
to maintain lasting peace, leading to tribal
uprisings and the establishment of a
permanent British garrison in Chitral.
• Curzon's Seclusion and Focus Strategy: Lord
Curzon (1899-1905) pursued a strategy of
seclusion and focused engagement, employing
tribal levies led by British officers for
peacekeeping.
• North-West Frontier Province (NWFP)
Establishment: The NWFP was established
directly under the Government of India's
jurisdiction, contributing to overall peace
despite sporadic uprisings.
• Transition to Modernity: The NWFP evolved
and adapted, eventually becoming part of
Pakistan since its inception in 1947.
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4 People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857
Civil Uprisings
Cause of Civil Uprisings
• Zamindars and Poligars: Lost control over land
and revenues, harboring personal grievances
against British rulers.
• Marginalization: Traditional zamindars and
poligars felt sidelined in favor of government
officials, merchants, and money-lenders.
• Handicraft Industries: Decline due to colonial
policies, impoverishing artisans and losing
traditional patrons like princes and zamindars.
• Priestly Classes: Instigated rebellion against
foreign rule as their dependence on traditional
elites was disrupted.
• Foreign Rule: British rulers' alien nature and
contemptuous treatment of natives hurt local
pride, fueling resistance.
Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800)
• Cause: Disastrous famine of 1770 and harsh
British economic policies.
• Participants: Mainly peasants turned sanyasis,
dispossessed small zamindars, disbanded
soldiers, and rural poor.
• Actions: Raided Company factories and
treasuries, fought British forces.
• Outcome: Subdued by Warren Hastings after
prolonged action.
• Characteristics: Equal participation of Hindus
and Muslims, sometimes called the Fakir
Rebellion.
• Key Leaders: Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa
Shah, Bhawani Pathak, Debi Chaudhurani
(highlighting women's role in resistance).
• Cultural Impact: Inspired Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay's semi-historical novel
"Anandamath" and "Devi Chaudhurani,"
emphasizing the struggle against foreign rule
and the importance of women in resistance.
Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-74)
• Context: English control of Midnapore (1760)
with initially harmonious relations between
zamindars, talukdars, and ryots.
• Trigger: Introduction of new land revenue
system by the English (1772) disrupted
harmony.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Support: Zamindars of Midnapore sided with
ryots against English revenue officials.
• Dispossession: Zamindars of Dhalbhum,
Manbhum, Raipur, Panchet, Jhatibuni,
Karnagarh, and Bagri lost their zamindaries by
the 1800s.
• Key Leaders: Damodar Singh and Jagannath
Dhal.
Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99):
• Challenge: Moamarias, low-caste peasants
following Aniruddhadeva's teachings,
challenged Ahom kings' authority in Assam.
• Impact: Revolts weakened the Ahoms and
invited external attacks, e.g., the King of
Darrang's revolt (1792).
• British Involvement: Ahom ruler sought British
help to crush revolts.
• Headquarters: Moamarias established
headquarters at Bhatiapar, with Rangpur and
Jorhat as affected regions.
• Aftermath: Although the Ahom kingdom
survived the rebellion, it was weakened and
eventually fell to a Burmese invasion and came
under British rule.
Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti, and Bahraich
(1781)
• Background: Warren Hastings planned to earn
money for war expenses against the Marathas
and Mysore by involving English officers as
izaradars (revenue farmers) in Awadh.
• Key Figure: Major Alexander Hannay became
an izaradar in 1778, securing the izara of
Gorakhpur and Bahraich for 22 lakh rupees.
• Oppression: Hannay's excessive revenue
demands led to panic and decline in a region
previously flourishing under the Nawab.
• Rebellion: Zamindars and cultivators rose
against the unbearable exactions in 1781, with
all of Hannay's subordinates killed or besieged
by zamindari guerilla forces.
• Outcome: The rebellion was suppressed,
Hannay was dismissed, and his izara forcibly
removed.
Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794):
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• Background: In 1758, a treaty was made
between the English and Ananda Gajapatiraju,
ruler of Vizianagaram, to oust the French from
the Northern Circars.
• Betrayal: The English reneged on the treaty
terms after the mission's success.
• Succession: Anand Raju's successor,
Vizayaramaraju, faced English demands for a
tribute of three lakh rupees and orders to
disband his troops, despite no dues owed.
• Revolt: Supported by his subjects, the Raja
rose up in revolt.
• Capture and Death: The English captured the
Raja in 1793, ordering him into exile with a
pension. He refused and died in battle at
Padmanabham (modern Visakhapatnam
district, Andhra Pradesh) in 1794.
• Aftermath: Vizianagaram came under
Company rule. The Company later offered the
estate to the deceased Raja's son and reduced
the demand for presents.
Revolt of Dhundia in Bednur (1799-1800)
• Background: After the conquest of Mysore in
1799, Dhundia Wagh, a local Maratha leader
converted to Islam by Tipu Sultan and
imprisoned, was released.
• Resistance: Dhundia organized a force of anti-
British elements and carved out a territory for
himself.
• Conflict: Defeated by the English in August
1799, he took refuge in the Maratha region,
instigating princes to fight against the English
and leading them himself.
• Death: Killed in September 1800 while fighting
against British forces under Wellesley.
• Legacy: Despite failure, Dhundia became a
venerated leader of the masses.
Resistance of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797;
1800-05)
• Background: Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja,
known as Kerala Simham, was the de facto
head of Kottayam in the Malabar region,
resisting Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, and the British.
• Conflict: The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-
92) extended English control over Kottayam,
leading to Pazhassi Raja's resistance due to
exorbitant taxation by the newly appointed
Raja Vira Varma.
25 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Resistance: Led peasant resistance using
guerilla warfare, resulting in a peace treaty in
1797.
• Renewed Conflict: Dispute over Wayanad in
1800 reignited insurgent warfare, with
Pazhassi Raja organizing a large force of Nairs,
Mappilas, and Pathans (demobilized soldiers of
Tipu).
• Death: Kerala Simham died in a gunfight at
Mavila Todu near the present-day Kerala-
Karnataka border in November 1805.
Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799)
• Background: Wazir Ali Khan became the fourth
Nawab of Awadh with British support in
September 1797 but soon had a fallout and
was replaced by Saadat Ali Khan II.
• Incident: In January 1799, Wazir Ali Khan killed
British resident George Frederik Cherry in
Benares, leading to the Massacre of Benares.
• Aftermath: Wazir Ali assembled an army, was
defeated by General Erskine, fled to Butwal,
and was granted asylum by the ruler of Jaipur.
He was extradited under conditions,
surrendered in December 1799, and was
confined at Fort William, Calcutta.
Uprisings in Ganjam and Gumsur (1800, 1835-37)
• Initial Rebellion: Strikara Bhanj, a zamindar of
Gumsur in Ganjam, refused to pay revenues in
1797 and rebelled in 1800, defying authorities.
He was joined by Jlani Deo of Vizianagar and
Jagannath Deo of Pratapgiri.
• Suppression: The British replaced oppressive
collector Snodgrass, captured Jagannath Deo
in 1804, and assigned certain districts to
Strikara Bhanj.
• Continued Resistance: Dhananjaya Bhanj,
Strikara's son, rebelled against the English in
1807-08 and again in 1815 but was forced to
surrender.
• Second Rebellion: Strikara returned as
zamindar but retired in favor of Dhananjay,
who again rebelled in 1835 due to inability to
pay arrears. The revolt reduced government
authority, but Dhananjay died in December
1835.
• Conclusion: The struggle lasted till February
1837, when leader Doora Bisayi was arrested,
and the zamindari of Gumsur was forfeited.
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Poligars' Revolt (1795-1805)
• Background: Poligars (or palayakkarargal) of
South India resisted British rule from 1795 to
1805, with main centers in Tinneveli,
Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Sivagiri,
Madurai, and North Arcot.
• Trigger: The Nawab of Arcot's 1781 decision to
give management of Tinneveli and the Carnatic
Provinces to the East India Company angered
poligars, who considered themselves
independent sovereigns.
• First Revolt (1795-1799): Led by Kattabomman
Nayakan of Panjalankurichi, initially over
taxation but with a broader political
dimension. Veerapandiya Kattabomman
defeated Company forces but was later
captured and hanged due to betrayal by
Ettappan, the Raja of Pudukottai.
• Second Revolt (1801): Poligars imprisoned in
Palamcotta escaped, took control of forts, and
captured Tuticorin. Reinforced British forces
suppressed the rebellion led by Oomathurai
and Marathu Pandian. The fort of
Panjalankurichi was destroyed.
• Third Revolt (1803-1805): Poligars of North
Arcot rebelled over the deprivation of their
right to collect kaval fees. The region was in
lawless condition, and the revolt was
suppressed by February 1805.
• Impact: The rebellion spread over a vast area,
with proclamations indicating a desire for
independence from alien rule.
Uprising in Bhiwani (1809)
• Participants: Jats of Haryana.
• Action: Fortified themselves in Bhiwani,
resisting strongly.
• Suppression: Required a brigade with a
powerful battering ram to quell the revolt.
Diwan Velu Thampi's Revolt (1808-1809)
• Cause: Harsh conditions imposed on
Travancore by the East India Company after a
subsidiary alliance in 1805.
• Leader: Prime Minister Velu Thampi,
supported by Nair troops.
• Action: Kundara Proclamation called for armed
resistance against the British, leading to
widespread rebellion.
• Outcome: Rebellion suppressed through
military action, Velu Thampi committed
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
suicide, and the Maharaja of Travancore
defected to the Company's side.
Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808-1812)
• Background: Resistance from Bundela chiefs
to British rule following the Second Anglo-
Maratha Wars.
• Key Resistances: Lakshman Dawa of Ajaygarh
fort, Darya Singh of Kalanjar fort, and military
adventurer Gopal Singh.
• Suppression: British adopted a policy of
contractual obligations (Ikarnamahs) to bind
down hereditary chieftains and suppress
disturbances.
Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813-34)
• Location: Western border of Ganjam district,
now in Odisha.
• Participants: Zamindars and Raja Narayan Deo.
• Action: Resistance against British acquisition,
leading to multiple revolts.
• Suppression: George Russell appointed as
commissioner in 1832, pacified the region by
1834.
Kutch or Cutch Rebellion (1816-1832)
• Background: Treaty between British and
Maharaja Bharamal II of Kutch in 1816, leading
to power struggle.
• Action: Raja Bharmal II raised troops to
remove British, leading to British intervention
and deposition in favor of his infant son.
• Outcome: Continued rebellion by chieftains,
military operations by British, and eventual
conciliatory policy by the Company.
Rising at Bareilly (1816)
• Cause: Imposition of police tax and religious
tensions.
• Action: Armed Muslims from surrounding
areas rose in rebellion, leading to a bloody
scuffle and the murder of a judge's son.
• Suppression: Heavy military deployment,
resulting in over 300 rebels killed, wounded, or
imprisoned.
Upsurge in Hathras (1817)
• Leader: Dayaram, a talukdar with a strong base
in the fort of Hathras.
• Action: Resistance against high revenues and
acts of hostility, leading to a 15-day battle.
26
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• Outcome: Dayaram ultimately submitted and
settled down with a pension; Raja Bhagwant
Singh of Mursan also submitted.
Waghera Rising (1818-1820):
• Location: Okha Mandal.
• Cause: Resentment against alien rule and
exactions of the Gaekwad of Baroda,
supported by the British government.
• Action: Waghera chiefs carried out inroads
into British territory.
• Outcome: A peace treaty was signed in
November 1820 to resolve the conflict.
Ahom Revolt (1828)
• Participants: Ahom prince Gomdhar Konwar
and compatriots.
• Cause: British attempt to incorporate Ahom
territories into their dominion after the First
Burma War.
• Action: Rebellion with Gomdhar Konwar
declared king, resistance against British
incorporation.
• Outcome: Conciliatory policy by the Company,
with Upper Assam handed over to Maharaja
Purandar Singh Narendra and restoration of
part of the kingdom to the Assamese king.
Surat Salt Agitations (1840s)
• Location: Surat.
• Cause: Government's decision to raise salt
duty from 50 paise to one rupee in 1844, and
attempt to introduce Bengal Standard Weights
and Measures in 1848.
• Action: Popular movement, attacks on
Europeans, boycott, and passive resistance.
• Outcome: Government withdrawal of
additional salt levy in 1844 and withdrawal of
measure in 1848.
Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts
• Participants: Gadkaris (hereditary military
class) in Kolhapur, and people of Savantvadi.
• Causes: Disbandment of garrisons in Kolhapur,
discontent in Savantvadi due to British control
and deposition of ruler.
• Action: Gadkaris occupied forts in Kolhapur,
revolts in Savantvadi.
• Outcome: Introduction of laws by British
authorities to bring the region under control.
27 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Paika Rebellion (1817)
• Background: Paiks of Odisha were traditional
landed militia with rent-free land tenures for
military service. The English Company's
conquest in 1803 and extortionist land revenue
policies caused resentment among zamindars,
peasants, and Paiks.
• Leader: Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, former
military chief of the Raja of Khurda, led the
rebellion after his estate was taken over by the
Company.
• Action: Supported by Mukunda Deva (the last
Raja of Khurda) and other zamindars, the Paiks
forced British forces to retreat initially. The
rebellion covered the whole province of
Odisha, employing guerrilla tactics.
• Suppression: Brutally repressed by 1818, with
key figures hanged and Paiks suffering greatly.
Jagabandhu surrendered in 1825 under
negotiated terms (some sources say he was
captured and died in captivity in 1829).
• Outcomes: The rebellion led to significant
concessions from the British, including large
remissions of arrears, reductions in
assessments, suspension of the sale of
defaulters' estates, and a new settlement on
fixed tenures.
Wahabi Movement
• Founder: Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly, inspired
by Abdul Wahab and Shah Waliullah.
• Ideology: Advocated a return to pure Islam and
rejection of Western influence.
• Organization: Countrywide network with a
base in Sithana, and important centers in Patna
and other regions.
• Jihad: Initially against the Sikh kingdom of
Punjab, later against the British dominion in
India.
• Impact: Spread anti-British sentiments, faced
military operations and court cases in the
1860s, with sporadic encounters continuing
into the 1880s and 1890s.
Kuka Movement
• Founder: Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb),
later led by Baba Ram Singh.
• Ideology: Religious purification, abolition of
caste, discouragement of meat and alcohol,
encouragement of widow remarriage and
women's participation in public life.
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• Political Goals: Removal of British rule, • Suppression: British efforts to crush the
restoration of Sikh rule in Punjab, adoption of movement between 1863 and 1872, with Baba
Swadeshi and non-cooperation. Ram Singh deported to Rangoon in 1872.

Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones

Uprising Leader Participants Cause Action Outcome

Narkelberia Mir Muslim Opposition to Armed Considered the first
Nithar Ali tenants in landlords imposing a uprising, later armed peasant
(Titu Mir) West Bengal beard-tax on Faraizis merged into uprising against the
and exploitation by the Wahabi British in the region
British indigo movement
planters
Pagal Karam Hajong and Oppression by Refusal to pay Violently suppressed,
Panthis Shah and Garo tribes zamindars rent above a government
his son of certain limit introduced an
Tipu Mymensingh and attacks on equitable
district zamindars' arrangement for
houses peasants
Faraizi Haji Followers of
Advocacy for radical Aimed to expel Disturbances
Revolt Shariat- the Faraizireligious, social, and English continued from 1838
Allah and sect in
political changes, intruders from to 1857, with most
his son Eastern and support for Bengal Faraizis joining the
Dadu Bengal tenants against Wahabi ranks
Mian zamindars
Moplah - Moplahs of Hike in revenue Twenty-two None of the rebellions
Uprisings Malabar demand, reduction rebellions were successful. The
of field size, and between 1836 second Moplah
oppression by and 1854 uprising occurred
officials during the Non-
cooperation
Movement but was
subdued by 1921

Major Tribal Movements o 1768: Uprising led by Jagannath Singh,

Pahariyas' Rebellion (1778)
• Participants: Pahariyas of the Raj Mahal Hills.
• Cause: British expansion into their territory.
• Action: Uprising against British encroachment.
• Outcome: British declared their territory as
damni-kol area to usher in peace.
Chuar Uprising (1766-1772, 1795-1816)
• Participants: Chuar aboriginal tribesmen of the
Jungle Mahal of Midnapore district and
Bankura district in Bengal.
• Causes: Famine, enhanced land revenue
demands, and economic distress.
• Action: Armed rebellion against British policies
and local zamindars.
• Significant Events:
zamindar of Ghatsila, resulting in Company
government capitulation.
o 1771: Rebellion by Chuar sardars,
suppressed by British.
o 1798: Significant uprising under Durjan
Singh, zamindar of Raipur, brutally
suppressed by the British.
• Other Leaders: Madhab Singh, Raja Mohan
Singh, Lachman Singh.
Note: The term 'Chuar' is considered derogatory by
some historians, who refer to this as the Revolt of
the Jungle Mahal.
Kol Mutiny (1831)
• Participants: Kols and other tribes of
Chhotanagpur (covering Ranchi, Singhbhum,

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Hazaribagh, Palamau, and western parts of
Manbhum).
• Cause: Large-scale transfers of land from Kol
headmen to outsiders, oppressive taxes, and
negative impacts of British judicial and revenue
policies.
• Action: Under the leadership of Buddho
Bhagat, rebels killed or burnt about a thousand
outsiders.
• Outcome: Order restored after large-scale
military operations.
Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837)
• Participants: Ho tribals of Singhbhum and
Mundas of Chotanagpur.
• Cause: Revolt against occupation, introduction
of farming revenue policy, and entry of
Bengalis into their region.
• Action: Rebellion continued till 1827,
reorganized in 1831, joined by Mundas,
extinguished in 1832, but Ho operations
continued till 1837.
• Outcome: British armed forces deployed, Birsa
Munda captured and imprisoned. This
uprising, known as the Ulgulan, was one of the
most significant tribal uprisings in the period
1860-1920. UPSC (2020)
Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) UPSC (2018)
• Participants: Santhals, an agricultural people
settled in the plains of the Rajmahal hills
(Bihar).
• Cause: Oppression by zamindars and money-
lenders, supported by the police, leading to
oppressive exactions and dispossession of
lands.
• Action: Under Sidhu and Kanhu, proclaimed an
end to Company rule and declared the area
between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal as
autonomous.
• Outcome: Rebellion suppressed by 1856.
Koya Revolts
• Participants: Koyas of the eastern Godavari
tract, joined by Khonda Sara chiefs.
• Leader: Tomma Sora in 1879-80 and Raja
Anantayyar in 1886.
• Cause: Oppression by police and
moneylenders, new regulations, and denial of
customary rights over forest areas.
• Action: Multiple revolts from 1803 to 1886.
29 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Outcome: After the death of Tomma Sora,
another rebellion was organized by Raja
Anantayyar.
Bhil Revolts
• Participants: Bhils of the Western Ghats.
• Cause: Famine, economic distress, and
misgovernment.
• Action: Revolts against Company rule in 1817-
19, 1825, 1831, and 1846.
• Outcome: British used force and conciliatory
efforts to control the uprisings. Later, Govind
Guru helped organize Bhils for a Bhil Raj by
1913.
Koli Risings
• Participants: Kolis living in the neighborhood
of Bhils.
• Cause: Resentment towards Company rule,
large-scale unemployment, and dismantling of
forts.
• Action: Rebellion against Company rule in
1829, 1839, and 1844-48.
• Outcome: Repeated uprisings against the
imposition of Company rule.
Ramosi Risings
• Participants: Ramosis, hill tribes of the
Western Ghats.
• Leader: Chittur Singh in 1822, Umaji Naik and
Bapu Trimbakji Sawant in 1825-26.
• Cause: Resentment towards British rule and
loss of livelihood after the annexation of
Maratha territories.
• Action: Plundering around Satara in 1822,
eruptions in 1825-26, disturbances in 1839 and
1840-41.
• Outcome: Order restored by superior British
force, with a pacifist policy adopted towards
the Ramosis, some of whom were recruited
into the hill police.
Tribal Movements of the North-East
Khasi Uprising
• Participants: Khasis, Garos, Khamptis, and
Singphos, led by Tirath Singh.
• Cause: East India Company's occupation of the
region and construction of a road linking the
Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet, bringing in
outsiders.
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• Action: Organized resistance to drive away
strangers and revolt against British rule.
• Outcome: Suppressed by superior English
military force by 1833.
Singphos Rebellion
• Location: Assam.
• Action: Initial rebellion in early 1830 quickly
quelled, followed by continued revolts,
including an uprising in 1839 resulting in the
death of a British political agent, and a
significant uprising led by Chief Nirang Phidu in
1843.
• Outcome: Attacks on British garrison and
death of many soldiers.
Other Movements:
• Mishmis Rebellion (1836): Smaller movement
involving the Mishmis.
• Khampti Rebellion (1839-1842): Revolt in
Assam against British rule.
• Lushais' Revolt (1842, 1844): Lushais attacked
villages in Manipur as part of their resistance
against British intrusion.
North-East Frontier Tribal Movements
Movements Before 1857:
• Ahoms' Revolt (1828-33; Assam): Against
non-fulfilment of pledges by the Company
after the Burmese War; suppressed by
dividing the kingdom.
• Khasis' Revolt (1830s; Jaintia and Garo
Hills): Led by Nunklow ruler Tirath Singh;
against the occupation of the hilly region.
• Singphos' Rebellion (1830s; Assam): Led to
the murder of the British political agent of
Assam in 1839; ultimately suppressed.
Movements After 1857:
• Kukis' Revolt (1917-19; Manipur): Against
British policies of recruiting labor during the
first World War.
• Revolts in Tripura:
o Led by Parikshit Jamatia (1863); against
hike in house tax rates.
o The Reangs' revolt led by Ratnamani
(1942-43); against settlement of
outsiders.
o Led by Bharti Singh (1920s); against
settlement policies.
• Zeliangsong Movement (1920s; Manipur):
Led by Zemi, Liangmei, and Rongmei tribes;
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
against the failure of the British to protect
them during the Kuki violence in 1917-19.
• Naga Movement (1905-31; Manipur): Led
by Jadonang; against British rule and for
setting up a Naga raj.
• Heraka Cult (1930s; Manipur): Led by
Gaidinliu; suppressed but led to the
formation of the Kabui Naga Association in
1946.
Other Smaller Movements:
• Revolt of the Syntengs of Jaintia Hills (1860-
62).
• Phulaguri Peasants' Rebellion (1861).
• Revolt of the Saflas (1872-73).
• Uprising of the Kacha Nagas of Cachar
(1882).
Sepoy Mutinies
• The rising discontent among the sepoys
against British rule was due to a combination
of factors:
o Discrimination in Payment and
Promotions: Sepoys were often paid less
and promoted slower compared to their
British counterparts.
o Mistreatment by British Officials: Sepoys
frequently faced disrespect and harsh
treatment from British officers.
o Refusal of Foreign Service Allowance: The
government's refusal to pay foreign
service allowance for fighting in remote
regions added to the grievances.
o Religious Objections: The General Service
Enlistment Act of 1856, which required all
recruits to be ready for service both within
and outside India, was opposed by high-
caste Hindu sepoys on religious grounds.
• Additionally, the sepoys shared the social,
religious, and economic grievances that
afflicted the civilian population. Over the
years, several incidents highlighted the conflict
between the religious beliefs of the upper-
caste sepoys and their service conditions:
o In 1806, the replacement of the turban by
a leather cockade led to a mutiny at
Vellore.
o In 1844, there was a mutinous outbreak of
the Bengal army sepoys for being sent to
faraway Sindh.
o In 1824, sepoys at Barrackpore revolted
when they were asked to go to Burma, as
30
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crossing the sea would mean the loss of
caste.
Factors Responsible for Weaknesses of People’s
Uprisings
• Localized Nature: Uprisings were often
confined to specific regions, limiting their
impact.
• Local Grievances: Revolts were driven by local
issues rather than national concerns.
• Semi-Feudal Leadership: Leaders were
traditional, lacking progressive visions.
• Lack of National Impulse: Similar opposition to
alien rule was due to common conditions, not
a unified effort.
• Outdated Forms: Rebellions relied on old
forms and ideologies, reducing effectiveness.
• Pacification through Concessions: Authorities
weakened resistance by offering concessions.
• Obsolete Methods and Arms: Fighters used
outdated tactics and weapons, facing superior
opponents.

31 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024

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5 The Revolt of 1857
Causes of Revolt of 1857
Economic Causes:
• Colonial policies disrupted traditional
economic fabric, leading to peasant
impoverishment and rural indebtedness.
• Heavy taxation and usurious loans forced
peasants off their land, creating a landless
peasantry.
• Artisans and handicrafts people faced misery
as British policies cut off patronage and
discouraged Indian handicrafts.
• Indian trade and mercantile class was crippled
by high tariff duties on Indian goods and low
tariffs on British imports.
• Zamindars lost land rights, and taluqdars in
Awadh faced confiscation of estates, leading to
loss of status and income.
• Ruin of Indian industry increased pressure on
agriculture, resulting in general pauperization.
Political Causes:
• East India Company's policies like 'Effective
Control,' 'Subsidiary Alliance,' and 'Doctrine
of Lapse' caused distrust among ruling princes.
• Denial of succession rights to Hindu princes
and humiliation of Mughals diminished
political prestige.
• Collapse of rulers affected those dependent on
cultural and religious pursuits.
Administrative Causes:
• Rampant corruption in the Company's
administration led to discontent.
• British rule appeared foreign and alien to
Indians, contributing to a sense of absentee
sovereignty.
Socio-Religious Causes:
• Racial superiority complex and activities of
Christian missionaries created suspicion
among Indians.
• Socio-religious reforms and taxation of
religious properties were seen as interference
in Indian society.
• The Religious Disabilities Act, 1856, modifying
Hindu customs, fueled fears of cultural
intrusion.
Discontent Among Sepoys:
• Conditions of service conflicted with religious
beliefs, causing resentment among
conservative sepoys.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• The General Service Enlistment Act of 1856,
requiring service anywhere, led to loss of caste
and discontent.
• Sepoys were unhappy with their emoluments
compared to British soldiers and the denial of
foreign service allowance.
• Racial discrimination and lack of promotion
opportunities further fueled discontent.
• The annexation of Awadh, home to many
sepoys, inflamed their feelings.
• The sepoy's discontent reflected the general
opposition to British rule, with the army
voicing broader grievances.
External Factors
• The revolt of 1857 coincided with certain
outside events in which the British suffered
serious losses—the First Afghan War (1838-
42), Punjab Wars (1845-49), and the Crimean
Wars (1854-56). These had obvious
psychological repercussions.
Spread of Revolt
The Spark
• Inciting Factors: Introduction of Enfield rifle
and rumors of bone dust in flour.
• Religious Sensitivities: Greased cartridges
reportedly made from beef and pig fat,
offending Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
• Army Administration's Response: Lack of
action to address sepoy fears, leading to
heightened disaffection.
Prelude to Revolt: Meerut as the Catalyst
• Initial Unrest: Discontent and mutinies in
various cantonments, including the
disbandment of the 19th Native Infantry and
the execution of Mangal Pande.
• Meerut Incident: On May 10, 1857, the refusal
to accept greased cartridges led to the
dismissal and imprisonment of sepoys,
sparking a general mutiny.
• Spread of Revolt: The mutiny quickly
expanded from Punjab in the north to
Narmada in the south, and from Bihar in the
east to Rajputana in the west.
Selection of Bahadur Shah Zafar
• Proclamation in Delhi: Mutineers proclaimed
Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor of India,
signifying the political aim of the revolt.
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• Symbol of Unity: Bahadur Shah's elevation population in north-western provinces and

highlighted the Mughal dynasty as a symbol of Awadh.
India's political unity. • Diverse Participants: Peasantry, artisans,
• Call for Confederacy: Bahadur Shah's letters to shopkeepers, zamindars, and others actively
Indian chiefs to fight the British, indicating a opposed British rule, attacking money-lenders,
shift from a mutiny to a revolutionary war. law courts, and revenue offices.
Civilian Participation • Character of Revolt: The inclusion of civilians
• Widespread Rebellion: The sepoy revolt gave the revolt a popular dimension,
ignited a mass rebellion among the civilian expressing widespread grievances against
British policies.
Major Centres of Revolt
Location Leader Key Actions and Outcomes
Delhi General Bakht Led real command under symbolic leader Bahadur Shah; faced
Khan challenges due to emperor's weak leadership.
Kanpur Nana Saheb Expelled English, declared himself Peshwa, faced defeat after British
commander Sir Hugh Wheeler's surrender and death.
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Led revolt with son Birjis Qadir as Nawab; besieged British residency;
Mahal Lucknow recovered by British in March 1858.
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Organized an army of 40,000 soldiers against the British.
Bihar Kunwar Singh Fought against British dispossession, joined sepoys from Dinapore.
Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah Fought against British troops, emerged as a key leader in Awadh.
Jhansi Rani Laxmibai Opposed Doctrine of Lapse, joined forces with Tantia Tope, marched
towards Gwalior.
Gwalior Rani Laxmibai, Joined forces, faced opposition from Sindhia who sided with the
Tantia Tope British; Gwalior recaptured by British in June 1858.
Pargana Shah Mal Organized rebellion in 84 villages, attacked British symbols, supported
Baraut Delhi mutineers; killed by English officer.

Suppression of Revolt • Lack of Participation:

• Recapture of Delhi: British regained control in
September 1857, capturing Bahadur Shah and
ending the Mughal dynasty.
• Military Command: Key centers like Kanpur,
Jhansi, and Benaras were recaptured by British
commanders such as Sir Colin Campbell, Sir
Hugh Rose, and Colonel Neill.
• Fate of Leaders: Nana Saheb fled to Nepal;
Tantia Tope was captured and executed;
Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur
Khan, Rao Sahib, and Maulvi Ahmadullah died;
Begum of Awadh went into hiding in Nepal.
• Martial Rule: Imposed in North India, granting
ordinary Britishers the power to punish Indians
suspected of rebellion.
Causes of Failure of Revolt
• Limited Territorial Spread: Eastern, southern,
and western parts of India remained
unaffected.
o Many Indian rulers, such as Scindia of
Gwalior and Holkar of Indore, remained
loyal to the British.
o Big zamindars and moneylenders did not
participate, feeling their interests were
better served under British rule.
o The revolt's feudal, conservative nature
alienated the educated middle class.
• Inferior Weapons: Rebels' weapons were of
poor quality compared to British weaponry.
• Uncoordinated Attacks: Lacked coordination
against the exceptional warfare abilities of
commanders like James Outram and Henry
Havelock.
• No Unified Ideology: Absence of a cohesive
vision or ideology to unite the mutineers.
• Lack of Alternative: No comprehensive socio-
political alternative was presented.

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Consequences of the Revolt
• Act of Better Government of India, 1858:
o Abolished company rule.
o Declared Queen Victoria as the sovereign
of British India.
o Appointed a Secretary of State for direct
administrative control.
• Queen’s Proclamation of 1858: UPSC (2014)
o Made Lord Canning the Viceroy of India.
o Ended the era of annexation and
expansion, declaring British Crown's
paramountcy.
o Promised Indians freedom of religion,
equality, and non-interference in personal
affairs.
• Re-organisation of the Army:
o Implemented under the "Divide and Rule"
philosophy.
o Based new army units on caste,
community, and region.
o Adopted the 'Martial races' doctrine,
increasing recruitment from loyal regions
like Punjab, Nepal, and the northwestern
frontier.
o Army Amalgamation Scheme, 1861:
Transferred Company's European troops
to the crown's services.
Impact of the Revolt of 1857
For the British:
• Revealed Shortcomings: The revolt exposed
flaws in the Company's administration and
army.
• Prompt Rectifications: British authorities
quickly addressed these defects, improving
their governance and military.
For the Indians:
• Influence on Freedom Struggle: The revolt
highlighted the grievances of the people and
sepoys, influencing the course of the freedom
movement.
• Recognition of Disparities: It became clear
that Indian arms were inferior to British
weaponry.
• Rejection of Violence: Atrocities committed
during the revolt shocked Indian intellectuals,
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
leading to a preference for non-violent
methods in the freedom struggle.
• Role of Educated Middle Class: This growing
segment favored an orderly approach and
eschewed violence.
• Establishment of Resistance Traditions: The
revolt laid the groundwork for local traditions
of resistance, aiding the national struggle for
freedom.
White Mutiny
• Context: Transfer of power from the British
East India Company to the British Crown.
• Issue: European forces employed under the
Company resented the requirement to
transfer allegiance from the Company to the
Queen.
• Unrest: This resentment led to some unrest
among the European forces, termed as the
White Mutiny.
• Background: Prior to 1861, there were two
separate military forces in India: the
Queen's army and the units of the East India
Company. The Company's troops received
batta, extra allowances for operations
outside home territories, which was
stopped after the transfer of power.
• Reaction: Lord Canning's interpretation of
the laws surrounding the transfer infuriated
the affected White soldiers.
• Threat: The White Mutiny was seen as a
potential threat to the British position in
India, with a possibility of inciting renewed
rebellion among the Indian population.
• Demands: The European Forces demanded
an enlistment bonus or a choice of release
from their obligations.
• Resolution: The demand for free and clear
release with free passage home was
accepted, leading many soldiers to return
home.
• Outcome: Open rebellion and physical
violence by the European Forces made it
unlikely for them to be accepted into the
Queen's Army.
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6 Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Introduction o Reformers used Indian languages and
• The dawn of the 19th century in India saw the various media, including novels, dramas,
emergence of a modern vision among some and cinema, to reach the masses.
enlightened sections of society. This vision o The main agenda of social reform
shaped events for decades and had both movements was to improve the status of
positive and negative effects, which are still women and fight against untouchability.
part of daily life in the Indian subcontinent. The
Fight for Betterment of Position of Women
impact of British rule was significant and
The reform movements in 19th-century India led to
different from previous invasions.
significant social changes, particularly in improving
the condition of women:
19th-century Indian reform movements
• Abolition of Sati: Influenced by reformers like
• The 19th-century Indian reform movements
Raja Rammohan Roy, the British government
were unified by: declared the practice of sati (widow
o Rationalism: Using reason to evaluate
immolation) illegal in 1829, initially in Bengal
social and religious practices, as seen in the
and later extended to other presidencies.
Brahmo Samaj and Aligarh movement.
• Preventing Female Infanticide: The practice of
o Religious Universalism: Viewing different
killing female infants was declared illegal in
religions as expressions of universal
Bengal in 1795 and 1804. A law passed in 1870
theism, as advocated by Raja Rammohan
required the registration of all births and
Roy.
allowed for the verification of female children
o Humanism: Focusing on social utility and
in areas where infanticide was practiced.
well-being, with reformers like Akshay
• Widow Remarriage: The Brahmo Samaj and
Kumar Dutt using science to support social
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar were
reforms.
instrumental in promoting widow remarriage.
• The reform movements in 19th-century India
The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856
can be classified into two categories:
legalized the remarriage of widows and
o Reformist Movements: Such as the
ensured the legitimacy of children from such
Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and
marriages.
Aligarh Movement, which focused on
• Promotion of Girls' Education: Jagannath
modernizing religion using reason and
Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji were active
conscience.
promoters of girls' schools in Maharashtra.
o Revivalist Movements: Like the Arya
• Widow Remarriage:
Samaj and Deoband Movement, which
o Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the Widow
aimed to restore the lost purity of religion
Remarriage Association in the 1850s.
through tradition.
o Karsondas Mulji started the Satya Prakash
• Social Reform Directions:
in Gujarati in 1852 to advocate for widow
o Influenced by humanistic ideals, social
remarriage.
reforms targeted social ills like
o D.K. Karve and Veerasalingam Pantulu also
untouchability and gender inequity, which
made significant efforts in this area, with
were often legitimized by religion.
Karve marrying a widow and opening a
o Initially, reform movements had a narrow
widows' home in Poona.
base, limited to upper classes and castes,
o B.M. Malabari, Narmad, Justice Govind
but later expanded to include lower strata
Mahadeo Ranade, and K. Natarajan
of society.
supported widow remarriage rights.
o Early social reform was led by
• Controlling Child Marriage:
organizations and individuals like Jyotiba
Phule and B.R. Ambedkar, and later
supported by the national movement.

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o The Native Marriage Act (1872) aimed to
prohibit child marriage but had limited
impact.
o B.M. Malabari's efforts led to the Age of
Consent Act (1891), setting the minimum
marriage age for girls at 12.
o The Sarda Act (1930) raised the marriage
age to 18 for boys and 14 for girls.
o In free India, the Child Marriage Restraint
(Amendment) Act (1978) further raised
the marriage age to 18 for girls and 21 for
boys.
• Early Initiatives:
o Christian missionaries set up the Calcutta
Female Juvenile Society in 1819.
o Bethune School, founded by J.E.D.
Bethune in 1849, marked the beginning of
the movement for women's education.
UPSC (2021)
o Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was
associated with 35 girls' schools in Bengal,
pioneering women's education.
• Government Support:
o Charles Wood's Despatch on Education
(1854) emphasized female education.
o Women's Medical Service (1914) trained
nurses and midwives.
o Indian Women’s University (1916) by
Professor D.K. Karve and Lady Hardinge
Medical College (1916) in Delhi were
notable institutions.
• Healthcare: Dufferin Hospitals in the 1880s
provided health facilities to women.
• Political Participation
o Women participated in the Swadeshi, anti-
partition, and Home Rule movements in
the early 20th century.
o Post-1918, they joined political
processions, trade union and kisan
movements, and revolutionary activities.
o Women were elected to legislatures and
local bodies, with Sarojini Naidu becoming
the president of the Indian National
Congress (1925) and later the governor of
the United Provinces (1947-49).
• Other Legislative Reforms: Advocated for
various laws pre- and post-independence,
including the Sarda Act, Hindu Women’s Right
to Property Act, Factory Act, Hindu Marriage
and Divorce Act, Special Marriage Act, Hindu
Minority and Guardianship Act, Hindu
Adoption and Maintenance Act, Suppression of
Immoral Traffic in Women Act, Maternity
Benefits Act, Dowry Prohibition Act, and Equal
Remuneration Act.

Major Women Organisation

Organization Founded By Year Objectives/Key Points
Bharat Stree Sarla Devi 1910 • Promote education, abolish purdah, improve
Mahamandal Chaudhurani socio-economic and political status of women.
Ladies Social Ramabai Ranade 1904 • Address social issues affecting women; part of
Conference National Social Conference. UPSC (2012)
Arya Mahila Samaj Pandita Ramabai - • Serve women's causes, advocate for educational
Saraswati reforms; led to medical education for women.
National Council of Mehribai Tata 1925 • Address societal issues; affiliated with
Women in India International Council of Women.
All India Women's Margaret Cousins 1927 • Work for social justice, integrity, equal rights,
Conference opportunities; advocated for various legislative
reforms.
o Social reform movements: Movements
Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation
like the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and
• The factors that undermined caste rigidities in
others questioned and criticized caste
India include:
discrimination and worked towards social
o Forces unleashed by colonial
equality.
administration: The British colonial
o National movement: The Indian national
administration introduced modern
movement, led by figures like Mahatma
institutions, laws, and education, which
Gandhi, advocated for the abolition of
challenged the traditional caste system.

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untouchability and promoted social
harmony.
o Gandhi's campaign against
untouchability: Mahatma Gandhi's
dedicated efforts to eradicate
untouchability and integrate lower castes
into mainstream society played a
significant role.
o Stirrings among lower castes due to
better education and employment: As
lower caste individuals gained access to
education and employment opportunities,
they began to assert their rights and
challenge caste barriers.
o Free India's Constitution: The Constitution
of independent India, with its emphasis on
equality and prohibition of discrimination
on the grounds of caste, provided a legal
framework for reducing caste rigidities.
Brahmo Samaj UPSC (2012)
Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj
• Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833): Father of
Indian Renaissance, advocate of modern
scientific approach, human dignity, and social
equality.
• Monotheism: Wrote Gift to Monotheists
(1809), translated Vedas and Upanishads to
support monotheism.
• Atmiya Sabha (1814): Established in Calcutta
to propagate Vedantic monotheism and
campaign against social ills.
• Rationalism: Emphasized reason over
scripture, criticized blind faith.
• Interfaith Dialogue: Advocated incorporating
Christ's message into Hinduism, faced
opposition from missionaries.
• Cultural Synthesis: Supported selecting the
best from different cultures, faced orthodox
opposition.
• Brahmo Sabha (1828): Later renamed Brahmo
Samaj, aimed to purify Hinduism, preach
monotheism, oppose idolatry, and address
social evils like sati.
• Opposition: Faced strong opposition from
orthodox elements like Raja Radhakant Deb
and the Dharma Sabha.
Social Reforms
• Sati Abolition: Crusaded against sati, efforts
led to the 1829 government regulation
declaring sati a crime.
37 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Women's Rights: Condemned women's
subjugation, attacked polygamy, advocated for
women's inheritance and property rights.
• Modern Education: Supported Hindu College
(1817), established English school and Vedanta
college (1825), contributed to Bengali
language development.
Political Activism and Journalism
• Press Freedom: Pioneer in Indian journalism,
published journals in multiple languages to
represent public grievances.
• Land Reforms: Criticized zamindar practices,
demanded rent regulation, and abolition of
taxes on tax-free lands.
• Trade and Administration: Advocated for
reduced export duties, abolition of Company's
trading rights, Indianisation of services, and
judicial equality.
Internationalism
• Global Vision: Supported international
revolutions, condemned oppression in Ireland,
advocated for liberty, equality, and justice.
• Associates: Collaborated with notable figures
such as David Hare, Alexander Duff,
Debendranath Tagore, P.K. Tagore,
Chandrashekhar Deb, and Tarachand
Chakraborty.
journals by Raja Ram Mohan Roy
• Bengal Gazette (1816): First Bengali
newspaper, it played a significant role in
promoting modern ideas and social reforms.
• Sambad Kaumudi (1821): A Bengali weekly
that discussed social and religious reforms,
including the abolition of Sati and women's
education.
• Mirat-ul-Akbar (1822): A Persian journal
focusing on social, cultural, and political
issues, aimed at bridging the gap between
the British and Indians.
• Brahmanical Magazine (1825): An English
journal aimed at countering conservative
Hindu orthodoxy and promoting rational
and progressive ideas.
Debendranath Tagore and Brahmo Samaj
• Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905):
Father of Rabindranath Tagore, combined
traditional Indian learning with Western
thought.
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• Joining Brahmo Samaj (1842): Brought new
life and definite shape to the theist movement
of Brahmo Samaj.
• Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839): Led by Tagore,
focused on systematic study of India's past
with a rational outlook and propagation of
Rammohan Roy's ideas.
• Tattvabodhini Patrika: The organ of
Tattvabodhini Sabha, published in Bengali.
• Membership Growth: Brahmo Samaj gained
vitality and strength from the association with
Tattvabodhini Sabha, attracting followers of
Rammohan Roy, Derozians, and thinkers like
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Ashwini Kumar
Datta.
• Reformist Movement: Within Hinduism,
Brahmo Samaj worked as a reformist
movement, supporting widow remarriage,
women's education, abolition of polygamy,
improvement in ryots' conditions, and
temperance.
• Opposition to Christian Missionaries:
Resolutely opposed criticism of Hinduism and
conversion attempts by Christian missionaries.
Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahmo Samaj
• Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884): Joined the
Brahmo Samaj in 1858 and became acharya
under Debendranath Tagore.
• Popularization: Instrumental in spreading the
movement outside Bengal, establishing
branches in various regions.
• Radical Ideas: Advocated for cosmopolitan
meetings, inclusion of teachings from all
religions, strong opposition to the caste
system, and support for inter-caste marriages.
• Dismissal: Dismissed from the office of acharya
in 1865 due to disagreements with
Debendranath Tagore.
• Brahmo Samaj of India (1866): Founded by
Keshab and his followers after his dismissal,
while Debendranath Tagore's group became
known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj.
• Controversy: Caused a split in 1878 by
marrying his thirteen-year-old daughter to a
Hindu Maharaja with orthodox rituals,
contradicting his previous stance against such
practices.
• Authoritarianism: Accused of authoritarianism
and considered an incarnation by some
followers, leading to further discontent.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Sadharan Brahmo Samaj: Established by
Ananda Mohan Bose, Shibchandra Deb, and
Umesh Chandra Datta after breaking away
from Keshab's group, reiterating Brahmo
doctrines of monotheism, reason, and
morality.
• Expansion: Brahmo Samaj centers opened in
Madras and Punjab, with the Dayal Singh Trust
establishing Dayal Singh College in Lahore in
1910 to promote Brahmo ideas.
Prarthana Samaj
• Foundation: Founded in 1867 by Atmaram
Pandurang with the help of Keshab Chandra
Sen in Bombay.
• Precursor: Paramahansa Sabha, a secret
society promoting liberal ideas and the
breakdown of caste and communal barriers.
• Key Figure: Mahadeo Govind Ranade joined in
1870, significantly contributing to the
popularity and work of the Samaj, giving it an
all-India character.
• Other Leaders: R.G. Bhandarkar and N.G.
Chandavarkar.
• Focus: Emphasized monotheism but was more
concerned with social reforms than religion.
• Influence: Attached to the Bhakti cult of
Maharashtra, relied on education and
persuasion rather than confrontation with
Hindu orthodoxy.
• Social Agenda: Disapproval of the caste
system, promotion of women's education,
support for widow remarriage, and raising the
age of marriage for both genders.
• Reform Champions: Dhondo Keshav Karve and
Vishnu Shastri, alongside Ranade, were
prominent in social reform efforts.
• Initiatives: Founded the Widow Remarriage
Movement and Widows' Home Association to
provide education and training to widows for
self-support.
Young Bengal Movement
Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian
Derozio
• Time Period: Late 1820s to early 1830s.
• Leader: Henry Vivian Derozio (1809-31), an
Anglo-Indian teacher at Hindu College (1826-
31).
• Inspiration: Great French Revolution.
• Ideals: Encouraged free thinking, rational
questioning, love for liberty, equality, and
38
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freedom, opposition to decadent customs,
support for women's rights and education.
• Nationalism: Derozio is considered the first
nationalist poet of modern India.
• Impact: Limited long-term influence due to
removal from Hindu College in 1831 and lack of
societal readiness for radical ideas.
• Lack of Mass Connection: No substantial
support from other social groups or classes;
failed to address peasants' cause; radicalism
was more theoretical.
• Contributions: Continued Rammohan Roy's
tradition of public education on social,
economic, and political issues; demanded
Indians in higher services, protection of ryots,
better treatment of Indian labor abroad,
revision of Company's charter, freedom of
press, and trial by jury.
• Legacy: Described by Surendranath Banerjea
as "pioneers of the modern civilization of
Bengal."
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
• Blending of Thoughts: Vidyasagar combined
Indian and Western thought, emphasizing high
moral values and humanism.
• Principal of Sanskrit College (1850): Opened
Sanskrit College to non-Brahmins, breaking the
priestly monopoly on scriptural knowledge.
• Introduction of Western Thought:
Incorporated Western ideas in Sanskrit College
to modernize Sanskritic learning.
• Academic Contributions: Developed a new
methodology for teaching Sanskrit, created a
new Bengali primer, and evolved a new prose
style.
• Widow Remarriage Movement: Advocated for
the legalisation of widow remarriage, opposing
child marriage and polygamy.
• Women's Education: As a government
inspector of schools, organized thirty-five girls'
schools, many at his own expense. Secretary of
Bethune School, a pioneer in higher education
for women in India.
Bethune School
• Foundation: Bethune School, established in
Calcutta in 1849, was part of the movement
for women's education in the 1840s and
1850s.
39 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Challenges: The movement faced significant
obstacles, including social boycotts and the
belief that Western-educated girls would
dominate their husbands.
Balshastri Jambhekar
• Pioneer in Journalism: First major social
reformer in Bombay through journalism,
criticized Brahminical orthodoxy and aimed to
reform Hinduism.
• Marathi Journalism: Started the newspaper
Darpan in 1832, known as the father of
Marathi journalism.
• Social Reforms: Used Darpan to promote
social reforms like widow remarriage and a
scientific approach to life.
• Digdarshan: Started in 1840, published articles
on scientific subjects and history.
• Educational Contributions: Founded the
Bombay Native General Library, the Native
Improvement Society, and its offshoot, the
Students Literary and Scientific Library. First
professor of Hindi at Elphinston College and
director of the Colaba Observatory.
Paramahansa Mandali
• Foundation: Established in 1849 in
Maharashtra by Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji
Durgaram, and others.
• Secret Society: Initially operated secretly to
reform Hindu religion and society.
• Ideology: Advocated for monotheism, real
religion based on love and moral conduct,
freedom of thought, and rationality.
• Caste Reform: Aimed to break caste rules, with
members eating food cooked by lower caste
individuals.
• Advocacy: Supported widow remarriage and
women's education.
• Expansion: Had branches in Poona, Satara, and
other towns in Maharashtra.
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
• Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-1895):
Educationist and social reformer from
Maharashtra.
• Advocacy: Criticized blind dependence on
tradition and false glorification of the past,
advocated for human reason.
• Contributions: Co-founder of New English
School, Deccan Education Society, and
Fergusson College. First editor of Kesari and
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later started his own periodical, Sudharak,
opposing untouchability and caste system.
The Servants of India Society
• Founder: Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915),
liberal leader of the Indian National Congress.
• Established: 1905, with the help of M.G.
Ranade.
• Aim: Train national missionaries for India's
service, promote true interests of Indian
people, prepare selfless workers for the
country's cause.
• Publication: Hitavada (1911) to project
society's views.
• Political Stance: Remained aloof from political
activities and organizations like the Indian
National Congress.
• Legacy: Continues to function in education,
providing ashram-type schools for tribal girls
and balwadis.
Social Service League
• Founder: Narayan Malhar Joshi, a follower of
Gokhale.
• Aim: Secure better and reasonable conditions
of life and work for the masses.
• Activities: Organized schools, libraries, reading
rooms, day nurseries, cooperative societies,
legal aid, medical relief, and recreational
facilities.
• Trade Union Movement: Joshi Founded the All
India Trade Union Congress (1920).
The Ramakrishna Movement
• Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-1886):
Poor priest at Kali temple in Dakshineshwar,
experienced spiritual trances from an early
age, considered to have attained the highest
spiritual experience in Hinduism.
• Teachings: Spoke in simple parables and
metaphors, emphasizing universal relevance.
Advocated salvation through renunciation,
meditation, and bhakti amidst westernization
and modernization.
• Universal Message: Recognized the oneness of
all religions, emphasizing that different names
like Krishna, Hari, Ram, Christ, Allah represent
the same God, and there are many paths to
salvation.
• Ramakrishna Math: Founded by
Paramahamsa with his monastic disciples to
fulfill the objective of creating a band of monks
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
dedicated to renunciation and practical
spirituality.
• Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902): Disciple of
Ramakrishna, founded the Ramakrishna
Mission in 1897 after Ramakrishna's death,
focusing on preaching, philanthropy, and
charitable works without distinction of caste,
creed, or color.
• Headquarters: Belur near Calcutta, serving as
the base for the Ramakrishna Math and
Mission, which are twin organizations but
legally and financially separate.
• Sarada Devi: Wife of Ramakrishna, considered
as the embodiment of the Divine Mother,
known as 'holy mother' by disciples, played a
significant role in the math's work and
encouraged young disciples in their mission.
• Swami Vivekananda
o Narendranath Datta (1862-1902): Later
known as Swami Vivekananda, he spread
Ramakrishna's message and emerged as a
preacher of neo-Hinduism.
o Philosophical Basis: His teachings were
based on the spiritual experiences of
Ramakrishna, the Upanishads, the Gita,
and the examples of Buddha and Jesus.
o Vedanta: Advocated for Vedanta as a
rational system bridging the gap between
spirituality and daily life.
o Fundamental Oneness: Emphasized the
oneness of God and the potential unity of
Hinduism and Islam for India's future.
o Social Action: Stressed the importance of
knowledge with action, criticizing the
isolationist tendencies and indifference of
Hindus towards the poor.
o Mass Education: Advocated for secular
knowledge for economic upliftment and
spiritual knowledge to strengthen moral
sense.
o Call for Change: Urged countrymen to
embrace liberty, equality, and free
thinking.
• Swami Vivekananda at the Parliament of
Religions
o Chicago, 1893: Made a significant impact
with his learned interpretations.
o Keynote: Advocated for a balance
between spiritualism and materialism.
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o New Culture: Called for a blend of Western
materialism and Eastern spiritualism for
global happiness.
o Lectures: Gave several lectures on
Vedanta in the USA and London before
returning to India in 1897.
• Vivekananda's Mission in India
o Lectures in India: Focused on instilling
pride in India's past, faith in its culture, and
confidence in its future.
o Unification of Hinduism: Emphasized the
common foundation of its sects.
o Social Upliftment: Urged the educated to
work for the upliftment of the
downtrodden using practical Vedanta
principles.
o Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Founded for
humanitarian relief, social work, and
religious and social reform.
o Doctrine of Service: Advocated serving all
beings as worship of the divine.
• Ramakrishna Mission
o Activities: Runs schools, hospitals,
dispensaries, and provides help during
natural calamities.
o Global Organization: Non-proselytizing,
not considered a sect of Hinduism.
o Philosophy: Recognizes the value of image
worship, emphasizes the essence of
Vedanta to enhance one's faith.
o Belur Math: Acquired land in 1898, shifted
and registered Ramakrishna Math, open to
all without caste or creed discrimination.
Arya Samaj
• Founder: Dayananda Saraswati, born as
Mulshankar (1824-1883) in a Brahmin family in
Gujarat.
• Wanderings: Searched for truth as an ascetic
for fifteen years (1845-60).
• Arya Samaj: Established the first unit in
Bombay in 1875, with headquarters later in
Lahore.
• Satyarth Prakash: Dayananda's work outlining
his vision for India - classless, casteless society,
united and free from foreign rule, with Aryan
religion as the common faith.
• Back to the Vedas: Slogan advocating the
revival of Vedic learning and purity of religion,
accepting modernity and patriotic attitude
towards national problems.
41 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Education: Studied Vedanta under Swami
Virajananda in Mathura.
• Scripture Interpretation: Emphasized
individual interpretation and access to God,
criticized later Hindu scriptures and ignorant
priests.
• Critique of Hindu Beliefs: Criticized the belief
in maya (illusion), the aim of attaining moksha
(salvation) through escape, and the concept of
niyati (destiny).
• Karma and Reincarnation: Believed in karma
and reincarnation, advocated good deeds
primarily for the good of others.
• Attack on Orthodoxy: Condemned Hindu
orthodoxy, caste rigidities, untouchability,
idolatry, polytheism, superstitions, and
discriminatory practices.
• Chaturvarna System: Supported the Vedic
notion of social classification based on
occupation and merit, not birth.
• Minimum Marriageable Age: Set at twenty-
five years for boys and sixteen years for girls.
• Ten Guiding Principles: Include worship of the
one true God, the Vedas as true knowledge,
acceptance of truth, promotion of world's well-
being, and social welfare above individual well-
being.
• Social Ideals: Emphasize the fatherhood of
God, brotherhood of Man, equality of sexes,
justice, intercaste marriages, and widow
remarriages.
• Collaboration and Impact
o Collaboration: Dayananda met other
reformers like Keshab Chandra Sen, Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, Ranade, and
Deshmukh.
o Social Service: Known for relief work
during calamities and promoting
education.
o Post-Death: Work continued by members,
with a focus on education. The Dayananda
Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) College was
established in 1886 at Lahore.
• Internal Split
o Curriculum Dispute: Split in 1893 over the
curriculum of D.A.V. College, leading to the
formation of the College Party and the
Mahatma Party.
o Vegetarianism: Became a contentious
issue, with the Mahatma Party advocating
for strict vegetarianism.
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o Gurukul Kangri: Founded by Swami
Shraddhanand in 1900, aimed at providing
an indigenous alternative to Western
education and promoting radical social
reform.
• Shuddhi Movement
o Protection: Aimed to protect Hindu society
from Christianity and Islam.
o Reconversion: Aggressive campaign to
reconvert converts to Christianity and
Islam back to Hinduism.
o Communalization: Led to increasing
communalization of social life in the 1920s.
o Upliftment: Attempted to uplift
untouchables and integrate them into
caste Hindus.
Seva Sadan
• Founder: Behramji M. Malabari (1853-1912), a
Parsi social reformer, along with Diwan
Dayaram Gidumal in 1908.
• Focus: Advocated against child marriage and
for widow remarriage among Hindus. Led to
the Age of Consent Act regulating the age of
consent for females.
• Services: Provided shelter, education, medical,
and welfare services to destitute women of all
castes.
Dev Samaj
• Founder: Shiv Narayan Agnihotri (1850-1927),
founded in 1887 at Lahore. Initially a Brahmo
follower.
• Beliefs: Emphasized the eternity of the soul,
supremacy of the guru, and the need for good
action.
• Social Behavior: Advocated for ideal behavior
such as avoiding bribes, intoxicants, non-
vegetarian food, and violence.
• Teachings: Compiled in Deva Shastra. Spoke
against child marriage.
Dharma Sabha
• Founder: Radhakant Deb, founded in 1830.
• Stance: Orthodox society, opposed the
abolition of sati, but favored the promotion of
Western education, including for girls.
Bharat Dharma Mahamandala
• Formation: Combined effort of various
orthodox Hindu organizations in 1902, with
headquarters at Varanasi.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Objective: Defend orthodox Hinduism against
teachings of Arya Samajists, Theosophists, and
Ramakrishna Mission.
• Activities: Aimed to manage Hindu religious
institutions and open Hindu educational
institutions.
• Prominent Figure: Pandit Madan Mohan
Malaviya.
Radhaswami Movement
• Founder: Tulsi Ram, also known as Shiv Dayal
Saheb, a banker from Agra, founded the
movement in 1861.
• Beliefs: Emphasize one supreme being,
supremacy of the guru, satsang (company of
pious people), and a simple social life. All
religions are considered true, and spiritual
attainment does not require renunciation of
worldly life.
• Practices: No belief in temples or shrines, but
emphasize faith, charity, service, and prayer.
Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP)
Movement
• Founder: Sree Narayana Guru Swamy (1856-
1928) among the Ezhavas of Kerala.
• Background: Ezhavas were a backward caste of
toddy-tappers, considered untouchables.
• Initiation: Installed a Sivalinga at Aruvippuram
in 1888 to challenge caste-based restrictions.
• Expansion: Aruvippuram Sree Narayana Guru
Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) registered in
1903, aimed at material and spiritual progress
of Ezhavas.
• Beliefs: Equality of all religions, condemnation
of animal sacrifice, and opposition to caste,
race, or creed divisiveness.
• Impact: Advocated for the Ezhavas' rights in
education, government services, temple entry,
and political representation. Led to
transformative changes in social mobility and
power distribution.
Vokkaliga Sangha
• Region: Mysore.
• Activity: Launched an anti-Brahmin movement
in 1905.
Justice Movement
• Founders: C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, and P.
Tyagaraja in the Madras Presidency.
• Aim: Secure jobs and legislative representation
for non-Brahmins.
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• Madras Presidency Association (1917):
Demanded separate representation for lower
castes in the legislature.
Self-Respect Movement
• Founder: E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, also
known as Periyar, started the movement in the
mid-1920s.
• Aim: Rejection of Brahminical religion and
culture, which was seen as the primary
instrument of exploitation of lower castes.
• Actions: Promoted weddings without Brahmin
priests to undermine their position.
Temple Entry Movement
• Early Reformers: Work initiated by Sree
Narayana Guru and N. Kumaran Asan.
• Vaikom Satyagraha (1924): Led by K.P. Kesava,
demanded the opening of Hindu temples and
roads to untouchables in Kerala, supported by
Gandhi.
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1931): Temple
entry movement organized in Kerala, led by K.
Kelappan and supported by other leaders.
• Proclamation (1936): Maharaja of Travancore
opened all government-controlled temples to
all Hindus.
• Madras (1938): C. Rajagopalachari
administration took a similar step in temple
entry.
Indian Social Conference
• Founders: M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao,
first session in Madras in 1887.
• Relation with Congress: Met annually at the
same time and venue as the Indian National
Congress, acted as its social reform cell.
• Focus: Addressed social issues such as inter-
caste marriages, opposition to polygamy and
kulinism.
• Pledge Movement: Launched to inspire people
to take a pledge against child marriage.
Wahabi/Walliullah Movement
• Influences: Inspired by Abdul Wahab of Arabia
and Shah Walliullah (1702-1763) of India.
• Aims: Revivalist response to Western
influences and degeneration in Indian
Muslims, calling for a return to the true spirit
of Islam.
• Ideals: Harmony among the four schools of
Muslim jurisprudence and recognition of
individual conscience in religion.
43 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Popularization: Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed
Ahmed Barelvi further popularized Walliullah's
teachings and gave them a political
perspective.
• Reforms: Advocated for the elimination of un-
Islamic practices and a return to pure Islam.
• Political Aspect: Initially directed against Sikhs
in Punjab, later against the British after
Punjab's annexation in 1849. Played a role in
spreading anti-British feelings during the 1857
Revolt.
• Decline: The movement fizzled out in the face
of British military might in the 1870s.
Titu Mir's Movement
• Leader: Mir Nithar Ali, popularly known as Titu
Mir, a disciple of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi.
• Adoption of Wahabism: Advocated for Sharia
and organized Muslim peasants of Bengal
against landlords and British indigo planters.
• Militancy: The movement was not very
militant until the last year of Titu Mir's life
when there was a confrontation with the
British police.
• Death: Titu Mir was killed in action in 1831.
Faraizi Movement
• Founder: Haji Shariatullah in 1818.
• Region: East Bengal.
• Aims: Eradication of un-Islamic practices
among Muslims and emphasis on Islamic pillars
of faith.
• Revolutionary Phase: Under Dudu Mian (Haji's
son), the movement became revolutionary
from 1840 onwards, with an organizational
system and a paramilitary force.
• Actions: Fought against zamindars and indigo
planters, established own law courts, and
encouraged followers not to pay rent.
• Decline: Movement weakened after Dudu
Mian's arrest in 1847 and survived merely as a
religious movement after his death in 1862.
Ahmadiyya Movement
• Founder: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889.
• Principles: Liberal, promoting universal
religion of humanity, opposing jihad, and
spreading Western liberal education among
Indian Muslims.
• Beliefs: Messiah has come in the person of
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, aiming to end religious
wars and promote morality, peace, and justice.
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• Separation: Advocated for the separation of
mosque and State, human rights, and
tolerance.
• Criticism: Suffered from mysticism, similar to
Baha'ism in West Asia.
Aligarh Movement
• Background: Post-1857, Muslims were viewed
as main conspirators, but the British later saw
them as potential allies against nationalist
movements like the Indian National Congress.
• Leader: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898), a
loyal British government official, knighted in
1888 for his loyalty.
• Education: Advocated for reconciling Western
scientific education with Quranic teachings.
Founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental
College (later Aligarh Muslim University) in
1875.
• Social Reforms: Worked for women's
improvement, opposed purdah and polygamy,
advocated for easy divorce, and condemned
the system of piri and muridi. Believed in the
unity of religions and the commonality of
Hindu and Muslim interests.
• Political Stance: Initially opposed political
activity for Muslims, focusing on education and
jobs. Later, propagated divergence of Hindu
and Muslim interests, aligning with British
divide and rule policy.
• Publication: Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq (Improvement
of Manners and Morals) magazine used to
propagate progressive social ideas.
• Aligarh Movement: A liberal, modern trend
among Muslim intelligentsia aimed at
spreading modern education, social reforms,
and harmonizing Islam with modern liberal
culture. Aligarh became a center for the
religious and cultural revival of the Muslim
community.
The Deoband School (Darul Uloom)
• Origins: Founded in 1866 by Mohammad
Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi in
Deoband, Saharanpur district, United
Provinces.
• Objectives: Propagate pure teachings of the
Quran and Hadis among Muslims and maintain
the spirit of jihad against foreign rulers.
• Contrast with Aligarh Movement: Focused on
moral and religious regeneration through
original Islamic education, unlike the Aligarh
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Movement's emphasis on Western education
and support for the British.
• Political Stance: Initially welcomed the Indian
National Congress and issued a fatwa against
Syed Ahmed Khan's organizations. Later, under
leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan, synthesized Islamic
principles with nationalist aspirations through
the Jamiat-ul-Ulema.
• Shibli Numani: A Deoband supporter who
advocated for including English and European
sciences in education. Founded the Nadwatal
Ulama and Darul Uloom in Lucknow. Believed
in Congress idealism and Hindu-Muslim
cooperation for a harmonious state.
Parsi Reform Movements
• Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious
Reform Association): Founded in 1851 by
English-educated Parsis like Naoroji Furdonji,
Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama, and S.S.
Bengalee.
• Aimed at the social regeneration of Parsis and
restoring Zoroastrian religion to its original
purity. Promoted through the newspaper Rast
Goftar (Truth-Teller).
• Focused on reforming religious rituals,
practices, and uplifting the status of Parsi
women by addressing issues like purdah,
marriage age, and education.
Sikh Reform Movements
• Singh Sabha Movement (1873): Started in
Amritsar to provide modern Western
education to Sikhs and counter the
proselytizing activities of Christian
missionaries, Brahmo Samajists, Arya
Samajists, and Muslim maulvis. Established a
network of Khalsa schools and promoted
practices consistent with Sikh doctrine.
• Akali Movement (Gurudwara Reform
Movement): An offshoot of the Singh Sabha
Movement, aimed at freeing Sikh gurudwaras
from the control of corrupt Udasi mahants. Led
to the Sikh Gurudwaras Act in 1922 (amended
in 1925), giving control of gurudwaras to the
Sikh masses through the Shiromani Gurudwara
Prabandhak Committee (SGPC). The
movement was regional but not communal,
with Akali leaders participating in the national
liberation struggle.
44
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The Theosophical Movement
• Founders: Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel
M.S. Olcott. In New York City, United States in
1875. Shifted to Adyar, Madras (India) in 1882.
• Beliefs: Accepted Hindu beliefs in
reincarnation and karma. Inspired by the
philosophy of the Upanishads, Samkhya, Yoga,
and Vedanta. Aimed for a special relationship
between a person's soul and God through
contemplation, prayer, and revelation.
• Objectives: Worked for the universal
brotherhood of humanity without distinction
of race, creed, sex, caste, or color. Investigated
unexplained laws of nature and latent powers
in humans. Allied with the Hindu renaissance
and opposed child marriage, caste
discrimination, and advocated for the uplift of
outcastes and widows' welfare.
• Annie Besant: Became president after Olcott's
death in 1907. Founded the Central Hindu
College in Benaras in 1898, which later became
the nucleus for Benaras Hindu University in
1916. Contributed significantly to women's
education.
• Impact: Provided a common platform for
various sects and fulfilled the urge of educated
Hindus for a sense of self-respect against
British colonial rule. However, its impact was
limited to a small segment of the westernized
class due to its perceived vagueness and lack of
a positive program.
Positive Aspects of Socio-Religious Reform
Movements
• Liberation of the Individual: These
movements contributed to freeing individuals
from conformity and uncritical submission to
exploitation by religious authorities.
• Personalization of Worship: Translation of
religious texts into vernacular languages and
simplification of rituals made worship more
personal.
• Emphasis on Reason: The movements
highlighted the capacity of human intellect to
think and reason.
• Cleansing of Religious Practices: By removing
corrupt elements, the reformers helped their
45 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
followers counter the notion that their
religions and society were decadent.
• Cultural Roots for Middle Classes: The
movements provided the rising middle classes
with cultural roots, reducing the sense of
humiliation from foreign conquest.
• Promotion of Modern Outlook: They
promoted a modern, secular, and rational
outlook, and a change in notions of 'pollution
and purity.'
• Integration of Modern Ideas: The movements
aimed at integrating modern ideas into Indian
cultural streams, reducing India's cultural and
intellectual isolation.
• Revival of Native Cultural Personality: These
efforts were aimed at reviving the native
cultural personality, which had been distorted
over the years, and resisting colonial cultural
hegemony.
Negative Aspects of Socio-Religious Reform
Movements
• Narrow Social Base: The movements primarily
targeted the educated and urban middle
classes, ignoring the needs of the peasantry
and urban poor.
• Encouragement of Mysticism: The reliance on
scriptural authority and the past encouraged
mysticism and pseudo-scientific thinking.
• Compartmentalization: The emphasis on
religious and philosophical aspects led to
compartmentalization among Hindus,
Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis.
• Insufficient Emphasis on Other Cultural
Aspects: There was a lack of focus on art,
architecture, literature, music, science, and
technology.
• Alienation of Low Caste Sections: The
uncritical praise of the ancient period was not
acceptable to low caste sections who had
suffered during that time.
• Rise of Communal Consciousness: The nature
of these movements contributed to the rise of
communal consciousness alongside national
consciousness.
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7 Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India
Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism
• Worldwide Upsurge of Nationalism: Inspired
by the French Revolution, concepts of
nationalism and the right of self-determination
spread globally.
• Indian Renaissance: A cultural, social, and
intellectual awakening in India that
contributed to the rise of national
consciousness.
• Modernization Initiated by the British:
Introduction of new institutions,
opportunities, and resources by the British Raj
that inadvertently fostered a sense of Indian
identity.
• Reaction to British Imperialist Policies: Strong
opposition to discriminatory and exploitative
colonial policies that united Indians against a
common oppressor.
Other Factors
• Understanding of Contradictions in Indian and
Colonial Interests:
o Recognition that colonial rule caused
India's economic issues.
o Realization that all Indian classes shared
common interests against colonialism.
• Political, Administrative, and Economic
Unification of the Country:
o British rule unified India politically and
administratively.
o Development of transport and
communication linked regions
economically.
o Modern infrastructure facilitated political
mobilization and idea exchange.
• Western Thought and Education:
o Western education introduced modern
political ideas to India.
o Exposure to European thinkers inspired
democratic and nationalist ideas.
o English language enabled communication
among nationalist leaders.
o Educated Indians compared modern
political institutions in England with
colonial oppression in India.
o English-educated middle class led political
unrest and associations.
• Role of Press and Literature:
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
o Growth of Indian-owned newspapers in
English and vernacular languages despite
restrictions.
o Press criticized official policies and urged
unity among people, spreading modern
ideas of self-government, democracy, and
civil rights.
o Newspapers, journals, and literature
facilitated the exchange of political ideas
among leaders.
• Rediscovery of India's Past:
o European and Indian scholars like Max
Mueller, R.G. Bhandarkar, and Swami
Vivekananda highlighted India's rich
historical heritage.
o Research debunked colonial myths of
India's servility, boosting self-respect and
confidence among Indians.
• Progressive Character of Socio-religious
Reform Movements:
o Movements aimed to remove social evils,
uniting different sections of society.
o Contributed to the growth of Indian
nationalism by fostering a sense of unity.
• Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia:
o British policies led to the emergence of an
urban middle class with common
knowledge, ideas, and values.
o This dynamic minority played a key role in
the leadership of the Indian National
Congress and the growth of nationalism.
• Impact of Contemporary Movements in the
World:
o The rise of nations in South America and
national liberation movements in Greece,
Italy, and Ireland influenced Indian
nationalism.
• Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of
Rulers:
o British perpetuated racial superiority
myths through discrimination and
segregation.
o Lytton's policies (reduction of I.C.S. exam
age limit, Delhi Durbar during famine,
Vernacular Press Act, and Arms Act)
provoked opposition.
o The Ilbert Bill controversy highlighted
racial discrimination in the judiciary and
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taught nationalists how to organize and
agitate for rights. UPSC (2013)
Political Associations Before the Indian National
Congress
• Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha (1836): Formed
by associates of Raja Rammohan Roy.
• Zamindari Association / Landholders' Society:
Founded to safeguard landlords' interests,
marking the beginning of organized political
activity and constitutional agitation.
• Bengal British India Society (1843): Aimed at
collecting and disseminating information on
the condition of the people of British India and
securing their welfare and rights.
• British Indian Association (1851): Resulted
from the merger of the Landholders’ Society
and the Bengal British India Society. Petitioned
the British Parliament for legislative reforms,
separation of executive from judicial functions,
reduction in salaries of higher officers, and
abolition of certain duties. Some demands
were partially accepted in the Charter Act of
1853.
• East India Association (1866): Organized by
Dadabhai Naoroji in London to discuss the
Indian question and promote Indian welfare.
Branches were later started in prominent
Indian cities.
• Indian League (1875): Started by Sisir Kumar
Ghosh to stimulate the sense of nationalism
and encourage political education among the
people.
The Indian Association of Calcutta (1876)
• Founders: Younger nationalists of Bengal,
including Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda
Mohan Bose.
• Reason for Establishment: Discontent with the
conservative and pro-landlord policies of the
British Indian Association.
• Aims: To promote the political, intellectual,
and material advancement of the people,
create strong public opinion on political
questions, and unify the Indian people in a
common political programme.
47 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Key Protests:
o Against the reduction of the age limit for
Indian Civil Service examination
candidates in 1877.
o Demanded the simultaneous holding of
civil service examinations in England and
India.
o Advocated for the Indianisation of higher
administrative posts.
o Led campaigns against the repressive Arms
Act and the Vernacular Press Act.
• Expansion: Opened branches in other towns
and cities of Bengal and outside Bengal, with a
low membership fee to attract poorer sections
of society.
• All-India Conference: Sponsored a conference
in Calcutta in December 1883, attended by
over a hundred delegates from different parts
of the country, serving as a precursor to the
Indian National Congress.
• Merger: Eventually merged with the Indian
National Congress in 1886.
Political Associations in Bombay
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1867)
• Founded by Mahadeo Govind Ranade and
others.
• Aimed to serve as a bridge between the
government and the people.
Bombay Presidency Association (1885)
• Started by Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah
Mehta, and K.T. Telang.
• Aimed to address political issues and represent
the interests of the people in the Bombay
Presidency.
Political Associations in Madras
Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884)
• Founded by M. Viraraghavachari, B.
Subramaniya Aiyer, and P. Anandacharlu.
• Aimed to promote the political, social, and
economic interests of the people in the Madras
Presidency.
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8 INC: Foundation and the Moderate Phase
Foundation of Indian National Congress
• Background (Late 1870s and Early 1880s):
Prepared ground for an all-India organization.
• A.O. Hume: Retired English civil servant,
mobilized leading intellectuals and organized
the first session of the Indian National
Congress.
• Indian National Conference (1883 and 1885):
Preceded the Congress, had representatives
from major Indian towns. Main architects:
Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan
Bose.
• First Session (December 1885): Held at
Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
Attended by 72 delegates, presided over by
Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee.
• Annual Meetings: Congress met every
December in different parts of the country.
• Early Presidents: Included Dadabhai Naoroji
(thrice), Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta,
P. Anandacharlu, Surendranath Banerjea,
Romesh Chandra Dutt, Ananda Mohan Bose,
and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Other Prominent Leaders: Mahadeo Govind
Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sisir Kumar
Ghosh, Motilal Ghosh, Madan Mohan
Malaviya, G. Subramaniya Aiyar, C.
Vijayaraghavachariar, Dinshaw E. Wacha.
• Women's Participation: Kadambini Ganguly,
the first woman graduate of Calcutta
University, addressed the Congress session in
1890, symbolizing the commitment to
women's status in national life.
Theories on the Formation of Indian National
Congress
• Safety Valve Theory: Suggested by some
historians and leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai. It
posits that A.O. Hume formed the Congress
to act as a 'safety valve' for releasing the
growing discontent among Indians, thereby
preventing a possible uprising.
• Conspiracy Theory: An extension of the
'safety valve' notion, proposed by Marxist
historian R.P. Dutt. It suggests that the
Congress was born out of a conspiracy to
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
abort a popular uprising in India, with
bourgeois leaders being complicit.
Moderates Phase (1885-1905)
Important Leaders:
• National leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji,
Pherozshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C.
Bonnerjea, and S.N. Banerjea dominated
Congress policies during the early period
(1885-1905).
• They were staunch believers in 'liberalism' and
'moderate' politics and came to be labeled as
Moderates.
Moderate Approach:
• Involved constitutional agitation within the
confines of law for slow but orderly political
progress.
• Believed that the British wanted to be just to
Indians but were unaware of the real
conditions.
• Aimed to create public opinion and present
demands to the government through
resolutions, petitions, and meetings.
• Worked on creating a strong public opinion
and persuading the British Government to
introduce reforms in India.
• Used the method of 'prayer and petition' and
resorted to constitutional agitation if that
failed.
• Established a British committee of the Indian
National Congress in London in 1889 with
India as its organ.
• Dadabhai Naoroji campaigned for India's case
abroad, spending a substantial portion of his
life and income.
• Believed that political connections with Britain
were in India's interest at that stage of history
and that it was not the time for a direct
challenge to British rule.
Contributions of Moderate Nationalists
Economic Critique of British Imperialism by Early
Nationalists
• Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, and
Dinshaw Wacha.
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• Drain Theory: Explained British exploitation by
the economic drain from India to Britain.
• Colonial Economy: Opposed India's
transformation into a supplier of raw materials
and importer of finished goods.
• Public Opinion: Created awareness that British
rule was the main cause of India's poverty.
• Demands for Reforms: Reduction in land
revenue and military expenditure, abolition of
salt tax, improvement in labor conditions, and
support for modern industry.
• Independent Economy: Advocated for an
independent economy with Indian capital and
enterprise to break free from British economic
dominance.
Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in
Legislature
• Limited Power: Legislative councils had little
official power until 1920, serving mainly as
symbolic bodies with minimal Indian
representation.
• Demands for Reform: Nationalists sought to
expand councils for greater Indian
participation and reform them for more
authority, especially over finances.
• Criticism and Further Demands: Despite some
concessions, nationalists demanded a majority
of elected Indians in councils and control over
the budget, advocating for self-government
similar to that of Canada and Australia.
• Transforming Councils: Nationalists used
councils as platforms to air grievances, criticize
government policies, and highlight economic
issues, enhancing their political stature and
building a national movement.
• Limitations: The movement failed to expand
its democratic base by excluding the masses
and not advocating for universal suffrage.
Campaign for General Administrative Reforms
• Indianisation of Government Service:
Advocated for including more Indians in
government positions to reduce expenses,
prevent economic drain from remittances to
England, and address discrimination.
• Separation of Judicial and Executive
Functions: Pushed for distinct roles to improve
governance and justice.
• Criticism of Bureaucracy and Judicial System:
Highlighted the oppressive nature of the
49 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
bureaucracy and the inefficiencies in the
judicial process.
• Opposition to Aggressive Foreign Policy:
Condemned costly military ventures like the
annexation of Burma, the attack on
Afghanistan, and actions against tribal groups
in the North-West.
• Increased Welfare Expenditure: Urged higher
spending on health, sanitation, education
(particularly elementary and technical),
irrigation, and agricultural improvements.
• Support for Agricultural Banks: Advocated for
the establishment of banks to provide financial
assistance to farmers.
• Better Treatment for Indian Labour Abroad:
Demanded fair treatment for Indian workers in
other British colonies, who faced oppression
and racial discrimination.
Protection of Civil Rights
• Emphasized the importance of civil rights,
including the right to speech, thought,
association, and a free press.
• The campaign for civil rights helped spread
modern democratic ideas, making the defense
of these rights a central aspect of the freedom
struggle.
• Public outrage over the arrest of leaders like
Tilak and the Natu brothers without trial
underscored the growing consciousness and
demand for civil rights.
Role of Masses
• During the moderate phase of the national
movement, the masses played a passive role
with a narrow social base.
• The early nationalists lacked political faith in
the masses, believing them to be ignorant and
conservative. They felt the need to unite the
diverse elements of society into a nation
before involving them in politics.
• This lack of mass participation limited the
Moderates' ability to take militant political
positions against colonial authorities.
• Despite these limitations, the early nationalists
still represented the emerging Indian nation
against colonial interests.
Government Response
• The British government openly condemned
the Indian National Congress and adopted a
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"divide and rule" strategy. They encouraged
individuals like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja
Shiv Prasad Singh to organize the United Indian
Patriotic Association to counter Congress
propaganda.
• Additionally, the British used a "carrot and
stick" approach to create divisions within the
Congress, pitting the more moderate members
against the more radical Extremists.
Evaluation of Moderates
The early nationalists significantly contributed
to the awakening of national sentiment in
India, but had limitations:
• Progressive Forces: Represented
progressive forces of their time.
• National Awakening: Fostered a wide
national awakening and a sense of belonging
to one nation.
• Political Training: Trained people in political
work and popularized modern ideas.
• Exposing Exploitation: Exposed the
exploitative nature of colonial rule.
• Reality-Based Politics: Grounded their work
in hard realities, not shallow sentiments.
• Indian Interests: Established that India
should be ruled in the interest of Indians.
• Future Movement: Laid the foundation for a
more vigorous, mass-based national
movement.
• Limitations: Failed to widen their
democratic base and the scope of their
demands.

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9 Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
Factors Responsible for Growth of Extremism
• Exploitative Nature of British Rule: Realization
that British rule was exploitative and was
taking away existing rights.
• Self-Confidence and Self-Respect: Growth of
self-confidence and self-respect among
Indians.
• Education: Increase in education led to greater
awareness and unemployment, fueling
discontent.
• International Influences: Events that
challenged the myth of white/European
supremacy, such as Japan's industrial rise,
Abyssinia's victory over Italy, Boer Wars,
Japan's victory over Russia, and global
nationalist movements.
• Westernization: Reaction to increasing
westernization and its impact on Indian culture
and society.
• Dissatisfaction with Moderates:
Dissatisfaction with the achievements and
methods of the Moderate nationalists.
• Curzon's Reactionary Policies: Policies like the
Calcutta Corporation Act, Official Secrets Act,
Indian Universities Act, and the partition of
Bengal, which were seen as oppressive.
o Calcutta Corporation Amendment Act,
1899: This act increased the number of
nominated members over elected
members in municipal corporations,
reducing local self-governance.
o Organization of Delhi Durbar: Curzon
organized the Delhi Durbar in 1903 to
celebrate the accession of Edward VII,
spending 2 million rupees, which was seen
as extravagant and insensitive to the
economic condition of Indians.
o Indian University Commission, 1902:
Headed by Thomas Raleigh, this
commission abolished the autonomy of
Indian universities, centralizing control and
reducing their independence.
o Indian Official Secrets Act, 1904: This act
suppressed freedom of the press, limiting
the ability to criticize government policies
and actions.
o Partition of Bengal, 1905: Curzon divided
Bengal into two halves, West Bengal and
51 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
East Bengal (later Bangladesh), based on
language and religion. This was seen as a
strategy to weaken the nerve center of
Indian nationalism by creating divisions
among the people.
• Militant School of Thought: Existence of a
militant school of thought that advocated for
more radical methods.
• Trained Leadership: Emergence of a trained
leadership capable of leading a more militant
national movement.
The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1903–
1905) UPSC (2015), (2016), (2019), (2023)
Partition of Bengal to Divide People
• Announcement: British government made
the decision to partition Bengal public in
December 1903.
• Proposal: Create two provinces - Bengal
(Western Bengal, Bihar, Orissa) with
Calcutta as its capital, and Eastern Bengal
and Assam with Dacca as its capital.
• Official Reason: Administrative convenience
due to Bengal's large population (78 million)
and to aid the development of Assam.
• Real Motive: Weaken Bengal, the center of
Indian nationalism, by dividing Bengalis:
o Language Basis: Reduce Bengalis to a
minority in Bengal proper (17 million
Bengalis vs. 37 million Hindi and Oriya
speakers).
o Religion Basis: Create a Hindu majority
in the western half (42 million out of 54
million) and a Muslim majority in the
eastern half (18 million out of 31
million).
• Curzon's Argument: Dacca as the capital of
the new Muslim majority province would
provide unity for Muslims not experienced
since the days of old Muslim viceroys and
kings.
• Government Strategy: Prop up Muslim
communalists to counter the Congress and
the national movement.
Anti-Partition Movement in Bengal (1903-1905)
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• Leadership: Led by Surendranath Banerjea,
K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra Ray, using
petitions, public meetings, and propaganda
through newspapers like Hitabadi, Sanjibani,
and Bengalee.
• Objective: To create public pressure in India
and England against the unjust partition of
Bengal.
• Government's Announcement: Despite public
opposition, the partition of Bengal was
announced in July 1905.
• Boycott Resolution: On August 7, 1905, a
massive meeting in Calcutta Townhall
formalized the Swadeshi Movement,
advocating the boycott of British goods.
• Day of Mourning: October 16, 1905, when the
partition came into effect, was observed as a
day of mourning with fasting, processions, and
singing of Bande Mataram and Amar Sonar
Bangla.
• Symbol of Unity: People tied rakhis on each
other's hands as a symbol of unity.
• Fundraising: A large gathering raised Rs 50,000
for the movement in a few hours.
• Spread of Movement: The movement spread
to other parts of India, with prominent leaders
like Tilak in Poona and Bombay, Lala Lajpat Rai
and Ajit Singh in Punjab, Syed Haider Raza in
Delhi, and Chidambaram Pillai in Madras
leading the protests in their regions.
The Congress's Position on Partition of Bengal
• 1905 Congress Session: Led by Gokhale, the
Congress condemned the partition of Bengal
and Curzon's policies, and supported the
anti-partition and Swadeshi Movement in
Bengal.
• Militant Nationalists: Led by Tilak, Lajpat
Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo
Ghosh, they wanted to extend the
movement beyond Bengal and turn it into a
full-fledged political mass struggle aiming
for swaraj (self-rule).
• Moderate Stance: Dominating the Congress
at that time, the Moderates were reluctant
to escalate the movement to that level.
• 1906 Calcutta Session: Under Dadabhai
Naoroji's presidency, the Congress declared
its goal as self-government or swaraj similar
to that of the United Kingdom or colonies
like Australia and Canada.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Surat Split (1907) UPSC (2016): The
disagreement between Moderates and
Extremists over the pace and techniques of
the struggle led to a split in the Congress at
the Surat session, which had significant
consequences for the Swadeshi Movement.
The Movement under Extremist Leadership
Reasons for Extremists' Dominance:
• Failure of Moderates: The movement led by
Moderates had not yielded significant results.
• Divisive Government Tactics: The
government's divisive tactics in both Bengals
had embittered nationalists.
• Government Suppression: The government
resorted to suppressive measures, including
atrocities on students, banning public singing
of Vande Mataram, restricting public meetings,
long imprisonments, clashes with police,
arrests and deportation of leaders, and
suppression of the press.
Extremist Programme:
• Declaration of Swaraj: Inspired by Dadabhai
Naoroji's declaration that self-government or
swaraj was the goal of Congress, Extremists
called for passive resistance in addition to
swadeshi and boycott.
• Boycott Expanded: The boycott extended to
government schools, colleges, services, courts,
legislative councils, municipalities, and
government titles.
• Purpose: To make administration impossible
by refusing to support British commerce or
officialdom, as stated by Aurobindo.
New Forms of Struggle and Impact:
• Boycott of Foreign Goods: Included boycott
and public burning of foreign cloth, salt, sugar,
and refusal by priests and washermen to
ritualize or wash foreign goods.
• Public Meetings and Processions: Emerged as
major methods of mass mobilization and forms
of popular expression.
Corps of Volunteers or 'Samitis':
• Swadesh Bandhab Samiti: Led by Ashwini
Kumar Dutta in Barisal, emerged as a popular
means of mass mobilization.
• Swadeshi Sangam: In Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu,
formed by V.O. Chidambaram Pillai and
Subramania Siva, inspired local masses.
• Activities: Samitis raised political
consciousness through lectures, swadeshi
52
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songs, physical and moral training, social work
during crises, organization of schools,
swadeshi crafts training, and arbitration
courts.
Imaginative Use of Traditional Popular Festivals
and Melas:
• Utilized traditional festivals and occasions to
spread political messages.
• Examples: Tilak's Ganapati and Shivaji festivals
in Western India and Bengal used for swadeshi
propaganda.
Emphasis on Self-Reliance:
• Encouraged 'atma shakti' or self-reliance for
national dignity, honor, and confidence.
• Included social reform campaigns against caste
oppression, early marriage, dowry system, and
alcohol consumption.
Programme of Swadeshi or National Education:
• Establishment of Bengal National College and
inspiration from Tagore's Shantiniketan.
• Formation of National Council of Education on
August 15, 1906, for national education in
literature, science, and technology.
• Education imparted through vernacular
medium.
• Bengal Institute of Technology for technical
education and funding for students to study in
Japan for advanced learning.
Swadeshi or Indigenous Enterprises:
• Establishment of swadeshi textile mills, soap
and match factories, tanneries, banks,
insurance companies, and shops based on
patriotic zeal.
• V.O. Chidambaram Pillai: Launched the
Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in
Tuticorin, challenging the British Indian Steam
Navigation Company.
Impact in the Cultural Sphere:
• Music: Inspiration from songs by Rabindranath
Tagore, Rajnikant Sen, Dwijendralal Ray,
Mukunda Das, and Syed Abu Mohammad.
Tagore's "Amar Sonar Bangla" later became
the national anthem of Bangladesh. In Tamil
Moderate Vs Extremist
Aspect Moderates
Social Base Zamindars and upper middle classes in
towns
Ideological Western liberal thought and European
Inspiration history
53 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Nadu, Subramania Bharati wrote "Sudesha
Geetham."
• Painting: Abanindranath Tagore initiated a
break from Victorian naturalism and drew
inspiration from Ajanta, Mughal, and Rajput
paintings. Nandalal Bose, a major figure in
Indian art, was the first recipient of a
scholarship from the Indian Society of Oriental
Art, founded in 1907.
• Science: Jagdish Chandra Bose and
Prafullachandra Roy pioneered original
research that received international acclaim.
Extent of Mass Participation:
• Students: Played a significant role in
propagating swadeshi, organizing picketing,
and facing police repression.
• Women: Urban middle-class women actively
participated in processions and picketing,
marking a significant role in the national
movement.
• Muslims: Mixed participation; some supported
the movement, while others, led by figures like
Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, supported the
partition and formed the All India Muslim
League.
• Labor Unrest: Strikes organized by workers in
various industries, including jute mills,
railways, and cotton mills, led by leaders like
Subramania Siva, Chidambaram Pillai, Lala
Lajpat Rai, and Ajit Singh.
All India Aspect:
• Movements supporting Bengal's unity and the
swadeshi and boycott agitation were
organized in various parts of the country, with
leaders like Tilak playing a key role in spreading
the movement outside Bengal.
Annulment of Partition: UPSC (2014)
• The partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911 to
curb revolutionary terrorism, but the decision
shocked the Muslim political elite. The capital
was shifted to Delhi as a sop to Muslims, but it
did not please them. Bihar and Orissa were
separated from Bengal, and Assam was made
a separate province.
Extremists
Educated middle and lower middle classes
in towns
Indian history, cultural heritage, and Hindu
traditional symbols
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Beliefs Believed in England's providential mission Rejected the 'providential mission theory';
in India; political connections with Britainbelieved political connections with Britain
were in India's interests would perpetuate exploitation
Loyalty Professed loyalty to the British Crown Believed the British Crown was unworthy of
claiming Indian loyalty
Mass Believed movement should be limited to Had immense faith in the capacity of
Participation middle-class intelligentsia; masses not yet masses to participate and make sacrifices
ready for political participation
Demands Demanded constitutional reforms and a Demanded swaraj as the panacea for Indian
share for Indians in services ills
Methods Insisted on the use of constitutional Did not hesitate to use extra-constitutional
methods only methods like boycott and passive
resistance
Patriotism Patriots but did not play the role of a Patriots who made sacrifices for the sake of
comprador class the country

The Surat Split resolutions on swadeshi, boycott, and national

Run-up to Surat:
• 1905 Benaras Session: Moderate-Extremist
differences emerged. Extremists wanted to
extend the Boycott and Swadeshi Movement
beyond Bengal and include all forms of
associations in the boycott program.
Moderates opposed this and advocated
constitutional methods.
• 1906 Calcutta Session: Dadabhai Naoroji was
elected as president, and the goal of the Indian
National Congress was defined as 'swarajya or
self-government' like the United Kingdom or
the colonies of Australia and Canada.
Heading Towards a Showdown:
• Extremists called for wide passive resistance
and boycott of schools, colleges, legislative
councils, etc. Moderates wanted to tone down
the Calcutta program.
• Extremists felt the time had come for a big
push to drive the British out and considered
Moderates a drag on the movement.
• Moderates thought association with
Extremists would be dangerous and saw
council reforms as an opportunity for Indian
participation in administration.
Split Takes Place:
• 1907 Session: Extremists wanted the session in
Nagpur with Tilak or Lajpat Rai as president,
along with reiteration of swadeshi, boycott,
and national education resolutions. Moderates
wanted the session at Surat with Rashbehari
Ghosh as president and sought to drop the
education.
• The split became inevitable due to rigid
positions from both sides. The Congress was
then dominated by the Moderates who
reiterated the commitment to the goal of self-
government within the British Empire and the
use of constitutional methods only.
Government Repression and Strategy
Government Repression:
• Between 1907 and 1911, the British
government introduced five new laws to curb
anti-government activities, including the
Seditious Meetings Act (1907), Indian
Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act
(1908), Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908),
and the Indian Press Act (1910).
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a prominent Extremist
leader, was tried and sentenced to six years'
transportation to Mandalay (Burma) in 1909
for sedition, based on his writings in Kesari
about a bomb thrown by Bengal
revolutionaries.
• Following the repression, key Extremist leaders
like Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipin Chandra Pal, and
Lala Lajpat Rai either retired from active
politics or left the country.
• The Extremists failed to organize an effective
alternative party, and the Moderates were left
with no popular base or support, leading to a
decline in the national movement until Tilak's
release in 1914.
Government Strategy:

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• The British government's strategy towards the
nationalists evolved from hostility to a three-
pronged approach of repression-conciliation-
suppression.
• Initially, the government mildly repressed the
Extremists to frighten the Moderates, then
placated the Moderates with concessions to
isolate the Extremists.
• The final stage involved suppressing the
Extremists with full might, with the Moderates
either on the government's side or being
ignored.
• The Surat split in 1907, which divided the
Moderates and Extremists, suggested that the
British government's strategy had been
successful in weakening the nationalist
movement.
Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909
Background:
• Muslim elites, known as the Simla Deputation
led by the Agha Khan, met Lord Minto in 1906
demanding separate electorates for Muslims.
• The Muslim League was formed in December
1906 by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca and
others to promote loyalty to the British Empire
and keep Muslims away from the Congress.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale met John Morley, the
Secretary of State for India, to present
Congress demands for self-governing systems
similar to other British colonies.
55 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Key Features of the Reforms
• Recognition of the elective principle for non-
official membership of councils in India,
allowing Indians to participate in elections
based on class and community.
• Introduction of separate electorates for
Muslims for the central council, a significant
step with long-term implications for India.
• Increase in the number of elected members in
the Imperial Legislative Council and Provincial
Legislative Councils, with non-official
majorities introduced in provincial councils.
• Indirect election system: local bodies elect an
electoral college, which elects members of
provincial legislatures, who then elect
members of the central legislature.
• Special provisions for Muslims, including
representation exceeding their population
strength and lower income qualifications for
voters.
• Enlarged powers of legislatures, allowing them
to pass resolutions, ask questions, and vote on
separate items in the budget.
• Appointment of one Indian to the viceroy's
executive council, with Satyendra Sinha being
the first Indian appointed in 1909.
Impact
• The Morley-Minto Reforms aimed to placate
Moderates and Muslims but were criticized for
introducing separate electorates, which had
long-term consequences for communal
harmony in India.
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10 First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917)

Surge of Revolutionary Activities individual heroic actions rather than mass

Background:
• The growth of revolutionary activities was a by-
product of militant nationalism, starting as a
fallout of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement
and continuing until 1917.
Reasons for the Surge:
• Disillusionment with Leadership: Young
nationalists were disillusioned by the failure of
the leadership, including the Extremists, to find
new forms of struggle.
• Closure of Peaceful Avenues: Government
repression closed all avenues of peaceful
political protest, pushing the youth towards
believing that physical force was necessary to
expel the British.
• Influence of Foreign Models: The
revolutionaries were inspired by Russian
nihilists and Irish nationalists, focusing on
movements.
• Failure of Extremist Leaders: The Extremist
leaders failed to ideologically counter the
revolutionaries by not highlighting the
difference between a mass-based revolution
and one based on individual violent activities.
Revolutionary Programme:
• The revolutionaries opted for individual
actions such as assassinations, swadeshi
dacoities for fundraising, and military
conspiracies during the First World War.
• The goal was to strike terror in the hearts of
the rulers, arouse the people, and remove the
fear of authority from their minds.
• They aimed to inspire patriotism, especially
among the youth, to eventually drive the
British out.

Revolutionary Activities in Different Parts of India

Bengal
Stage Details
Early Secret Societies Calcutta's student community had several secret societies, but they were not
(1870s) very active.
Formation of First revolutionary groups organized in Midnapore and Calcutta, with
Revolutionary Groups Anushilan Samiti being notable. Activities were limited to physical and moral
(1902) training.
Increase in Revolutionary Newspapers like Yugantar advocated revolutionary violence. Post-Barisal
Activities (1905-06) Conference police brutalities, the call for force to be met with force intensified.
Notable Incidents - Attempt on the life of Sir Fuller (1907). Attempts to derail train carrying Lt.
Governor Andrew Fraser (1907). Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose's bomb
attack, resulting in the death of two British ladies (1908).
Alipore Conspiracy Case Anushilan group arrested and tried. Aurobindo Ghosh acquitted, Barindra
Ghosh and Ullaskar Dutt charged with conspiracy and waging war against the
King. Barindra Ghosh and Ullaskar Dutt sentenced to life imprisonment.
Narendra Gosain killed by co-accused during the trial.
Assassination Attempts Public prosecutor and deputy superintendent of police assassinated in
(1909-1910) Calcutta.
Barrah Dacoity (1908) Organized by Dacca Anushilan to fund revolutionary activities.
Delhi Conspiracy (1912) Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal's attempt to assassinate Viceroy Hardinge.
Basant Kumar Biswas, Amir Chand, and Avadh Behari executed post-trial.
Jugantar Party Led by Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin), planned an all-India insurrection
with German assistance (German Plot/Zimmerman Plan). Jatin died in a
gunfight in Balasore (1915).

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Maharashtra
Event Year Details
Ramosi Peasant 1879 Organized by Vasudev Balwant Phadke to instigate an armed revolt,
Force disrupted communication lines, and raised funds through dacoities.
Suppressed prematurely.
Tilak's Militant 1890s Bal Gangadhar Tilak propagated militant nationalism through festivals and
Nationalism journals. His disciples, the Chapekar brothers, murdered Plague
Commissioner Rand and Lt. Ayerst in 1897.
Formation of Mitra 1899 Organized by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his brother, aimed at
Mela revolutionary activities.
Merger with 1904 Mitra Mela merged with Abhinav Bharat, turning Nasik, Poona, and Bombay
Abhinav Bharat into centers of bomb manufacture.
Assassination of 1909 A.M.T. Jackson, Collector of Nasik, was killed by Anant Lakshman Kanhere,
A.M.T. Jackson a member of Abhinav Bharat.
Trial and - Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was sentenced to transportation for life and
Sentencing of forfeiture of all his property as the leader of the conspiracy.
Savarkar

Punjab o After the failure of the revolution plan,

• Causes:
o Frequent famines, rising land revenue and
irrigation tax.
o Practice of 'begar' (forced labor) by
zamindars.
o Influence of events in Bengal.
• Key Figures:
o Lala Lajpat Rai: Published the journal
'Punjabee' promoting self-help.
o Ajit Singh: Organized the extremist group
Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore
with its journal, Bharat Mata. Initially
active in urging non-payment of revenue
and water rates.
o Others: Aga Haidar, Syed Haider Raza, Bhai
Parmanand, Lalchand 'Falak' (radical Urdu
poet).
• Government Crackdown (May 1907):
o Ban on political meetings.
o Deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh.
o Led to the transformation of Ajit Singh and
associates into full-scale revolutionaries.
• First World War and Ghadr Revolution:
o Rashbehari Bose emerged as a leading
figure.
o Initially planned an all-India armed
uprising with Bagha Jatin, extending the
Bengal plan to Punjab and upper
provinces.
Bose escaped to Japan in 1915.
o Later played an important role in the
founding of the Indian National Army.
Revolutionary Activities Abroad (1905-1910)
Key Figures and Organizations:
• Shyamji Krishnavarma: Founded the Indian
Home Rule Society and India House in London
in 1905 as a hub for Indian students and radical
activities. He also started a scholarship scheme
and published a journal, The Indian Sociologist.
• Savarkar and Hardayal: Prominent
revolutionaries who became members of India
House.
• Madanlal Dhingra: Assassinated Curzon-
Wyllie, an India Office bureaucrat, in 1909, as
part of the activities organized by India House.
Shift in Focus:
• Post-1909, due to increasing dangers in
London (especially after Savarkar's extradition
in 1910), revolutionaries shifted their base to
other European cities:
o Paris and Geneva: Operated by Madam
Bhikaji Cama, who had connections with
French socialists and published Bande
Mataram, and Ajit Singh.
o Berlin: Chosen by Virendranath
Chattopadhyaya as his base, especially as
Anglo-German relations worsened.

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The Ghadr Party UPSC (2014)
• Origins and Organization:
o The Ghadr Party was a revolutionary group
that centered around the weekly
newspaper "The Ghadr," headquartered in
San Francisco, with branches along the US
coast and in the Far East.
o Formed by ex-soldiers and peasants from
Punjab who migrated to the USA and
Canada for better employment
opportunities, it had a significant base in
cities along the western (Pacific) coast of
these countries.
• Pre-Ghadr Activities:
o Before the formation of the Ghadr Party,
revolutionaries like Ramdas Puri, G.D.
Kumar, Taraknath Das, Sohan Singh
Bhakna, and Lala Hardayal were active in
the region.
o They set up the 'Swadesh Sevak Home' in
Vancouver and 'United India House' in
Seattle to carry out revolutionary
activities.
• Formation and Programme: The Ghadr Party
was established in 1913, with the aim to
organize assassinations of officials, publish
revolutionary literature, work among Indian
troops abroad, procure arms, and incite a
simultaneous revolt in all British colonies.
• Key Figures: Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra,
Bhagwan Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba,
Barkatullah, and Bhai Parmanand were the
driving forces behind the Ghadr Party.
• Motivation and Events: The Ghadrites planned
to incite a revolt in India, spurred by the
Komagata Maru incident in 1914 and the
outbreak of the First World War.
Komagata Maru Incident
Komagata Maru Incident:
• A ship carrying 370 passengers, mainly Sikh
and Punjabi Muslim would-be immigrants,
from Singapore to Vancouver was turned
back by Canadian authorities in 1914,
influenced by the British government.
• The ship anchored at Calcutta in September
1914, leading to a conflict with the police at
Budge Budge, resulting in 22 deaths.
Ghadr Movement:
• Inspired by the Komagata Maru incident and
the outbreak of World War I, Ghadr leaders
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
decided to launch a violent attack to oust
British rule in India.
• Fighters were urged to go to India, with key
figures like Kartar Singh Saraba and
Raghubar Dayal Gupta leaving for India.
• Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal were
asked to lead the movement, and political
dacoities were committed to raise funds.
• An armed revolt was planned for February
21, 1915, in Ferozepur, Lahore, and
Rawalpindi garrisons, but was foiled due to
treachery.
Repression and Consequences:
• The British government responded with the
Defence of India Rules, 1915, disbanding
rebellious regiments, arresting and
deporting leaders, and hanging 45 of them.
• Rashbehari Bose fled to Japan, while Sachin
Sanyal was transported for life.
• The Defence of India Act was passed in
March 1915 to smash the Ghadr movement,
leading to large-scale detentions without
trial, severe sentences, and internment of
radical pan-Islamists like the Ali brothers,
Maulana Azad, and Hasrat Mohani.
Revolutionaries in Europe
• The Berlin Committee for Indian
Independence was established in 1915 by
Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath
Dutta, Lala Hardayal, and others with the
support of the German foreign office under the
'Zimmerman Plan'.
• The aim was to mobilize Indian settlers abroad
to send volunteers and arms to India, incite
rebellion among Indian troops, and organize an
armed invasion of British India.
• Indian revolutionaries in Europe sent missions
to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey, and Kabul to work
among Indian troops and prisoners of war
(POWs) and to incite anti-British feelings.
Mutiny in Singapore
• The most notable mutiny during this period
occurred in Singapore on February 15, 1915,
involving the Punjabi Muslim 5th Light Infantry
and the 36th Sikh battalion under Jamadar
Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul Gani, and Subedar
Daud Khan. The mutiny was crushed after a
fierce battle, resulting in many casualties.
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12 First World War (1914-1919) and Indian Nationalism
Background
• Global Context: The war had two main
factions:
o Allies: Britain, France, Russia, USA, Italy,
and Japan.
o Central Powers: Germany, Austria-
Hungary, and Turkey.
• Indian Response:
o Moderates: Supported the British war
effort as a duty.
o Extremists: Like Tilak, backed the war in
anticipation of self-government as a
reward for India's loyalty.
o Revolutionaries: Saw the war as an
opportunity to challenge British rule,
aiming for immediate independence.
• Misguided Beliefs: Proponents of supporting
the British war effort didn't realize that the
imperialist powers were primarily concerned
with their own interests, not India's welfare.
• Impact of British Repression: The suppression
of publications like Maulana Azad's Al Hilal and
Mohammad Ali's Comrade, along with the
internment of leaders such as the Ali brothers,
Maulana Azad, and Hasrat Mohani, increased
anti-imperialist sentiments among the 'Young
Party.'
• Financial and Military Impact: The war
significantly drained India of troops, with the
number of white soldiers dropping to around
15,000 at one point. This situation raised the
possibility of receiving financial and military
assistance from Germany and Turkey.
Home Rule League Movement (1916-1918) UPSC
(2013)
• Leaders: Balgangadhar Tilak, Annie Besant,
G.S. Khaparde, Sir S. Subramania Iyer, Joseph
Baptista, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, etc.
• Objective: Demand self-government or home
rule for India within the British
Commonwealth.
The Home Rule League Programme (1916-1918)
Aspect
Aim • Promote political education and self-government (home rule) among the common
people.
59 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Formation: Two separate leagues - Tilak's
Indian Home Rule League (April 1916) and
Besant's All-India Home Rule League
(September 1916).
Factors Leading to the Movement:
• Popular Pressure: Need for popular pressure
to attain concessions from the government.
• Disillusionment: Moderates disillusioned with
the Morley-Minto reforms.
• Wartime Miseries: High taxation and rise in
prices during the war led to readiness for
aggressive protest.
• Exposure of White Superiority Myth: The war
exposed the myth of white superiority.
• Tilak's Leadership: Tilak's release in 1914 and
his conciliatory gestures towards the
government and Moderates.
• Annie Besant's Initiative: Besant's campaign
for self-government for India on the lines of
white colonies.
The Leagues
Tilak's Indian Home Rule League:
• Headquarters: Poona
• Area Covered: Maharashtra (excluding
Bombay city), Karnataka, Central Provinces,
and Berar.
• Demands: Swarajya, formation of linguistic
states, education in the vernacular.
Besant's All-India Home Rule League:
• Headquarters: Madras (Chennai)
• Area Covered: Rest of India (including Bombay
city)
• Main Workers: George Arundale, B.W. Wadia,
C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar.
• Loosely organized compared to Tilak's league.
• Coordination: Both leagues coordinated
efforts by confining their work to specific areas
and cooperating where possible
Details
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Appeal • Attracted regions like Gujarat and Sindh, previously considered 'politically
backward'.
Methods • Public meetings
• Libraries and reading rooms with books on national politics
• Conferences and classes for students on politics
• Propaganda through newspapers, pamphlets, posters, illustrated postcards, plays,
and religious songs
• Fund collection and Social work
• Participation in local government activities
Additional • Joined by leaders like Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai,
Support Chittaranjan Das, K.M. Munshi, B. Chakravarti, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Madan Mohan
Malaviya, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru, and Lala Lajpat Rai. Attracted
disillusioned Moderate Congressmen and members of Gokhale’s Servants of India
Society.
Exclusions • Anglo-Indians, most Muslims, and non-Brahmins from the South did not join,
fearing Home Rule would mean dominance of the Hindu majority, particularly the
high caste.
Government • Severe repression, especially in Madras. Students prohibited from attending
Attitude political meetings. Legal action against Tilak (later rescinded). Tilak barred from
entering Punjab and Delhi.
• Arrest of Annie Besant, B.P. Wadia, and George Arundale in June 1917, leading to
nationwide protests. Sir S. Subramaniya Aiyar renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Tilak advocated passive resistance. Repression only strengthened the resolve of
agitators. Annie Besant released in September 1917.
Impact of Russian • Added advantage for the Home Rule campaign, inspiring more people to join the
Revolution movement.
(1917)

Reasons for the Decline of the Home Rule
Agitation by 1919
• Lack of Effective Organization: The movement
suffered from organizational weaknesses,
affecting its sustainability and impact.
• Communal Riots (1917-18): Communal
tensions during this period diverted attention
and created divisions within the movement.
• Moderates' Pacification: The Moderates, who
had initially supported the movement, were
appeased by promises of reforms in Montagu's
statement (August 1917) and the release of
Annie Besant, leading to a decrease in their
activism.
• Passive Resistance: The Extremists' talk of
passive resistance from September 1918
onwards kept the Moderates away from active
participation.
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1918): The
announcement of these reforms further
divided nationalist ranks, with some
welcoming the proposed changes while others
remained skeptical.
• Leadership Vacuum: Annie Besant's indecision
and Tilak's absence abroad (September 1918)
due to a libel case left the movement
leaderless and directionless.
• Rise of Gandhi's Leadership: Gandhi's fresh
approach to the freedom struggle began to
captivate the public's imagination, gradually
overshadowing the Home Rule movement and
leading to its decline.
• Transition to Swarajya Sabha: In 1920, Gandhi
assumed the presidency of the All India Home
Rule League and renamed it the Swarajya
Sabha. Within a year, the league merged with
the Indian National Congress, effectively
ending the Home Rule movement. UPSC
(2018)
Lucknow Session of the Indian National Congress
(1916)
• Readmission of Extremists to Congress:

SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024 60

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• Presided Over By: Ambika Charan Majumdar
(Moderate).
• Factors Facilitating Reunion:
o Old controversies lost relevance.
o Realization of political inactivity due to the
split.
o Vigorous efforts by Annie Besant and Tilak
for reunion.
o Tilak's support for administrative reform
and denouncement of violence.
o Deaths of Moderate leaders Gokhale and
Pherozshah Mehta.
• Lucknow Pact between Congress and Muslim
League:
o Context: Muslim League, dominated by
younger nationalists, aligned closer to
Congress objectives, becoming increasingly
anti-imperialist.
• Reasons for League's Shift in Attitude:
o Britain's refusal to help Turkey, angering
Muslims.
o Annulment of the partition of Bengal.
o Refusal to establish a university at Aligarh
with affiliation powers.
o Younger League members embracing
bolder nationalist politics.
o Anti-imperialist sentiments fueled by
government repression during World War I.
Nature of the Pact
• Agreement: Congress accepted separate
electorates for Muslims, with a fixed
proportion of seats in legislatures.
• Joint Demands:
o Declaration of self-government for Indians
at an early date.
o Expansion of representative assemblies
with elected majorities and more powers.
o Five-year term for legislative councils.
o Salaries of the Secretary of State for India
to be paid by the British treasury.
o Indians to comprise half the members of
the viceroy's and provincial governors'
executive councils.
Reasons of Nationalist Upsurge at the End of
First World War
• Broken Promises: Post-war, promises of
democracy and self-determination remained
unfulfilled, leading to widespread
disillusionment.
61 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Propaganda vs. Reality: Propaganda during
the war exposed colonial atrocities,
undermining the image of colonial superiority.
Post-war treaties, however, showed no signs of
reducing colonial control.
• Disillusionment at Paris Peace Conference:
The conference and subsequent treaties
revealed that imperial powers had no intention
of ceding control over their colonies.
• Resurgence of Nationalism: The post-war
period saw a surge in militant nationalist
movements in countries such as Turkey, Egypt,
Iran, Afghanistan, Burma, the Philippines, and
Indonesia, all demanding independence.
• Impact of the Russian Revolution (November
7, 1917): Led by Vladimir Lenin and the
Bolshevik Party, the October Revolution
overthrew the Czarist regime, leading to the
establishment of the Soviet Union. The
revolution emphasized self-determination
rights for former czarist colonies and
demonstrated the immense power of the
masses.
Montagu's Statement of August 1917 (August
Declaration)
• Key Points:
o Secretary of State for India: Edwin Samuel
Montagu.
o Date: August 20, 1917.
o Statement: "The government policy is of
an increasing participation of Indians in
every branch of administration and
gradual development of self-governing
institutions with a view to the progressive
realisation of responsible government in
India as an integral part of the British
Empire."
• Implications: The statement marked a shift in
British policy, acknowledging the demand for
self-government in India. It introduced the
concept of "responsible government,"
implying that rulers would be answerable to
elected representatives.
• Indian Objections:
o Lack of Specific Time Frame: The
statement did not specify a timeline for the
implementation of self-government.
o British Control over Advancement: The
British government retained the authority
to decide the nature and timing of
progress toward responsible government,
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causing resentment among Indian leaders
who felt that the British would determine
what was suitable for Indians without their
input.
Main Features of the Montford Reforms
(Government of India Act, 1919) UPSC (2017)
Provincial Government - Introduction of Dyarchy
• Dyarchy: Division of executive power between
executive councillors (bureaucrats) and
popular ministers. The governor was the
executive head.
• Subjects Division: 'Reserved' subjects (law
and order, finance, etc.) were administered by
the governor and his council, while
'transferred' subjects (education, health, etc.)
were managed by elected ministers.
• Ministerial Responsibility: Ministers were
responsible to the legislature and had to resign
if a no-confidence motion was passed.
Executive councillors were not responsible to
the legislature.
• Failure of Constitutional Machinery: The
governor could take over administration of
transferred subjects in case of failure.
• Interference: Limited interference from the
secretary of state and governor-general in
transferred subjects.
Legislature:
• Expansion: Provincial legislative councils were
expanded, with 70% of members elected.
• Communal and Class Electorates:
Consolidation of the system.
• Women's Suffrage: Women were given the
right to vote.
• Legislative Powers: Councils could initiate
legislation, but the governor's assent was
required. They could reject the budget, but the
governor could restore it.
• Freedom of Speech: Legislators enjoyed
freedom of speech.
• Central Government - Still Without
Responsible Government:
• Executive: The governor-general was the chief
executive authority, with no responsible
government at the all-India level.
• Lists for Administration: Two lists - central and
provincial.
• Executive Council: Three out of eight members
in the viceroy's executive council were to be
Indians.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Governor-General's Control: Retained full
control over reserved subjects in provinces.
• Legislative Powers: The governor-general
could restore cuts in grants, certify bills
rejected by the central legislature, and issue
ordinances.
Legislature:
• Bicameral System: Introduction of the Central
Legislative Assembly (lower house) and the
Council of State (upper house).
• Composition: The Central Legislative Assembly
had 145 members (41 nominated, 104
elected), and the Council of State had 60
members (26 nominated, 34 elected).
• Tenure: The Council of State had a 5-year
tenure, while the Central Legislative Assembly
had a 3-year tenure.
• Legislative Powers: Limited powers to ask
questions, pass adjournment motions, and
vote on a part of the budget. 75% of the budget
was not votable.
Note: The Secretary of State for India was to be
paid out of the British exchequer, marking an
important change in the home government front.
Drawbacks of the Montford Reforms
• Limited Franchise: The electorate was
expanded to only about 1.5 million for the
central legislature, while India's population
was around 260 million.
• Lack of Control at the Centre: The central
legislature had no control over the viceroy and
his executive council.
• Unsatisfactory Division of Subjects: The
division of subjects was not satisfactory at the
central level.
• Biased Allocation of Seats: Allocation of seats
for the central legislature to the provinces was
based on the 'importance' of provinces, such as
Punjab's military importance and Bombay's
commercial importance.
• Irrational Division of Subjects in Provinces:
The division of subjects and parallel
administration of two parts at the provincial
level were irrational and unworkable. Key
subjects like irrigation, finance, police, press,
and justice were 'reserved'.
• Lack of Control for Provincial Ministers:
Provincial ministers had no control over
finances and bureaucrats, leading to constant
friction between the two. Ministers could be
62
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overruled by the governor on any matter
13
deemed special.
Era of Mass Nationalism (1919-1939)
Emergence of Gandhi
Early Career and Experiments with Truth in South
Africa:
Background:
• Birth: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was
born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar,
Gujarat.
• Education: Studied law in England.
• Move to South Africa: In 1898, Gandhi went to
South Africa for a legal case involving his client,
Dada Abdullah.
Experiences in South Africa:
• Witnessing Racism: Gandhi encountered
white racism and the humiliation faced by
Asians in South Africa.
• Decision to Stay: He chose to stay in South
Africa to organize Indian workers to fight for
their rights, staying there until 1914.
Indian Community in South Africa:
• Indentured Indian Labour: Mainly from South
India, migrated to work on sugar plantations
after 1890.
• Merchants: Mostly Meman Muslims who
followed the laborers.
• Ex-Indentured Labourers: Settled in South
Africa with their families after their contracts
expired.
• Challenges: Faced racial discrimination, denied
voting rights, restricted to prescribed
locations, and subjected to curfews and public
footpath restrictions.
Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906)
• Petitions and Memorials: Gandhi relied on
sending petitions to authorities in South Africa
and Britain, hoping for redressal of grievances.
• Natal Indian Congress: Established to unite
different sections of Indians in South Africa.
• Indian Opinion: Started a newspaper to spread
awareness and mobilize support for the Indian
community's rights.
Phase of Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906-
1914)
Satyagraha against Registration Certificates
(1906)
63 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Legislation required Indians to carry fingerprint
registration certificates.
• Gandhi led a campaign of non-compliance,
forming the Passive Resistance Association.
• Protesters, including Gandhi, were jailed for
defying the law.
• Indians retaliated by publicly burning their
registration certificates, leading to a
compromise settlement.
Campaign against Restrictions on Indian
Migration:
• Protest against legislation imposing
restrictions on Indian migration between
provinces.
• Indians defied the law by crossing provincial
borders without licenses, resulting in
imprisonment.
Campaign against Poll Tax and Invalidation of
Indian Marriages
• A poll tax of three pounds was imposed on ex-
indentured Indians, leading to widespread
protest.
• A Supreme Court order invalidated non-
Christian marriages, causing outrage among
Indians.
• The campaign expanded as women joined the
movement in response to the insult to their
honor.
Protest against Transvaal Immigration Act
• Illegal Migration: Indians protested the
Transvaal Immigration Act by migrating from
Natal to Transvaal illegally.
• Government Response: The government
detained the migrants in jails, and miners and
plantation workers went on a lightning strike.
• Support from India: Gokhale mobilized public
opinion in India, and even the Viceroy, Lord
Hardinge, condemned the repression and
called for an impartial inquiry.
• Compromise Solution: Negotiations involving
Gandhi, Lord Hardinge, C.F. Andrews, and
General Smuts led to a compromise where the
South African Government conceded to major
Indian demands regarding the poll tax,
registration certificates, and marriages, and
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promised a sympathetic approach to Indian
immigration.
Tolstoy Farm (1910-1913)
• Establishment: Founded by Gandhi and
named by his associate Herman Kallenbach
after Russian writer Leo Tolstoy.
• Purpose: Served as a refuge for satyagrahis'
families and a place for self-sustenance,
education, and vocational training.
• Inspiration: Modeled after Gandhi's earlier
Phoenix Farm in Natal, inspired by John
Ruskin's Unto This Last.
• Activities: Included general labor, cooking,
scavenging, sandal-making, carpentry, and
messenger work.
• Education: Co-educational classes with a
focus on manual work, social service, and
citizenship.
• Significance: Aimed at promoting the
dignity of human beings and the value of
simple living and manual labor.
• Closure: Operated until 1913, providing all-
round development for children and adults
alike.
Gandhi in India
Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First Civil
Disobedience UPSC (2018)
• Background: Rajkumar Shukla invited Gandhi
to address the issues faced by farmers due to
the exploitative indigo planters in Champaran,
Bihar.
• Tinkathia System: Peasants were forced to
grow indigo on 3/20 of their land, leading to
economic hardship.
• European Planters: Demanded high rents and
illegal dues to maximize profits as synthetic
dyes replaced indigo.
• Gandhi's Arrival: Joined by leaders like
Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kripalani, Gandhi
began an inquiry despite being ordered to
leave by authorities.
• Civil Disobedience: Gandhi's defiance of the
order marked the first instance of civil
disobedience in India.
• Government Committee: Gandhi was
appointed to a committee that recommended
the abolition of the tinkathia system and
compensation for peasants.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Outcome: The system was abolished, and
peasants received some compensation. Within
a decade, planters left the area, marking a
victory for civil disobedience.
• Other Leaders: Notable figures like Brajkishore
Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, and
Shambhusharan Varma were also associated
with the movement.
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First Hunger Strike
• Background: Dispute arose between cotton
mill owners and workers in Ahmedabad over
the discontinuation of the plague bonus.
Workers demanded a 50% wage increase due
to wartime inflation, while owners offered only
20%.
• Intervention: Workers sought help from social
worker Anusuya Sarabhai, who approached
Gandhi for assistance. Gandhi, despite being
friends with mill owner Ambalal Sarabhai,
supported the workers.
• Strike: Gandhi advised the workers to strike
non-violently and demand a 35% wage
increase.
• Gandhi's Fast: As negotiations stalled, Gandhi
undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the
workers' resolve and pressure the mill owners.
• Resolution: The strike led to the establishment
of a tribunal, which eventually awarded the
workers a 35% wage increase.
• Significance: This was Gandhi's first hunger
strike and marked a significant moment in
labor rights history in India.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918): First Non-Cooperation
Movement UPSC (2011)
• Background: Drought in Kheda, Gujarat, led to
crop failure. The Revenue Code entitled
farmers to remission if the yield was less than
one-fourth of the normal produce. However,
the government demanded tax payments
despite the poor yield.
• Gujarat Sabha's Petition: The Gujarat Sabha,
representing peasants, petitioned for the
suspension of the 1919 revenue assessment.
The government refused and threatened to
seize property for non-payment.
• Gandhi's Leadership: Gandhi advised farmers
not to pay taxes. While he was the spiritual
leader, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and other
Gandhians like Narahari Parikh, Mohanlal
64
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Pandya, and Ravi Shankar Vyas provided on- Satyagraha Against the Rowlatt Act (1919)
ground political leadership.
• Background: Following the limited Montford
• Revolt and Unity: The tax revolt was marked
Reforms and the introduction of the repressive
by discipline and unity among different ethnic
Rowlatt Act, Indians felt betrayed, particularly
and caste communities. The government's
Gandhi, who had supported the British during
seizure of property did not deter the farmers,
the war.
who received support from Gujaratis in other
• Protest Strategy: Gandhi organized the
regions.
Satyagraha Sabha, involving members of Home
• Social Ostracism: Indians attempting to buy
Rule Leagues and Pan Islamists, to protest
confiscated lands were socially ostracized.
against the Rowlatt Act. The plan included a
• Government Compromise: Eventually, the
nationwide hartal (strike), fasting, prayer, civil
government agreed to suspend the tax for the
disobedience, and courting arrest.
current and following year, reduce the rate
• Mass Involvement: The movement marked a
increase, and return confiscated property.
shift towards mass participation in the national
• Impact: The Kheda Satyagraha awakened the
struggle, with peasants, artisans, and the
peasantry to the need for complete
urban poor playing a significant role.
independence to end injustice and
• Change in National Movement: The focus of
exploitation.
the national movement shifted permanently
The Rowlatt Act (1919) UPSC (2012), (2015) towards mass mobilization, with Gandhi
emphasizing the awakening and political
• Introduction: The Rowlatt Act, officially known
involvement of the masses.
as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes
• Violent Outbreaks: Before the planned launch
Act, was passed in March 1919, extending the
of Satyagraha on April 6, 1919, violent anti-
Defence of India Regulations Act 1915.
British demonstrations erupted in major cities
• Background: Based on recommendations by
like Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, and Ahmedabad.
the Rowlatt Commission, led by Sir Sidney
Punjab witnessed an intense uprising, leading
Rowlatt, to investigate seditious activities in
to military intervention.
India.
• Repression in Punjab: The situation in Punjab
• Opposition: All elected Indian members of the
was particularly volatile, with Lieutenant
Imperial Legislative Council, including
Governor Sir Michael O'Dwyer resorting to
Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan
harsh measures, including the use of aircraft
Malaviya, and Mazhar Ul Haq, voted against
strafing against protesters. This period saw the
the bill and resigned in protest when it was
most significant anti-British uprising since
passed.
1857.
• Provisions: Allowed trial of political activists
without juries, imprisonment without trial, The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)
arrest without warrant, and trial in secrecy
• Background: Amritsar witnessed peaceful
without legal representation. A special cell of
protests against the Rowlatt Act. The arrest of
three high court judges would try suspects
nationalist leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr.
without appeal, and evidence not acceptable
Satyapal on April 9 led to widespread
under the Indian Evidences Act could be
resentment.
admitted.
• Violent Turn: Protests turned violent on April
• Objectives: Intended to replace wartime
10 after police firing killed some protestors.
restrictions with a permanent law, imposing
The situation escalated, leading to the killing of
strict control over speech, assembly, and the
five Englishmen and the beating of an English
press, and equipping the government with
missionary, Marcella Sherwood.
powers to address perceived terrorism or
• Martial Law: Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer
revolutionary activities.
was tasked with restoring order. He imposed
martial law, prohibiting gatherings and
demonstrations.

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• Baisakhi Gathering: On Baisakhi, a large crowd
gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, mostly for the
festival and some for a protest meeting. Most
were unaware of the prohibitory orders.
• Massacre: Dyer's troops surrounded the
crowd, blocking the only exit, and opened fire
without warning, killing and wounding
hundreds.
• Aftermath: The massacre was followed by
further brutalities, including public floggings
and forcing Indians to crawl on the street
where the missionary was assaulted.
• National Reaction: The massacre shocked the
nation. Tagore renounced his knighthood, and
Gandhi gave up his Kaiser-i-Hind title. Gandhi,
overwhelmed by violence, withdrew Rowlatt
Satyagraha on 18th April 1919 and said that he
had committed a “Himalayan Blunder”.
• Long-term Impact: The massacre was a turning
point, alienating Indians from British rule and
paving the way for the non-cooperation
movement. It influenced future resistance
leaders like Bhagat Singh and Udham Singh,
who later assassinated Michael O’Dwyer in
retaliation.
The Hunter Committee of Inquiry (1919)
• Formation: The Disorders Inquiry Committee,
known as the Hunter Committee, was formed
on October 14, 1919, to investigate the
disturbances in Bombay, Delhi, and Punjab,
including the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
• Composition: Chaired by Lord William Hunter,
the committee included three Indian
members: Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad,
Pandit Jagat Narayan, and Sardar Sahibzada
Sultan Ahmad Khan.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Proceedings: The committee took statements
from witnesses in Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bombay,
and Lahore. In Lahore, they examined
witnesses to the events in Amritsar, including
Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer.
• Report: Released in March 1920, the report
condemned Dyer's actions, stating he
overstepped his authority and his actions were
inhumane and un-British. However, it did not
recommend any penal or disciplinary action
due to the Indemnity Act passed by the
government.
• Reaction in Britain: Winston Churchill and H.H.
Asquith condemned the massacre, with
Churchill calling it "monstrous." The House of
Lords, however, supported Dyer, and the
Morning Post raised funds for him.
• Aftermath: Dyer was relieved of his command
and recalled to England but faced no legal
action. He received his army pension and half
pay. The incident intensified the demand for
reforming the management of Sikh shrines,
leading to the Gurudwara Reform movement.
Congress View
• Composition: The committee included Motilal
Nehru, C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M.R. Jayakar,
and Mahatma Gandhi.
• Criticism: They condemned General Dyer's
actions as inhuman and unjustified.
• Martial Law: The committee argued that the
imposition of martial law in Punjab was
unwarranted.
• Demand for Accountability: They sought
accountability for the massacre and
appropriate action against those responsible.
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13 Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Aandolan
Background
• The Khilafat Movement emerged as a response
to the harsh treatment of Turkey by the British
after World War I. Indian Muslims, who
revered the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual
leader or Khalifa, were outraged by the
dismemberment of Turkey and the removal of
the Khalifa from power.
• The movement, led by figures like the Ali
brothers, Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan, and
Hasrat Mohani, demanded that the Khalifa
retain control over Muslim sacred places and
be left with sufficient territories after
territorial adjustments.
• The Khilafat Committee was formed in early
1919 to mobilize support and pressure the
British government to change its stance
towards Turkey, laying the groundwork for a
nationwide agitation.
Khalifat-Non-Cooperation Programme
• The Khilafat movement emerged in response
to the harsh treatment of Turkey by the British
post-World War I, which angered Muslims
worldwide, including in India. Indian Muslims
demanded the retention of the Khalifa's
control over Muslim sacred places and
sufficient territories after territorial
arrangements. The Khilafat Committee, led by
the Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan,
and Hasrat Mohani, prepared for a country-
wide agitation.
• As the movement progressed, a militant trend
emerged, advocating for active agitation and
the boycott of British goods. Gandhi, president
of the All India Khilafat Committee, saw this
as an opportunity for mass non-cooperation
against the government.
Congress and Muslim League Stand
• The Congress initially had mixed opinions on
the Khilafat issue and non-cooperation. Tilak
opposed aligning with Muslim leaders over a
religious issue and was skeptical of satyagraha.
However, Gandhi convinced him and others of
the merits of satyagraha and the alliance with
the Muslim community.
67 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• The Congress eventually supported a non-
cooperation programme on the Khilafat
question, seeing it as a chance to strengthen
Hindu-Muslim unity, involve various societal
sections in the national movement, and
express discontent with the colonial rule. The
Muslim League also decided to support the
Congress and its agitation on political
questions.
The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement
• In early 1920, a joint Hindu-Muslim deputation
sought redress for Khilafat grievances, but the
effort failed. Gandhi then announced a
potential non-cooperation movement if the
peace treaty terms did not satisfy Indian
Muslims. The Treaty of Sevres in May 1920
dismembered Turkey, intensifying the Khilafat
issue.
• In June 1920, an all-party conference in
Allahabad approved a boycott program, and in
August, the Khilafat Committee launched a
non-cooperation campaign. The Congress
formally approved this program in September,
calling for boycotts of government institutions,
foreign cloth, and government honors. It also
emphasized Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of
untouchability, and non-violence.
• The Nagpur session of the Congress in
December 1920 endorsed the non-
cooperation program, changed the Congress
creed to aim for swaraj through peaceful
means, made organizational changes, and set
up a Congress Working Committee. Gandhi
claimed that complete implementation of the
program would bring swaraj within a year.
• Some revolutionary groups supported the
program, while leaders like Jinnah, Besant,
Kharpade, and Pal left the Congress, opposing
the non-constitutional approach. The non-
cooperation movement, backed by the
Congress, led to widespread popular upsurge
in 1921 and 1922.
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Spread of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-
1922)
• Nationwide Tour: Gandhi, accompanied by the
Ali brothers, toured the country to promote
the movement.
• Education:
o Thousands of students left government
institutions for around 800 national
schools and colleges.
o Notable institutions included Jamia Millia
(Aligarh), Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat
Vidyapeeth, and Bihar Vidyapeeth.
o Prominent leaders like Acharya Narendra
Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir
Hussain, and Subhash Bose played key
roles.
• Legal Profession: Many lawyers, including
Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C.
Rajagopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlew,
Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T. Prakasam, and
Rajendra Prasad, gave up their practice.
• Boycott of Foreign Goods:
o Public burning of foreign cloth; imports fell
by half.
o Picketing of shops selling foreign liquor
and toddy shops.
• Financial Support: Tilak Swaraj Fund exceeded
its target, collecting one crore rupees.
• Volunteer Corps:
o Congress volunteer corps acted as a
parallel police force.
o Call to Muslims:
o Ali brothers called for Muslims to resign
from the Army, leading to their arrest in
September.
o Gandhi supported this call and encouraged
local Congress committees to adopt similar
resolutions.
• Civil Disobedience:
o Local Congress bodies were authorized to
start civil disobedience if deemed ready.
o No-tax movements against union board
taxes in Midnapore (Bengal) and Guntur
(Andhra).
• Strikes and Protests:
o Strikes in Assam's tea plantations, steamer
services, and Assam-Bengal Railways, led
by J.M. Sengupta.
o Prince of Wales' visit in November 1921
met with strikes and demonstrations.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Local Struggles: Awadh Kisan Movement (UP),
Eka Movement (UP), Mappila Revolt
(Malabar), and Sikh agitation for the removal
of mahants in Punjab.
Participation in the Non-Cooperation Movement:
• Middle Class: Initially led the movement but
later showed reservations.
• Business Class: Supported economic boycott
but feared labor unrest.
• Peasants: Massive participation, often turned
against landlords and traders.
• Students: Became active volunteers, leaving
government institutions for national schools
and colleges.
• Women: Gave up purdah, offered ornaments
for the Tilak Fund, and joined in large numbers.
• Hindu-Muslim Unity: Massive Muslim
participation and maintenance of communal
unity despite events like Moppila Uprisings.
Government Response to the Non-Cooperation
Movement:
• Breakdown of Talks: Talks between Gandhi
and Viceroy Reading broke down in May 1921.
• Government's Attempt to Divide: The
government tried to drive a wedge between
Gandhi and the Khilafat leaders.
• Crackdown: In December 1921, the
government declared volunteer corps illegal,
banned public meetings, gagged the press, and
arrested most leaders except Gandhi.
The Last Phase of the Movement:
• Pressure on Gandhi: Gandhi faced increasing
pressure from Congress to start the civil
disobedience program.
• Ahmedabad Session 1921: Gandhi was
appointed the sole authority on the issue of
civil disobedience.
• Threat of Civil Disobedience: On February 1,
1922, Gandhi threatened to launch civil
disobedience from Bardoli, Gujarat.
• Abrupt End: The movement was brought to an
abrupt end before it could fully begin.
Chauri Chaura Incident (February 5, 1922):
• Location: Chauri-Chaura village, Gorakhpur
district, United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).
• Background: Police had beaten up a leader of
volunteers campaigning against liquor sales
and high food prices.
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• Incident: Protesters gathered at the police
station; police opened fire. In retaliation, the
crowd torched the police station, killing 22
policemen.
• Aftermath:
o Gandhi's Reaction: Unhappy with the
violent turn of events, Gandhi immediately
announced the withdrawal of the Non-
Cooperation Movement.
o Congress Response: The Congress
Working Committee met at Bardoli and
resolved to halt activities leading to
lawbreaking and focus on constructive
work (khadi promotion, national schools,
temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, and
anti-untouchability campaigns).
o Leaders' Reaction: Many nationalist
leaders like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru,
Subhash Bose, and Jawaharlal Nehru were
bewildered by Gandhi's decision.
o Gandhi's Arrest: In March 1922, Gandhi
was arrested and sentenced to six years in
jail.
Outcomes
• Urban Muslim Participation: It successfully
brought urban Muslims into the national
69 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
movement, fostering a sense of unity against
colonial rule.
• Communalization of Politics: However, the
movement also communalized national
politics to some extent by linking a religious
issue (Khilafat) with the broader nationalist
movement.
• Nationwide Politicization: The movement
spread nationalist sentiments across the
country, politicizing various social strata
including peasants, students, urban poor,
women, traders, and artisans.
• Revolutionary Character: The mass
participation and activism imparted a
revolutionary character to the national
movement, challenging the colonial rule more
directly than before.
• Challenging Colonial Myths: The movement
helped dispel the myths of colonial rule being
in the interest of Indians and its invincibility.
The economic critique by Moderate
nationalists and the mass struggle through
satyagraha eroded the fear of colonial
authority among the masses.
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25 Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas,
Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces
Swarajists and No-Changers
Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party
• Post-Gandhi's Arrest (March 1922):
Disintegration, disorganization, and
demoralization among nationalist ranks led to
a debate on the future course of action during
the passive phase of the movement.
Swarajists:
• Leaders: C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Ajmal Khan.
• Objective: End the boycott of legislative
councils to expose their weaknesses, use them
as an arena of political struggle, and arouse
popular enthusiasm.
• Strategy: 'End or mend' the councils - if the
government did not respond to demands,
obstruct the working of these councils.
No-Changers:
• Leaders: C. Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel,
Rajendra Prasad, M.A. Ansari.
• Objective: Oppose council entry, focus on
constructive work, continue boycott and non-
cooperation, and quietly prepare for the
resumption of civil disobedience.
Formation of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party:
• Outcome: Swarajists' proposal defeated at the
Gaya session of the Congress (December
1922).
• Response: C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned
from Congress leadership positions and
formed the Swarajist Party, with Das as
president and Nehru as secretary.
Swarajists' Arguments for Council Entry:
• Continuation of Movement: Council entry
seen as a new front, not negating non-
cooperation.
• Political Vacuum: Council work to enthuse
masses and keep up morale, preventing
government from legitimizing measures
through undesirable council members.
• Political Struggle Arena: Councils to be used
for political struggle, not for gradual
transformation of colonial rule.
No-Changers' Arguments
• Neglect of Constructive Work: Parliamentary
work would lead to a loss of revolutionary zeal
and political corruption.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Preparation for Civil Disobedience:
Constructive work was seen as essential for
preparing for the next phase of civil
disobedience.
Agree to Disagree
• Avoiding Split: Both sides aimed to avoid a split
like that of 1907 and maintained contact with
Gandhi, who was in jail.
• United Front: Recognized the importance of a
united front for a mass movement and
Gandhi's leadership.
• Compromise: Reached in Delhi in September
1923, allowing Swarajists to contest elections
as a group within the Congress.
Swarajist Manifesto for Elections (October 1923)
• Anti-Imperialist Stance: Highlighted the selfish
motives of British governance in India.
• Demand for Self-Government: Swarajists to
present the demand for self-government in
councils.
• Policy of Obstruction: If demands were
rejected, they would obstruct governance
through councils to create deadlocks.
Gandhi's Attitude
• Initial Opposition: Gandhi was initially
opposed to council entry but moved towards
reconciliation after his release in February
1924.
• Election Success: Swarajists won 42 out of 141
elected seats in November 1923 elections and
a majority in the Central Provinces.
• Solidarity with Swarajists: Gandhi expressed
solidarity with Swarajists after the government
crackdown in late 1924.
• Agreement: In 1924, endorsed at the Belgaum
session, Swarajists were recognized as an
integral part of the Congress, working within
the councils.
Swarajist Activity in Councils and No-Changers'
Constructive Work
Swarajists in Councils:
• Weakening Position: Due to communal riots,
internal splits, and government strategies.
• Loss of Muslim Support: Failure to support
tenants against zamindars in Bengal.
• Death of C.R. Das (1925): Further weakened
the party.
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• Responsivists vs. Non-Responsivists: Split
within Swarajists on cooperation with the
government and communal interests.
• Withdrawal from Legislatures (1926): Main
leadership reiterated faith in mass civil
disobedience.
• 1926 Elections: Swarajists fared poorly,
winning some seats in Madras but routed in
other provinces.
• Final Walkout (1930): In response to the
Lahore Congress resolution and the start of the
Civil Disobedience Movement.
Achievements of Swarajists:
• Out-Voted Government: Several times in
coalition, even on budgetary matters.
• Agitation: For self-government, civil liberties,
and industrialization.
• Vithalbhai Patel: Elected speaker of Central
Legislative Assembly in 1925.
• Defeat of Public Safety Bill (1928): Aimed at
empowering the government to deport
subversive foreigners.
• Exposure of Montford Scheme: Demonstrated
the hollowness of the scheme.
• Creative Use of Councils: Showed councils
could be used creatively.
Drawbacks of Swarajists:
• Lack of Coordination: Between militancy
inside legislatures and mass struggle outside.
• Limitations of Obstructionist Strategy: Relied
on newspaper reporting for public
communication.
• Conflicting Ideas with Coalition Partners:
Limited effectiveness.
• Perks and Privileges: Failed to resist the allure
of power and office.
• Neglect of Peasants' Cause: In Bengal, leading
to loss of support among Muslim members.
Constructive Work by No-Changers
• Connection with Masses: Through various
constructive activities.
• Ashrams: Worked among tribals and lower
castes, promoting charkha and khadi.
• National Schools and Colleges: Trained
students in a non-colonial ideological
framework.
• Hindu-Muslim Unity and Social Reforms:
Worked for unity, removing untouchability,
and boycotting foreign cloth and liquor.
• Disaster Relief: Engaged in flood relief efforts.
71 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Backbone of Civil Disobedience: Served as
active organizers during the movement.
Emergence of New Forces
Socialistic Ideas, Youth Power, Trade Unionism
Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas
• Influence of Marxist and Socialist Ideas:
Inspired the rise of a left wing within the
Congress, represented by Jawaharlal Nehru
and Subhash Chandra Bose, advocating radical
solutions for the country's ills.
• Critique of Swarajists and No-Changers:
Young nationalists criticized both for their
approaches and pushed for purna swaraj
(complete independence), combining
nationalism with social justice.
• Formation of CPI: Established in 1920 in
Tashkent by M.N. Roy and others, formalized
in 1925 in Kanpur.
• Legal Challenges: Communists faced trials,
notably the Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case
(1924) and Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929).
• Propagation of Ideas: Through workers' and
peasants' parties, contributing to the national
movement alongside the Congress.
Activism of Indian Youth
• Student Involvement: Formation of students'
leagues and conferences, with Nehru presiding
over the All Bengal Students' Conference in
1928.
Peasants' Agitations
• Demands: Revision of tenancy laws, lower
rents, protection against eviction, and relief
from indebtedness in various regions including
United Provinces, Andhra, Rajasthan, Bombay,
and Madras.
• Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): Led by Vallabhbhai
Patel in Gujarat.
Growth of Trade Unionism
• AITUC: Founded in 1920, led by Lala Lajpat Rai,
Dewan Chaman Lal, and influenced by Tilak.
• Major Strikes: In Kharagpur Railway
Workshops, Tata Iron and Steel Works,
Bombay Textile Mills, and Buckingham
Carnatic Mills.
• May Day Celebration: First celebrated in India
in Madras in 1923.
Caste Movements
• Diverse Expressions: Including the Justice
Party, Self-respect movement under "Periyar"
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E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, Satyashodhak
activists, Mahars under Ambedkar, Radical
Ezhavas, Yadavs in Bihar, and the Unionist
Party in Punjab.
Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards
Socialism
• Dissatisfaction with Nationalist Strategy:
Emphasis on non-violence led to the
emergence of groups like the Hindustan
Republican Association (H.R.A.) in Punjab-UP-
Bihar and the Yugantar, Anushilan groups, and
Chittagong Revolt Group under Surya Sen in
Bengal.
Revolutionary Activities During the 1920s
Major Influences on Revolutionary Activity
• Upsurge of Trade Unionism: Post-war rise in
trade unionism aimed to harness the
revolutionary potential of the working class.
• Russian Revolution (1917): Inspired by the
success of the Soviet state.
• Communist Groups: Emergence of groups
emphasizing Marxism, socialism, and the
proletariat.
• Literature: Journals like Atmasakti and novels
like Bandi Jiwan and Pather Dabi fueled
revolutionary zeal.
Revolutionary Activity in Punjab-United
Provinces-Bihar
• Formation of HRA/HSRA: The Hindustan
Republican Association (later renamed
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association)
was founded in October 1924 by Ramprasad
Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, and Sachin
Sanyal. Their goal was to overthrow the
colonial government and establish a Federal
Republic of the United States of India based on
adult franchise.
• Kakori Robbery (August 1925): The HRA's
most notable action was the Kakori train
robbery near Lucknow. The government's
crackdown led to the arrest and hanging of key
members, including Bismil, Ashfaqullah,
Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri.
• Formation of HSRA: In September 1928,
younger revolutionaries reorganized the HRA
into the Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association (HSRA) under Chandra Shekhar
Azad's leadership. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
others joined, adopting socialism as their
official goal.
• Saunders' Murder (December 1928): In
response to Lala Lajpat Rai's death, Bhagat
Singh, Azad, and Rajguru assassinated police
officer Saunders in Lahore.
• Bombing of Central Legislative Assembly
(April 1929): Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar
Dutt threw a bomb in the Assembly to protest
against oppressive bills. They were arrested,
intending to use the trial for propaganda.
• Action against Revolutionaries: Bhagat Singh,
Sukhdev, and Rajguru were tried in the Lahore
conspiracy case. They protested against poor
jail conditions through fasting. Jatin Das
became the first martyr after a 64-day fast.
Bhagat Singh became widely known, and Azad
continued violent actions until his death in a
police encounter in February 1931. Bhagat
Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were hanged on
March 23, 1931.
Revolutionary Activity in Bengal
• Reorganization of Groups: Many revolutionary
groups in Bengal reorganized their
underground activities in the 1920s. Some
collaborated with C.R. Das and the Swarajist
faction of the Congress. After Das's death in
1925, the Bengal Congress split into two
factions, one led by J.M. Sengupta (aligned
with the Anushilan group) and the other by
Subhash Bose (backed by the Yugantar
group).
• Notable Actions: The reorganized groups
carried out actions such as the assassination
attempt on Calcutta Police Commissioner
Charles Tegart by Gopinath Saha in 1924.
Following government crackdowns, many
revolutionaries, including Subhash Bose, were
arrested, and Gopinath Saha was hanged.
• Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 1930): Surya
Sen, who had been involved in the Non-
Cooperation Movement and later imprisoned,
led the most famous action, the Chittagong
Armoury Raid. Along with associates like Anant
Singh and Ganesh Ghosh, Sen's group, under
the banner of the Indian Republican Army,
successfully raided armouries in Chittagong,
hoisted the national flag, and proclaimed a
provisional revolutionary government. They
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later dispersed and continued their activities in
neighboring villages.
• Aftermath: Surya Sen was arrested in 1933
and hanged in 1934. Despite the setbacks, the
Chittagong raid inspired many young
revolutionaries, leading to a steady influx of
recruits into revolutionary groups in Bengal.
Aspects of the New Phase of Revolutionary
Movement in Bengal
• Women's Participation: The involvement of
young women was significant, with notable
figures like Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutt,
Santi Ghosh, and Bina Das actively
participating in revolutionary activities.
• Emphasis on Group Action: The focus shifted
from individual heroism to collective actions
targeting colonial institutions, aiming to inspire
the youth and undermine the colonial
administration.
• Inclusivity: The movement moved away from
Hindu religiosity, eliminating practices like
oath-taking, which allowed for greater
participation from Muslims.
Drawbacks
• Conservatism: Some conservative elements
remained within the movement.
• Lack of Broader Goals: The movement
struggled to develop broader socio-economic
objectives.
• Failure to Support Muslim Peasantry: Those
aligned with the Swarajists did not adequately
support the cause of Muslim peasantry against
zamindars.
Official Reaction
• Severe Repression: The government
responded with panic initially, followed by
harsh measures, including the use of 20
repressive acts and police brutality against
revolutionaries.
• Punitive Measures: In Chittagong, villages
were burned, and punitive fines were imposed
as part of the crackdown.
• Arrest of Nehru: Jawaharlal Nehru was
arrested in 1933 for sedition and sentenced to
two years in prison for condemning
imperialism and praising the heroism of
revolutionaries.
73 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Breakthrough in Revolutionary Ideology and
Strategy
• Shift in Ideology: Bhagat Singh and his
comrades shifted from individual heroism to
embracing Marxism and mass politics,
focusing on the collective struggle of the
exploited and suppressed sections of
society.
• Redefinition of Revolution: Revolution was
redefined as a struggle for national
liberation and the establishment of a
socialist order, moving away from mere
militancy and violence.
• Class Approach: Bhagat Singh adopted a
class approach, emphasizing the need for
peasants to free themselves from both
foreign rule and domestic exploitation by
landlords and capitalists.
• Secularism: Bhagat Singh advocated for
secularism, stressing that religion should be
a matter of personal belief and that
revolutionary movements should be
inclusive and tolerant.
• Intellectual Engagement: He emphasized
the importance of criticism and
independent thinking, arguing that being a
revolutionary required not just moral
strength but also a critical and questioning
mind.
• Organizational Efforts: Efforts were made
to organize the youth, peasants, and
workers through the Punjab Naujawan
Bharat Sabha and the Lahore Students'
Union, aiming to build a broad-based
revolutionary movement.
• Propaganda by Deed: While moving away
from individual heroic actions, Bhagat Singh
and his comrades used such actions
strategically for propaganda purposes, to
inspire and mobilize the masses.
• Socialist Goals: The revolutionaries aimed
to overthrow imperialism and establish a
socialist society that would end the
exploitation of man by man.
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24 Simon Commission and the Nehru Report
Simon Commission
Formation of the Simon Commission
• Background: The Government of India Act,
1919, included a provision for a review of the
governance scheme after ten years. The Indian
Statutory Commission, commonly known as
the Simon Commission, was established to
fulfill this requirement.
• Composition: The commission, formed on
November 8, 1927, was an all-white, seven-
member body led by Sir John Simon.
• Purpose: The primary task of the commission
was to assess the progress of the constitutional
reforms introduced by the 1919 Act and
recommend further steps for India's political
advancement.
• Timing: The commission was set up earlier
than scheduled due to the Conservative
government's apprehension of losing power to
the Labour Party in Britain. They wanted to
address the future of India, a crucial colony,
before any potential change in government.
• Context: By the mid-1920s, it was evident that
the 1919 Act had failed to establish a stable
governance structure in India. Several
inquiries, including the Lee, Mudiman, and
Linlithgow Commissions, were conducted to
investigate various aspects of the colonial
administration.
• Political Motivation: Lord Birkenhead, the
Conservative Secretary of State for India,
played a key role in the commission's
formation. He had previously criticized Indian
leaders for their inability to agree on a unified
proposal for constitutional reforms. The Simon
Commission was seen as an attempt to address
this issue and assess the feasibility of further
reforms.
Indian Response to the Simon Commission
• General Outrage: The exclusion of Indians
from the Simon Commission sparked
widespread anger, as it was seen as an insult
to India's self-respect and a violation of the
principle of self-determination.
• Congress Boycott: The Congress, under
M.A. Ansari's presidency, decided at its
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Madras session in December 1927 to
boycott the commission "at every stage and
in every form." This decision was influenced
by Nehru's resolution advocating for
complete independence as the Congress's
goal.
• Support for Boycott: The boycott call was
supported by various groups, including the
Hindu Mahasabha and the majority faction
of the Muslim League led by Jinnah.
However, some groups like the Unionists in
Punjab and the Justice Party in the south
chose not to boycott the commission.
• Public Protests: Upon the commission's
arrival in Bombay on February 3, 1928, there
were nationwide hartals, mass rallies, and
black flag demonstrations with slogans of
"Simon Go Back" wherever the commission
went.
• Youth Involvement: A new generation of
youth, led by figures like Nehru and Subhash
Bose, played an active role in the protests,
giving them a militant flavor. This period also
saw the rise of radical groups advocating
socialism.
• Police Repression: Demonstrators faced
severe police repression, including lathi
charges. Prominent leaders like Nehru and
G.B. Pant were beaten, and Lala Lajpat Rai
suffered fatal injuries from a lathi charge in
October 1928, leading to his death on
November 17, 1928.
Simon Commission Recommendations
• Provincial Autonomy: Abolition of dyarchy and
establishment of representative government
in provinces with increased legislative council
members.
• Governor's Powers: Governors to have
discretionary powers for internal security and
administrative powers to protect different
communities.
• Central Government: Rejection of
parliamentary responsibility; governor-general
to have complete power to appoint cabinet
members and control over the high court.
• Communal Electorates: Retention and
extension of separate communal electorates
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until Hindu-Muslim tensions subsided, but no
universal franchise.
• Federalism: Recommendation for a future
federal structure and establishment of a
Consultative Council of Greater India, including
representatives from British provinces and
princely states.
• Regional Changes: Proposal for local
legislatures in North-West Frontier Province
and Baluchistan, representation at the centre,
separation of Sindh from Bombay, and
separation of Burma from India.
• Military Reforms: Suggestion for Indianization
of the Indian army while retaining British
forces.
Nehru Report UPSC (2011)
• Background: In response to Lord Birkenhead's
challenge, an All-Parties Conference was held
in February 1928. A sub-committee under
Motilal Nehru was appointed to draft a
constitution, marking the first major attempt
by Indians to draft a constitutional framework
for the country.
• Committee Members: The committee
included notable figures like Tej Bahadur
Sapru, Subhash Bose, M.S. Aney, Mangal
Singh, Ali Imam, Shuab Qureshi, and G.R.
Pradhan. The report was finalized by August
1928.
• Divergent Views: The committee's
recommendations were unanimous except for
the basis of the Constitution. The majority
favored "dominion status," while a section
wanted "complete independence," with the
majority allowing the latter section liberty of
action.
• Main Recommendations:
o Dominion Status: The report
recommended dominion status on the
lines of self-governing dominions as
desired by Indians, despite the chagrin of
the younger, militant section, including
Nehru.
o Electoral Reforms: It rejected separate
electorates and demanded joint
electorates with reservation of seats for
Muslims at the Centre and in provinces
where they were in minority, with the right
to contest additional seats.
75 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
o Linguistic Provinces: The report supported
the formation of linguistic provinces.
o Fundamental Rights: It proposed nineteen
fundamental rights, including equal rights
for women, the right to form unions, and
universal adult suffrage.
o Responsible Government: It
recommended a responsible government
at the Centre and in provinces, with a
Parliament consisting of a House of
Representatives and a Senate, and
provincial councils with a five-year tenure.
o Protection for Muslims: The report
ensured full protection of cultural and
religious interests of Muslims.
o Separation of State and Religion: It
advocated for the complete dissociation of
the State from religion.
The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses
• Communal Differences: The drafting of a
constitutional framework led to controversies
over communal representation, with the
Nehru Report at the center of these disputes.
Delhi Proposals of Muslim League:
• Joint Electorates: Proposed replacing separate
electorates with joint electorates and reserved
seats for Muslims.
• Representation: Demanded one-third
representation for Muslims in the Central
Legislative Assembly and proportional
representation in Punjab and Bengal.
• New Provinces: Called for the formation of
three new Muslim-majority provinces: Sindh,
Baluchistan, and North-West Frontier
Province.
Hindu Mahasabha Demands:
• Opposition: Strongly opposed the creation of
new Muslim-majority provinces and the
reservation of seats for Muslim majorities in
Punjab and Bengal.
• Unitary Structure: Advocated for a strictly
unitary political structure.
Compromises:
• Dilemma: The drafters of the Nehru Report
faced a dilemma: accepting the demands of
Muslim communal opinion risked alienating
Hindu communalists, and vice versa.
• Concessions to Hindu Communalists:
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oProposed joint electorates everywhere, • Services: Adequate representation for

but with reservation for Muslims only
where they were in the minority.
o Suggested detaching Sindh from Bombay
only after the grant of dominion status,
with weightage given to the Hindu
minority in Sindh.
o Recommended a broadly unitary political
structure, with residual powers resting
with the center.
Amendments Proposed by Jinnah:
• Representation: One-third representation for
Muslims in the central legislature.
• Reservation: Reservation for Muslims in
Bengal and Punjab legislatures proportionate
to their population, until adult suffrage was
established.
• Residual Powers: Residual powers to
provinces. These demands were not
accommodated.
Muslims in services and self-governing
bodies.
• Central Legislature: One-third Muslim
representation.
• Cabinets: One-third Muslim representation
in central and provincial cabinets.
• Separate Electorates
• Legislation: No bill or resolution to be
passed if opposed by three-fourths of a
minority community.
• Territorial Redistribution: Not to affect the
Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal, and
NWFP.
• Separation of Sindh: From Bombay.
• Constitutional Reforms: In NWFP and
Baluchistan.
• Religious Freedom: For all communities.
• Protection of Muslim Rights: In religion,
culture, education, and language.

Jinnah’s Fourteen Points Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory:

• Federal Constitution: Residual powers to
provinces.
• Provincial Autonomy
• Constitutional Amendments: No
amendment by the center without the
concurrence of the states.
• Representation: Adequate representation
of Muslims in all legislatures.
• Discontent: The Muslim League, Hindu
Mahasabha, Sikh communalists, and the
younger section of the Congress led by
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose were
unhappy with the Nehru Report.
• Independence for India League: Nehru and
Bose rejected the idea of dominion status and
set up the Independence for India League.

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27 Civil Disobedience Movement and
Round Table Conferences
Calcutta Session of Congress (December 1928)
• Approval of Nehru Report: The Congress
approved the Nehru Report, but the younger
elements led by Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash
Bose, and Satyamurthy expressed
dissatisfaction with dominion status as the
goal.
• Demand for Purna Swaraj: They demanded
that the Congress adopt complete
independence as its goal.
• Two-Year Grace Period: The older leaders
suggested a two-year grace period for the
government to accept the demand for
dominion status, which was later reduced to
one year under pressure from the younger
elements.
• Civil Disobedience Movement: The Congress
decided that if the government did not accept
a constitution based on dominion status by the
end of the year, it would demand complete
independence and launch a civil disobedience
movement.
Political Activities during 1929
• Gandhi's Travels: Gandhi traveled extensively,
preparing people for direct political action and
organizing constructive work in villages.
• Foreign Cloth Boycott: The Congress Working
Committee organized a Foreign Cloth Boycott
Committee, and Gandhi initiated the campaign
in Calcutta, leading to his arrest and bonfires of
foreign cloth across the country.
• Other Developments: The political
temperature remained high with events like
the Meerut Conspiracy Case, the bomb
explosion in the Central Legislative Assembly
by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt, and the coming
to power of the minority Labour government
led by Ramsay MacDonald in England.
Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929)
• Purpose: The declaration was made to restore
faith in the ultimate purpose of British policy,
stating that the natural issue of India's
constitutional progress was the attainment of
Dominion status.
• No Time Scale: There was no specific time
scale for the attainment of Dominion status,
77 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
and the declaration was seen as lacking
anything new or revolutionary.
• Promise of Round Table Conference: Lord
Irwin promised a Round Table Conference
after the Simon Commission submitted its
report.
Delhi Manifesto
• Date: Issued on November 2, 1929, by
prominent national leaders.
• Conditions for Round Table Conference:
o The conference should formulate a
constitution for implementing dominion
status, which should be immediately
accepted as the basic principle.
o The Congress should have majority
representation at the conference.
o There should be a general amnesty for
political prisoners and a policy of
conciliation.
• Meeting with Lord Irwin: Gandhi, Motilal
Nehru, and others met the Viceroy in
December 1929 to seek assurance for the
purpose of the Round Table Conference, which
was rejected by Irwin.
Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj UPSC (2012,
2014)
• Presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru: Nehru was
nominated as the president for the Lahore
session of the Congress (December 1929)
mainly due to Gandhi's backing, despite
opposition from 15 out of 18 Provincial
Congress Committees.
• Presidential Address: Nehru declared an open
conspiracy to free India from foreign rule and
emphasized the need for a mass movement
that is peaceful except in times of organized
revolt. He also expressed his socialist and
republican beliefs.
• Major Decisions:
o Boycott of the Round Table Conference.
o Declaration of complete independence as
the aim of the Congress.
o Authorization of the Congress Working
Committee to launch a program of civil
disobedience, including non-payment of
taxes, and asking all members of
legislatures to resign their seats.
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o Fixing January 26, 1930, as the first decided to focus on salt as the central theme
Independence (Swarajya) Day to be of the movement.
celebrated everywhere. Why Salt was Chosen as the Important
• December 31, 1929: The tricolor flag of Theme?
freedom was hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru at • Universal Necessity: Salt is a basic necessity,
midnight on the banks of the River Ravi, amidst and taxing it affects everyone, especially the
slogans of Inquilab Zindabad (Long Live the rural poor.
Revolution). • Symbolic of Injustice: The salt tax was seen
as an inhuman poll tax, highlighting the
Civil Disobedience Movement—The Salt government's exploitation.
Satyagraha and Other Upsurges • Link to Swaraj: The campaign connected the
Gandhi’s Eleven Demands ideal of self-rule with a concrete grievance
of the masses.
• To advance the mandate from the Lahore • Self-Help Income: Like khadi, salt
Congress, Gandhi presented eleven demands production offered a small but significant
to the government with a deadline of January source of income for the poor through self-
31, 1930. help.
• Issues of General Interest: • Symbolic Identification: It provided an
o Reduce military and civil services opportunity for urban populations to
expenditure by 50%. symbolically connect with the suffering of
o Introduce total prohibition. the masses.
o Reform the Criminal Investigation
Department (CID). Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930)
o Change the Arms Act to allow popular • Plan of Action: Gandhi, with seventy-eight
control of firearms licenses. members of Sabarmati Ashram, marched 240
o Release political prisoners. miles from Ahmedabad to Dandi to violate the
o Accept the Postal Reservation Bill. salt law by collecting salt from the beach.
• Specific Bourgeois Demands: • Directions for Future Action: Gandhi outlined
o Reduce the rupee-sterling exchange ratio various forms of civil disobedience, including
to 1s 4d. boycotting foreign goods, refusing to pay
o Introduce textile protection. taxes, and resigning from government
o Reserve coastal shipping for Indians. positions, all to be conducted with adherence
• Specific Peasant Demands: to truth and non-violence.
o Reduce land revenue by 50%. • Historic March: The march began on March
o Abolish salt tax and government’s salt 12, and Gandhi broke the salt law at Dandi on
monopoly. April 6, symbolizing the Indian people's resolve
• With no positive response from the not to live under British-made laws.
government, the Congress Working • Impact: The march was extensively covered by
Committee gave Gandhi full powers to launch newspapers, leading to widespread support,
the Civil Disobedience Movement at his with 300 village officials resigning in Gujarat
discretion. By the end of February, Gandhi and Congress workers engaging in grassroots
organizational tasks.
Region Leaders and Activities [UPSC (2015)]
Malabar • K. Kelappan organized salt marches. P. Krishna Pillai defended the national flag
against police.
Andhra Region • Salt marches organized in East and West Godavari, Krishna, and Guntur districts.
Sibirams served as headquarters for the Salt Satyagraha. Merchants and
dominant castes supported the movement.
Orissa • Gopalbandhu Chaudhuri led effective salt satyagraha in coastal regions. Protest
was effective in Balasore, Cuttack, and Puri districts.

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Assam • Civil disobedience hindered by conflicts between Assamese and Bengalis, Hindus
and Muslims. Successful student strike against the Cunningham Circular.
Chandraprabha Saikiani incited Kachari villages to break forest laws.
Bengal • Bengal Congress split into factions led by Subhas Bose and J.M. Sengupta.
Communal riots in Dacca and Kishoreganj; significant arrests and violence.
Movements in Midnapur, Arambagh, and other areas around salt satyagraha and
no-chaukidari tax.
Bihar • Salt Satyagraha began in Champaran and Saran. Symbolic salt-making in Patna
due to physical constraints. No-chowkidara tax agitation replaced salt satyagraha.
Chhotanagpur • Bonga Majhi and Somra Majhi led a movement combining socio-religious reform
(Jharkhand) with Gandhian principles. Participation of small landlords and better-off tenants,
though militancy sometimes dampened enthusiasm.
Peshawar (NWFP) • Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan's Khudai Khidmatgars played a significant role. Mass
demonstrations followed the arrest of Congress leaders, leading to a brief period
of public control and subsequent martial law.
Sholapur • Textile workers and residents established a parallel government following
(Maharashtra) Gandhi's arrest, until martial law was imposed.
Dharasana (Gujarat) • Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal led a raid on the Dharasana Salt Works,
facing brutal police action.
Gujarat • No-tax movements in Anand, Borsad, Nadiad, Bardoli, and Jambusar. Villagers
resisted police repression by moving into neighboring princely states.
Maharashtra, • Defiance of forest laws and public sale of illegally acquired forest produce were
Karnataka, Central common forms of protest.
Provinces
United Provinces • No-revenue campaign and no-rent campaign against loyalist zamindars gained
momentum.
Manipur and • Rani Gaidinliu led a revolt against British rule at thirteen, urging people not to pay
Nagaland taxes or work for the British.

Impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement o Muslims: Despite lower participation

• It saw various forms of mobilization, including
prabhat pheries, vanar senas, manjari senas,
secret patrikas, and magic lantern shows.
• The impact of the agitation included a decline
in imports of foreign cloth, a loss of
government revenue from liquor and land
taxes, and a boycott of Legislative Assembly
elections.
• Mass participation was extensive, with
significant involvement from different
sections of society:
o Women: Played a leading role, especially
in picketing outside liquor shops and
foreign cloth stores, marking their entry
into the public sphere.
o Students and Youth: Prominently
participated in the boycott of foreign
cloth and liquor.
compared to the 1920-22 period,
significant involvement was seen in areas
like NWFP and among the Muslim
weaving community in Bihar, Delhi, and
Lucknow.
o Merchants and Petty Traders: Actively
implemented the boycott, particularly in
Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
o Tribals: Participated in regions like
Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and
Karnataka.
o Workers: Involved in industrial areas like
Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Sholapur.
o Peasants: Active in the United Provinces,
Bihar, and Gujarat.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 1931 UPSC (2016)
• Date of Release: January 25, 1931, Gandhi and
other members of the Congress Working
Committee were released unconditionally.

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• Discussions: Authorized by the CWC, Gandhi
initiated discussions with the Viceroy.
• Signing of the Pact: The pact, known as the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact or the Delhi Pact, was signed
on February 14, 1931, placing Congress on an
equal footing with the government.
Terms Agreed by Irwin (British Indian
Government)
• Political Prisoners: Immediate release of all
political prisoners not convicted of violence.
• Fines: Remission of all fines not yet collected.
• Land: Return of all lands not yet sold to third
parties.
• Government Servants: Lenient treatment to
those who had resigned.
• Salt: Right to make salt in coastal villages for
personal consumption (not for sale).
• Picketing: Right to peaceful and non-
aggressive picketing.
• Emergency Ordinances: Withdrawal of
emergency ordinances.
Demands Turned Down
• Police Excesses: Public inquiry into police
excesses.
• Bhagat Singh: Commutation of Bhagat Singh
and his comrades’ death sentence to life
sentence.
Terms Agreed by Gandhi (Indian National
Congress)
• Suspension of Movement: To suspend the civil
disobedience movement.
• Round Table Conference: To participate in the
next Round Table Conference on the
constitutional question, focusing on
federation, Indian responsibility, and
necessary reservations and safeguards.
Karachi Congress Session—1931
• Date: Special session held in March 1931 to
endorse the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
• Background: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and
Rajguru were executed six days before the
session, leading to black flag demonstrations
against Gandhi's failure to secure
commutation of their death sentences.
Resolutions:
• The Congress admired the 'bravery' and
'sacrifice' of the three martyrs while
disapproving of political violence.
• The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was endorsed.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• The goal of purna swaraj (complete
independence) was reiterated.
• A Resolution on Fundamental Rights was
adopted, guaranteeing free speech, free press,
the right to form associations, the right to
assemble, universal adult franchise, equal legal
rights, neutrality of the state in religious
matters, free and compulsory primary
education, and protection of minority cultures,
languages, and scripts.
• A Resolution on the National Economic
Programme was adopted, including substantial
reduction in rent and revenue for landholders
and peasants, exemption from rent for
uneconomic holdings, relief from agricultural
indebtedness, control of usury, better working
conditions, the right to form unions, and state
ownership and control of key industries.
Significance:
• The Karachi Resolution outlined what swaraj
would mean for the masses, emphasizing that
political freedom must include economic
freedom for the starving millions.
• The resolutions adopted at the Karachi session
became the basic political and economic
programme of the Congress in later years,
focusing on ending the exploitation of the
masses.
Round Table Conference
First Round Table Conference:
• Dates: Held between November 1930 and
January 1931 in London.
• Opening: Officially opened by King George V
on November 12, 1930, and chaired by Ramsay
MacDonald.
• Significance: First conference arranged
between the British and Indians as equals.
• Attendance: The Congress and some
prominent business leaders boycotted, but
many other Indian groups were represented.
• Representatives: Included Indian princely
states, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha,
Sikhs, Parsis, Women, Liberals, Depressed
Classes, Justice Party, Labour, Indian
Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans,
landlords, universities, Burma, Sindh, and
other provinces.
• Government of India Representation:
Narendra Nath Law, Bhupendra Nath Mitra,
80
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C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, and M. Ramachandra
Rao.
• Outcome: General agreement on developing
India into a federation with safeguards for
defense and finance, but little implementation.
The conference highlighted the necessity of
Congress's participation in discussions on
India's constitutional future.
Second Round Table Conference (London,
September 1931 - December 1931) UPSC (2017)
Participants:
• Indian Liberal Party members: Tej Bahadur
Sapru, C.Y. Chintamani, Srinivasa Sastri.
• Indian National Congress: Gandhi as sole
representative, with A. Rangaswami Iyengar
and Madan Mohan Malaviya.
• Government of India representatives: C.P.
Ramaswami Iyer, Narendra Nath Law, M.
Ramachandra Rao.
Key Issues:
• Change in Viceroy from Irwin to Willingdon.
• Formation of a National Government in Britain.
• Opposition by right-wing factions in Britain
against Congress’s equal negotiation.
• Gandhi advocated for equality-based
partnership, immediate responsible
government, and Congress representing all of
India.
• Deadlock on minority issues; separate
electorates demanded by various groups,
opposed by Gandhi.
• Princely states' apprehension about federation
post-suspension of the civil disobedience
movement.
Outcome:
• Announcement of two Muslim-majority
provinces: North-West Frontier Province
(NWFP) and Sindh.
• Setting up of an Indian Consultative
Committee.
• Formation of three expert committees:
finance, franchise, and states.
• Prospect of a unilateral British Communal
Award if Indians failed to agree.
Third Round Table Conference (November 1932 -
December 1932)
• Dates: Held between November 17, 1932, and
December 24, 1932.
81 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Attendance: Not attended by the Indian
National Congress and Gandhi, and largely
ignored by other Indian leaders.
• Representation: The Indian States were
represented by various Dewans and Rajas.
Other Indian representatives included Aga
Khan III, B.R. Ambedkar, M.R. Jayakar, Tej
Bahadur Sapru, Muhammad Iqbal, and others.
• Outcome: Like the previous conferences, little
was achieved. The recommendations were
published in a White Paper in March 1933,
debated in the British Parliament, and
eventually led to the formulation of the
Government of India Act of 1935, enforced in
July 1935.
Civil Disobedience Resumed
• After the failure of the second Round Table
Conference, the Congress Working Committee
decided on December 29, 1931, to resume the
civil disobedience movement.
• During Truce Period (March-December 1931):
o United Provinces: Congress led a
movement for rent reduction and against
summary evictions.
o NWFP: Severe repression against Khudai
Khidmatgars and peasants agitating
against harsh tax-collection methods.
o Bengal: Draconian ordinances and mass
detentions used to fight terrorism. Firing
incident on political prisoners in Hijli Jail
in September 1931.
Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC:
• British officials aimed to prevent Gandhi from
building up a mass movement, maintain the
confidence of loyalists, and prevent the
consolidation of the national movement in
rural areas.
Government Action:
• Repressive ordinances were issued, resulting in
a virtual 'Civil Martial Law'. Congress
organizations were banned, activists and
leaders were arrested, properties were
confiscated, and the press was gagged.
Popular Response:
• Massive, though unprepared, response from
the people. In the first four months, about
80,000 satyagrahis were jailed. Protests
included picketing, illegal gatherings, non-
violent demonstrations, and violations of
forest laws.
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Withdrawal of the Movement:
• By April 1934, Gandhi decided to withdraw the
civil disobedience movement due to the
inability to build up momentum and lack of
preparation among the masses. However, the
movement reinforced political faith in the
Congress among the people.
The Communal Award UPSC (2012)
• Announcement: Made by British Prime
Minister Ramsay MacDonald on August 16,
1932.
• Basis: Based on the findings of the Indian
Franchise Committee (Lothian Committee).
• Separate Electorates: Established separate
electorates and reserved seats for minorities,
including Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian
Christians, Anglo-Indians, depressed classes,
and some seats for Marathas in Bombay.
• Depressed Classes: Seventy-eight reserved
seats were granted, recognizing them as a
distinct minority separate from caste Hindus,
as advocated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
• National Leaders' Perception: Viewed by
Congress and national leaders as a
manifestation of the British policy of divide and
rule.
• Round Table Conference: At the second
conference, Ambedkar's proposal for separate
electorates for depressed classes was a key
issue. Gandhi's opposition to separate
electorates for depressed classes highlighted
internal disagreements.
• Outcome: The Communal Award was the
result of Ramsay MacDonald's mediation,
establishing separate electorates as a means to
address minority representation.
Main Provisions of the Communal Award
• Separate Electorates: For Muslims, Europeans,
Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians,
depressed classes, women, and Marathas.
• Duration: Arrangement for depressed classes
for a period of 20 years.
• Provincial Legislatures: Seats distributed on a
communal basis, with the existing seats
doubled.
• Muslim Weightage: Muslims in minority areas
granted additional representation.
• Women's Representation: 3% seats reserved
for women in all provinces except the North
West Frontier Province.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Depressed Classes Status: Declared as a
minority with 'double vote'—one in separate
electorates and another in general electorates.
• Seat Allocation: Additional seats for labourers,
landlords, traders, and industrialists.
• Maratha Seats: 7 seats allocated for Marathas
in the Bombay province.
Congress Stand
• The Congress opposed separate electorates
but did not want to change the Communal
Award without the consent of the minorities. It
neither accepted nor rejected the Award.
Gandhi's Response
• Gandhi viewed the Communal Award as
harmful to Indian unity and the depressed
classes. He believed it perpetuated
untouchability and undermined efforts to
eradicate it.
• He demanded that the depressed classes be
elected through a joint electorate with a larger
number of reserved seats.
• To press his demands, Gandhi went on an
indefinite fast on September 20, 1932.
Poona Pact
• Signed on September 24, 1932, by B.R.
Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes,
the Poona Pact abandoned separate
electorates for the depressed classes.
• Reserved seats for the depressed classes were
increased from 71 to 147 in provincial
legislatures and to 18% in the Central
Legislature.
• The government accepted the Poona Pact as
an amendment to the Communal Award.
Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits:
• Political Tool: The Pact made the depressed
classes political tools for majoritarian caste
Hindu organizations.
• Leaderlessness: True representatives of the
depressed classes were unable to win against
stooges supported by caste Hindu
organizations, leading to a lack of genuine
leadership.
• Subordination: The Pact subordinated the
depressed classes within the Hindu social
order, denying them a separate and distinct
existence.
• Obstructions to an Ideal Society: It hindered
the creation of a society based on equality,
liberty, fraternity, and justice.
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• Denial of Distinct Recognition: By not
recognizing Dalits as a separate and distinct
element, it pre-empted their rights and
safeguards in the Constitution of independent
India.
Joint Electorates and Its Impact on Depressed
Classes:
• Allegations by Scheduled Caste Federation:
The federation claimed that the system of joint
electorates under the Government of India
Act, 1935, deprived scheduled castes of the
right to send true representatives to
legislatures.
• Hindu Majority's Nomination: It was alleged
that joint electorates allowed the Hindu
majority to nominate members of the
scheduled castes who were prepared to be
their tools.
• Demand for Restoration of Separate
Electorates: The federation demanded the
restoration of separate electorates and the
nullification of the joint electorates and
reserved seats system.
• Ambedkar's Stance: Despite signing the Poona
Pact, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar continued to
denounce it until 1947.
Gandhi's Harijan Campaign and Thoughts on
Caste
• Launch of Campaign: Gandhi launched a
campaign against untouchability from jail in
September 1932, establishing the All-India
Anti-Untouchability League and starting the
weekly Harijan.
• Harijan Tour: Conducted from November 1933
to July 1934, covering 20,000 km to promote
the removal of untouchability and collect funds
for the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
• Fasts: Undertook fasts on May 8 and August
16, 1934, to emphasize the seriousness of the
issue.
• Opposition: Faced attacks from orthodox
elements who disrupted his meetings and
accused him of attacking Hinduism.
• Themes Stressed by Gandhi:
o Indictment of Hindu Society: For the
oppression of Harijans.
o Total Eradication of Untouchability:
Symbolized by the plea to open temples
to untouchables.
83 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
o Penance by Caste Hindus: For the
miseries inflicted on Harijans.
o Humanism and Reason: Advocated that
untouchability was against human dignity
and not sanctioned by the Shastras.
• Gandhi's Stance on Related Issues:
o Inter-Caste Marriages and Inter-Dining:
Did not mix these issues with the removal
of untouchability, as restrictions existed
among both caste Hindus and Harijans.
o Abolition of Caste System: Distinguished
between the abolition of untouchability
and the caste system. Gandhi did not
advocate for the annihilation of the caste
system as Ambedkar did but believed in
reforming it to remove distinctions of
high and low.
• Impact of the Campaign:
o Purification of Hinduism: The campaign
aimed to purify Hinduism and Hindu
society rather than being a political
movement.
o Nationalism Among Harijans: Gradually,
the campaign spread the message of
nationalism to Harijans, leading to their
increased participation in national and
peasant movements.
Ideological Differences and Similarities between
Gandhi and Ambedkar
Similarities:
• Symbolism in Actions: Both used symbolic acts
(Gandhi's burning of foreign cloth, Ambedkar's
burning of Manusmriti) to represent the
struggle against bondage and slavery.
• Education for Change: Both believed in the
importance of proper education for social
integration and reforms.
• Role of Religion: Both saw religion as an agent
of social change and denounced anything that
diminished its role in individual and societal
life.
• Limited Sovereign Power: Both advocated for
limited sovereign power of the State, with the
people being the ultimate sovereign.
• Social Transformation: Both supported social
transformation through democratic and
peaceful means.
• Common Enemy: Shared opposition to social
evils and imperial injustice.
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Differences:
• Freedom: Gandhi believed in wresting
freedom from authority, while Ambedkar
expected it to be bestowed by imperial rulers.
• Democracy: Ambedkar advocated for a
parliamentary system, whereas Gandhi had
little respect for it, fearing mass democracy's
propensity for leader domination.
• Rigidity: Ambedkar had rigid principles, while
Gandhi had no rigidities except for non-
violence.
• Political Streams: Gandhi sought simple
practical alternatives to 20th-century political
ideologies, while Ambedkar inclined towards
liberalism.
• Indian Unity: Gandhi emphasized historical
Indian unity, while Ambedkar saw it as a by-
product of the British legal system.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Gramraj: Gandhi saw village self-rule as ideal,
whereas Ambedkar criticized the village
system for perpetuating social hierarchy and
discrimination.
• Caste System: Ambedkar denounced Hindu
scriptures and the caste system, while Gandhi
differentiated between caste and varna,
blaming degeneration for caste issues.
• Mechanisation: Gandhi was wary of
mechanisation's dehumanising impact, while
Ambedkar believed in its benefits and
advocated for more machinery and civilisation.
• Untouchability: Gandhi viewed untouchables
as part of the Hindu community and sought
moral solutions, while Ambedkar saw them as
a separate political minority and advocated for
legal and constitutional methods.
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26 Nationalist Response in the Wake of
Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle
• Disarray within Congress: Gandhi perceived
rising corruption and indiscipline in the
organization, along with rivalries and unethical
practices in gaining control of Congress
committees.
• Need for Order: Gandhi believed the Congress
needed to put its house in order before
launching another movement, feeling that the
masses were not ready for a struggle.
Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash Bose’s
Views
• Background: Subhash Chandra Bose, president
of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee,
had a history of opposing Gandhi and other
Congress leaders on various aspects of the
freedom struggle.
• Full Independence: Bose advocated for full
independence and formed the Independence
League, endorsing the 'Poorna Swaraj'
resolution at the Lahore Congress session.
• Salt Satyagraha: Actively participated in the
movement and opposed the suspension of the
Civil Disobedience Movement and the Gandhi-
Irwin Pact, particularly due to the
government's refusal to negotiate on Bhagat
Singh's death sentence.
• Haripura Session: In February 1938, Bose was
elected president of the Congress session in
Haripura, Gujarat. He emphasized the
revolutionary potential of Congress ministries
in provinces and advocated for economic
development through planning, leading to the
establishment of the National Planning
Committee.
• Support for Princely States: The session
resolved to give moral support to those
agitating against governance in princely states.
• International Situation: Disturbed
International Situation: By the following
months, signs indicated that Europe was
heading towards war, impacting the political
climate in India.
85 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
World War II
1939: Subhash Bose's Victory and Internal Strife
in Congress
• Bose's Candidacy: Subhash Bose decided to
run for the Congress president's post again in
January 1939, representing new ideas and the
sharpening anti-imperialist struggle. Gandhi,
however, was not in favor of Bose's candidacy.
• Election Outcome: Despite opposition from
Gandhi and other Congress leaders, Bose won
the election with the support of the Congress
Socialist Party and communists, defeating
Gandhi's preferred candidate, Pattabhi
Sitaramayya.
• Tripuri Session: The Congress session at
Tripuri in March 1939 highlighted the
ideological and methodological polarization
within the Congress. Bose's victory led to a
crisis, as he accused the working committee
leaders of compromising with the government
on federation.
• Bose's Health and Ultimatum: Despite being
ill, Bose attended the Tripuri session and
proposed giving Britain a six-month ultimatum
for granting independence, followed by a
mass civil disobedience movement if rejected.
Gandhi disagreed, believing neither the
Congress nor the masses were ready for such
a struggle.
• A resolution by Govind Ballabh Pant
reaffirmed faith in Gandhian policies
Resolution and Gandhi's Stance and asked
Bose to nominate the working committee in
accordance with Gandhi's wishes. Gandhi
insisted that Bose should choose the working
committee members and lead the Congress.
• Ideological Differences: Gandhi and Bose had
different platforms ideologically. Gandhi was
not willing to lead a struggle based on Bose's
radical lines, and Bose was not willing to
compromise on his ideas.
• Resignation and Aftermath: Bose resigned
from the president's post in April 1939,
leading to Rajendra Prasad's election as
Congress president. Bose formed the Forward
Bloc as a new party within the Congress, but
faced disciplinary action from the Congress
Working Committee in August 1939.
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Second World War and Nationalistic Response
• Outbreak of War: Germany attacked Poland
on September 1, 1939, leading to the Second
World War. Britain declared war on Germany
on September 3, 1939, and the British
Government of India declared India's support
for the war without consulting Indian opinion.
Congress Offer to Viceroy:
• Post-War Condition: After the war, a
constituent assembly should convene to
determine the political structure of a free
India.
• Immediate Condition: Establish some form of
a genuinely responsible government at the
Centre immediately.
• The offer was rejected by Linlithgow, the
viceroy.
CWC Meeting at Wardha:
• Different opinions were voiced on the
question of Indian support for British war
efforts.
o Gandhi: Advocated unconditional support
to the Allied powers due to his dislike of
fascist ideology.
o Subhas Bose and Socialists: Had no
sympathy for either side in the war,
viewing it as a conflict between
imperialists. They saw it as an ideal time to
launch a civil disobedience movement.
o Jawaharlal Nehru: Distinguished between
democratic values and fascism, believed
justice was on the side of Britain, France,
and Poland, but also recognized their
imperialist nature. Advocated no Indian
participation until India was free, without
taking advantage of Britain's difficulty.
CWC Resolution
• Condemned Fascist aggression.
• Stated that India could not be party to a war
for democratic freedom while being denied
that freedom.
• Called for Britain to prove its commitment to
democracy and freedom by ending imperialism
and establishing full democracy in India.
• Urged the government to declare its war aims
and how democracy would be applied to India
after the war.
• Congress Leadership: Wanted to give every
chance to the viceroy and the British
Government to respond to their demands.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Government Attitude and Congress Ministries'
Resignation
• Government's Response: Viceroy Linlithgow's
statement on October 17, 1939, was negative,
using the Muslim League and princes against
the Congress, refusing to define British war
aims, and promising only to consult various
Indian interests in the future.
• Hidden Agenda: The British policy aimed to
provoke the Congress into confrontation and
acquire emergency powers. Defence of India
ordinance restricted civil liberties, and a secret
ordinance was prepared for pre-emptive
strikes on the Congress.
• Reaction from Congress: Gandhi criticized the
government's insensitivity to Indian public
opinion, stating there would be no democracy
for India if Britain could prevent it. The
Congress Working Committee (CWC) rejected
the viceregal statement and decided not to
support the war, calling for the resignation of
Congress ministries in the provinces.
• Debate on Immediate Mass Satyagraha: After
Linlithgow's statement, the debate on
immediate mass struggle resumed. Gandhi and
supporters were against it, advocating for
toning up the Congress organization and
negotiating till all possibilities were exhausted.
• Linlithgow's Statement on Dominion Status:
In January 1940, Linlithgow stated that
Dominion status after the war was the goal of
British policy in India.
• Congress Stance: The CWC meeting in
Allahabad in November 1939 observed that
the war was being carried on for imperialist
ends, and the Congress could not associate
itself with such a policy. The Ramgarh session
in March 1940 declared that the people of
India would accept nothing short of complete
independence.
• Pakistan Resolution: In March 1940, the
Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution,
calling for the creation of independent states
in regions where Muslims were in the majority,
with autonomous and sovereign constituent
units and safeguards for Muslims in minority
areas.
August Offer
• Context: In response to the changing war
situation in Europe and the fall of Belgium,
Holland, and France, the British government
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sought the cooperation of India in the war
effort.
• Proposals: The August Offer, announced by
Viceroy Linlithgow in August 1940, included:
o Dominion status as the objective for India.
o Expansion of the Viceroy's Executive
Council with a majority of Indians from
major political parties.
o Setting up of a Constituent Assembly after
the war, where Indians would decide their
constitution, subject to certain obligations.
o No future constitution to be adopted
without the consent of minorities.
Responses:
• The Congress rejected the offer, with Nehru
stating that the concept of Dominion status
was "dead as a doornail" and Gandhi
remarking that the declaration widened the
gulf between nationalists and British rulers.
• The Muslim League welcomed the assurance
of veto power and reiterated its position that
partition was the only solution to the deadlock.
• Evaluation: The August Offer recognized the
inherent right of Indians to frame their
constitution and conceded the Congress
demand for a Constituent Assembly. However,
it fell short of meeting the nationalists'
demands for complete independence.
Individual Satyagraha
• Background: The government insisted that no
constitutional advance could be made until the
Congress reached an agreement with Muslim
leaders, leading to restrictions on freedom of
speech, press, and association.
• Initiation: Gandhi initiated individual
Satyagraha in late 1940, with selected
individuals undertaking non-violent protest in
their localities.
• Aims: The goals of individual Satyagraha were
to demonstrate that nationalist patience was
not due to weakness, express disinterest in the
war, and provide an opportunity for the
government to accept Congress demands
peacefully.
• Process: Satyagrahis would demand the
freedom of speech against the war through an
anti-war declaration. If not arrested, they
would repeat the declaration and start a march
towards Delhi, known as the 'Delhi Chalo
Movement.'
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• Outcome: Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer
Satyagraha, followed by Nehru. By May 1941,
25,000 people had been convicted for
individual civil disobedience.
Gandhi Designates Nehru as His Successor
• Context: In December 1941, amid Japan's
aggressive actions, Congress leaders were
released and offered to cooperate with the
government in defending India, with
conditions for full independence post-war and
immediate transfer of power.
• Designation: Gandhi designated Nehru as his
chosen successor during this time.
• Differences: Despite differing in temperament
and attitudes towards modernity, religion,
industrialization, and state power, Nehru
revered Gandhi, and Gandhi trusted Nehru for
his inclusive patriotism, belief in non-violence,
and democratic governance.
• Reasons for Preference: Gandhi preferred
Nehru over other alternatives like Patel, Rajaji,
Azad, Kripalani, and Rajendra Prasad, as Nehru
was seen as a pluralist, inclusive leader with an
all-India appeal, trusted by various
communities and regions.
Cripps Mission (March 1942) UPSC (2022, 2016,
2013)
• Purpose: Sent due to British reverses in South-
East Asia, the Japanese threat, and pressure
from Allies to seek Indian cooperation.
• Main Proposals:
o Indian Union: Dominion status with
freedom to join Commonwealth and
international bodies.
o Constituent Assembly: Post-war assembly
to frame a new constitution, with
members partly elected and partly
nominated by princes.
o Conditions: Acceptance of the new
constitution subject to (i) opt-out provision
for provinces and (ii) a treaty to transfer
power and safeguard minorities.
o Interim Arrangements: Defence of India to
remain under British control, with the
governor-general's powers intact.
Reasons for the Failure of Cripps Mission
• Inadequate Representation: The Congress
objected to the representation of princely
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states by nominees rather than elected
representatives.
• Secession and National Unity: The right for
provinces to secede was seen as undermining
national unity.
• Lack of Immediate Power Transfer: Absence of
a plan for immediate transfer of power and a
real share in defense, with the governor-
general's supremacy retained.
• Muslim League's Objections: Criticism of a
single Indian Union, the assembly creation
process, and the denial of self-determination
and the creation of Pakistan.
• Other Groups' Concerns: Liberals, Hindu
Mahasabha, depressed classes, and Sikhs
objected to the secession proposals for various
reasons.
• British Intentions: Doubts cast on British
intentions due to the proposal's alignment
with the August Offer and Cripps' inability to go
beyond the draft declaration.
• Rigidity of Cripps: Adoption of a "take it or
leave it" attitude and lack of clarity in the
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
procedure of accession and decision-making
for secession.
• Procedure for Secession: The complex
procedure for secession, with a 60% legislative
majority or a simple majority in a plebiscite of
adult males, disadvantaged Hindus in Punjab
and Bengal if they sought accession to the
Indian Union.
• Lack of Clarity: Uncertainty about the
implementation and interpretation of the
treaty for the transfer of power.
• British Opposition: Churchill, Amery,
Linlithgow, and Ward consistently undermined
Cripps' efforts.
• Viceroy's Veto: Talks broke down over the
issue of the viceroy's veto power.
• Indian Reactions: Gandhi described the
scheme as "a post-dated cheque," and Nehru
criticized the proposal for maintaining the
existing autocratic structure and reducing
Indian leaders to mere subordinates
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23 Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan,

and the INA
The ‘Quit India’ Resolution and Movement UPSC Parallel Governments during Quit India
(2011) (2013) (2017) (2021) Movement
• Ballia (August 1942): Led by Chittu Pandey,
• July 1942: Congress Working Committee met
operated for a week, and secured the
at Wardha, authorizing Gandhi to lead a non-
release of many Congress leaders.
violent mass movement.
• Tamluk (Midnapore, December 1942 -
• August 8, 1942: Quit India Resolution ratified
September 1944): Jatiya Sarkar engaged in
at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, demanding
cyclone relief, education funding, and
immediate British withdrawal, commitment to
resource redistribution.
fight fascism, formation of a provisional
• Satara (Mid-1943 - 1945): Prati Sarkar led
government, and sanctioning civil
by Y.B. Chavan and Nana Patil, focused on
disobedience.
community welfare and Gandhi marriages.
• Gandhi's Leadership: Named leader of the
Extent of Mass Participation
struggle, with the famous exhortation "Do or
• Youth: Students actively participated,
Die."
leading protests and acts of defiance.
Gandhi's Instructions to Different Sections:
• Women: Figures like Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta
• Government Servants: Declare allegiance to
Kripalani, and Usha Mehta played key roles.
Congress without resigning.
• Workers: Went on strikes, facing severe
• Soldiers: Stay in the Army but do not fire on
repression.
compatriots.
• Peasants: Formed the core of the
• Students: Leave studies if confident.
movement, targeting symbols of authority
• Peasants: Pay rent based on the zamindar's
without anti-zamindar violence.
stance towards the government.
• Government Officials: Lower-level officials,
• Princes: Support the masses and accept their
especially in the police, eroded government
sovereignty.
loyalty.
• Princely States' People: Support anti-
• Muslims: Provided shelter to underground
government rulers and identify with the Indian
activists, with no communal clashes
nation.
reported.
Spread of the Movement:
• Communists: Did not join, supporting the
• August 9, 1942: Top Congress leaders arrested,
British war effort post-Nazi invasion of
leaving younger militants in charge. Aruna Asaf
Russia.
Ali hoisted the flag at the Congress session.
• Muslim League: Opposed the movement,
• Public Response: Attacks on symbols of
fearing Hindu dominance post-British exit.
authority, hoisting of national flags, sabotage
• Hindu Mahasabha: Boycotted the
activities like blowing up bridges and cutting
movement.
telegraph lines.
• Princely States: Showed minimal response.
• Student and Worker Strikes: Strikes in schools,
colleges, and industries in various cities.
Underground Activity: Rajagopalachari Formula
• Key Personalities: Rammanohar Lohia,
• Background: Efforts to solve the ongoing
Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha
constitutional crisis in 1944 led to various
Mehta UPSC (2011) (started an underground
proposals.
radio in Bombay.), Biju Patnaik, and others.
• The Formula: C. Rajagopalachari (CR), a
• Actions: Distribution of arms and
veteran Congress leader, prepared a formula
ammunition, keeping up morale, providing
for Congress-League cooperation, which was a
guidance, and operating an underground
tacit acceptance of the League's demand for
radio in Bombay.
Pakistan. Gandhi supported the formula.

89 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024

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• Main Points:
o Muslim League to endorse Congress
demand for independence.
o League to cooperate with Congress in
forming a provisional government at the
center.
o After the end of the war, the entire
population of Muslim majority areas in the
North-West and North-East India to decide
by a plebiscite, whether or not to form a
separate sovereign state.
o In case of acceptance of partition,
agreement to be made jointly for
safeguarding defense, commerce,
communications, etc.
o The above terms to be operative only if
England transferred full powers to India.
• Objections:
o Jinnah's Stance: Jinnah wanted the
Congress to accept the two-nation theory
and insisted that only Muslims of North-
West and North-East vote in the plebiscite,
opposing the idea of a common center.
o Congress's Position: While the Congress
was ready to cooperate with the League
for the independence of the Indian Union,
the League was primarily interested in a
separate nation.
o Hindu Leaders: Hindu leaders, led by Vir
Savarkar, condemned the CR Plan.
Desai-Liaqat Pact
• Efforts to End Deadlock: Bhulabhai Desai,
leader of the Congress Party in the Central
Legislative Assembly, met Liaqat Ali Khan,
deputy leader of the Muslim League in that
Assembly, and both came up with a draft
proposal for forming an interim government at
the center.
• Proposal Details:
o An equal number of persons nominated
by the Congress and the League in the
central legislature.
o 20% reserved seats for minorities.
• Outcome: No settlement was reached
between the Congress and the League, but the
proposal established a sort of parity between
the two parties, which had far-reaching
consequences.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Wavell Plan
• Context:
o End of War in Europe: May 1945, but
Japanese threat remained.
o British Government: Led by Churchill,
keen on resolving India's constitutional
question.
o Release of Congress Leaders: In June
1945, to start negotiations.
• Reasons for Seeking a Solution:
o Upcoming General Election: In England,
mid-1945. Conservatives wanted to
appear sincere about resolving the issue.
o Pressure from Allies: For further Indian
cooperation in the war.
o Diversion of Indian Energies: To channels
more profitable for the British.
• Main Proposals of Wavell Plan:
o Indian Majority in Executive Council:
Except for the governor-general and
commander-in-chief.
o Equal Representation: For caste Hindus
and Muslims.
o Interim Government: Within the
framework of the 1935 Act, not
responsible to the Central Assembly.
o Governor-General's Veto: To be
exercised on ministers' advice.
o Joint List for Nominations: If not possible,
separate lists to be submitted.
o Open for Future Negotiations: On a new
constitution post-war.
• Muslim League's Stand:
o League Nominees: Wanted all Muslim
members to be from the League, fearing
reduction to a one-third minority.
o Veto Power: Sought a kind of veto in the
council, requiring a two-thirds majority
for decisions opposed by Muslims.
• Congress Stand:
o Opposition to Plan: Viewed it as reducing
Congress to a caste Hindu party, insisted
on including all communities among its
nominees.
The Indian National Army and Subhash Bose
• Background: Subhash Chandra Bose was
known for his militant approach to the
freedom struggle. He resigned from the Indian
Civil Services in 1921 to join the Congress, with
Chittaranjan Das as his political guru. He
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became the mayor of Calcutta in 1923 and was
jailed multiple times by the British.
• Divergence from Congress: Bose disagreed
with Gandhi's methods and decided to pursue
his own path for independence.
• Anti-Compromise Conference: In March 1940,
Bose convened the conference at Ramgarh,
calling for a worldwide struggle against
imperialism, starting on April 6.
• Arrest and Escape: Bose was arrested in July
1940 for protesting against a proposed
monument for Holwell in Calcutta. He was
released after a hunger strike and placed under
house arrest. In January 1941, he escaped to
Peshawar and then left India to seek
international support for the freedom struggle.
• Journey to Germany: Bose approached Russia
for help but was disappointed when Russia
joined the Allies. He then went to Germany,
where he met Hitler under the pseudonym
Orlando Mazzotta. With Hitler's help, the
'Freedom Army' (Mukti Sena) was formed,
consisting of Indian prisoners of war captured
by Germany and Italy. Bose was called 'Netaji'
in Germany and gave the famous slogan 'Jai
Hind'.
• Broadcasts and Journey to Japan: Bose began
broadcasting from Berlin radio in January
1942, inspiring Indians. In early 1943, he
traveled by German and Japanese submarines
to reach Japan and then Singapore in July 1943,
where he took over command of the Indian
independence movement from Rashbehari
Bose, marking the second phase of the Indian
National Army.
Origin and First Phase of the Indian National
Army (INA)
• Mohan Singh's Initiative: The idea of forming
an army from Indian prisoners of war (POWs)
was conceived by Mohan Singh, an Indian army
officer in Malaya who sought Japanese
assistance. After the fall of Singapore, many
POWs joined him, and by the end of 1942,
40,000 men were ready to join the INA.
• Purpose: The INA was intended to act only on
the invitation of the Indian National Congress
and the people of India. It was also seen as a
measure against Japanese misconduct in
South-East Asia and a potential Japanese
occupation of India.
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• Boost from Quit India Movement: The INA
gained momentum with the outbreak of the
Quit India Movement in India. In September
1942, the first division of the INA was formed
with 16,300 men.
• Differences with the Japanese: Disagreements
arose between Mohan Singh and the Japanese
over the size and role of the INA. Mohan Singh
was taken into custody by the Japanese.
• Subhash Bose's Involvement: The second
phase of the INA began with the arrival of
Subhash Bose in Singapore. Prior to this, in
June 1943, Bose (under the pseudonym Abid
Hussain) reached Tokyo and met the Japanese
Prime Minister, Tojo.
• Rashbehari Bose's Contribution: Rashbehari
Bose, a freedom fighter who fled to Japan in
1915, played a significant role in promoting the
Indian independence movement in Japan. He
founded the Indian Club of Tokyo and became
active in Pan-Asian circles. Impressed by
Subhash Bose, Rashbehari became involved in
the INA's formation in Singapore and chaired
the Indian Independence League, which he
created in Tokyo in 1942.
Leadership and Actions of Subhash Bose in the
INA
• Transfer of Leadership: In July 1943,
Rashbehari Bose transferred the control and
leadership of the Indian Independence League
and the INA to Subhash Bose in Singapore.
• Provisional Government: On October 21,
1943, Bose formed the Provisional
Government for Free India in Singapore, with
prominent members like H.C. Chatterjee, M.A.
Aiyar, and Lakshmi Swaminathan. He gave the
famous slogan "Give me blood, I will give you
freedom" in Malaya.
• War Declaration: This provisional government
declared war on Britain and the United States
and was recognized by the Axis powers. A
women's regiment called the Rani Jhansi
Regiment was formed, and recruits were
trained and funds collected for the INA.
• Shift to Rangoon: The INA headquarters was
shifted to Rangoon in January 1944, and the
army recruits were to march from there with
the war cry "Chalo Delhi!" on their lips.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands: On November
6, 1943, the Japanese army handed over the
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Andaman and Nicobar islands to the INA,
renaming them Shahid Dweep and Swaraj
Dweep, respectively.
• Address to Gandhi: On July 6, 1944, Bose
addressed Mahatma Gandhi as 'Father of
Nation' from the Azad Hind Radio and asked
for his blessings for "India's last war of
independence."
• Imphal Campaign: One INA battalion,
commanded by Shah Nawaz, accompanied the
Japanese Army to the Indo-Burma front and
participated in the Imphal campaign. However,
the Indians received discriminatory treatment
from the Japanese.
• Advance to Indian Soil: The INA crossed the
Burma border and stood on Indian soil on
March 18, 1944. They advanced up to Kohima
and Imphal, and on April 14, Colonel Malik of
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
the Bahadur Group hoisted the INA flag for the
first time on the Indian mainland at Moirang,
Manipur.
• Retreat and Surrender: The INA carried out
military administration duties at Moirang for
three months before the Allied forces
reclaimed the territory. The steady Japanese
retreat quashed any hopes of the INA
liberating the nation, and the INA surrendered
on August 15, 1945, following Japan's
surrender in World War II.
• Subhash Bose's Mysterious Death: On August
18, 1945, Subhash Bose reportedly died
mysteriously in an air crash at Taipei, Taiwan.
• Aftermath: When the INA POWs were brought
back to India after the war to be court-
martialed, a powerful movement emerged in
their defense.
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22 Post-War National Scenario

Factors Influencing the Change in the British Colonel Prem Kumar Sahgal and Colonel
Government's Attitude Towards India Post-WWII Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were three of the
senior-most officers of INA and trusted
• Shift in Global Power: The end of World War II
colleagues of Netaji. UPSC (2021)
saw a shift in global power dynamics, with the
• Congress Support for INA Prisoners: The
UK's influence diminishing and the USA and
Congress session in September 1945 declared
USSR emerging as superpowers, both of which
support for the INA cause, and prominent
favored Indian independence.
leaders like Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur
• Labour Government: The Labour Party, which
Sapru, and Jawaharlal Nehru organized the
came to power in Britain in 1945, was more
defense of INA prisoners in court.
sympathetic to Indian demands for freedom
• The INA Agitation: The campaign for the
compared to the previous Conservative
release of INA prisoners was intense and
government.
widespread, involving diverse social groups
• European Political Climate: Post-war Europe
and political parties. It included fund
saw a wave of socialist-radical governments,
collections, public meetings, and boycotts.
which influenced the British government's
• Support from Various Groups: Apart from the
approach towards colonial issues.
Congress, other groups like the Muslim
• Economic Strain: The British economy was
League, Communist Party, Akalis, and Hindu
severely affected by the war, with significant
Mahasabha supported the INA cause in varying
debts owed to India and the financial burden
degrees.
of the US Lend-Lease agreement.
• Pro-INA Sentiments in Traditional Bulwarks:
• Anti-Imperialist Sentiment: There was a
Even government employees and loyalists
growing anti-imperialist sentiment in South-
appealed to the government to abandon the
East Asia, with countries like Vietnam and
trials for better Indo-British relations. Armed
Indonesia resisting the re-establishment of
forces personnel also showed sympathy
colonial rule.
towards the INA.
• Fear of Revolt: British officials were concerned
• Political Significance: The INA issue became a
about the possibility of another widespread
symbol of Indian nationalism, challenging
revolt in India, similar to the Quit India
Britain's right to decide matters concerning
Movement of 1942, but potentially more
Indians. The agitation highlighted the growing
dangerous due to the presence of INA veterans
sentiment against British rule and contributed
with military experience.
to the mounting pressure for independence.
• Election Necessity: With the last elections held
in the early 1930s, there was an inevitable
Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945-46
need for elections to be conducted post-war to
• Stage I: Defiance and Repression:
determine the political future of India.
o November 21, 1945: A student procession
Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials (1945-46)
in Calcutta, including Forward Bloc
sympathisers, SFI activists, and Islamia
• Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims: The
College students, marched to Dalhousie
campaign was focused on mobilizing Indians
Square and faced police lathicharge,
against the British, glorifying martyrs of the
resulting in two deaths.
1942 Quit India Movement, and condemning
o February 11, 1946: Muslim League-led
state repression.
student protest joined by Congress and
• Mass Pressure Against INA Trials: The
communist students' organisations defied
government's decision to hold public trials for
Section 144, leading to arrests and
INA prisoners, especially the first trial at the
lathicharge.
Red Fort in Delhi, sparked widespread
• Rebellion by Naval Ratings: UPSC (2017)
agitation. Major General Shah Nawaz Khan,

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o February 18, 1946: Around 1100 Royal
Indian Navy (RIN) ratings of HMIS Talwar
went on strike protesting racial
discrimination, poor food, abuse by
officers, and other grievances. They
hoisted various flags symbolising anti-
imperialist unity and demanded
withdrawal of Indian troops from
Indonesia.
• Stage II: City-Wide Participation:
o The anti-British mood led to the paralysis
of Calcutta and Bombay with widespread
strikes, hartals, processions, and attacks
on European establishments and symbols
of authority.
• Stage III: Nationwide Solidarity:
o Students across the country boycotted
classes and organised hartals and
processions in solidarity with the striking
ratings and other protesting students.
o Sympathetic strikes occurred in military
establishments in Karachi, Madras,
Visakhapatnam, Calcutta, Delhi, Cochin,
Jamnagar, Andamans, Bahrain, and Aden,
as well as by the Royal Indian Air Force in
Bombay, Poona, Calcutta, Jessore, and
Ambala.
• Resolution:
o Sardar Patel and Muhammad Ali Jinnah
persuaded the ratings to surrender on
February 23 with assurances of preventing
victimisation by national parties.
The potential and impact of the three upsurges
during the post-war national scenario in India
were significant in several ways:
• Expression of Militancy: The fearless
actions by the masses during these upsurges
were an expression of the growing militancy
in the popular mindset against British rule.
• Revolt in Armed Forces: The revolt in the
armed forces, especially the Royal Indian
Navy (RIN) revolt, had a great liberating
effect on the minds of the people and was
seen as a clear indication of the end of
British rule in India.
• Concessions by the British: These upsurges
prompted the British to extend some
concessions, such as reducing the severity of
trials against INA members, withdrawing
Indian soldiers from Indo-China and
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Indonesia, and sending a parliamentary
delegation and the Cabinet Mission to India.
However, the potential of these upsurges to
offer a way out of the communal deadlock was
limited:
• Short-lived and Localised: The upsurges
were short-lived and confined to a few
urban centers, lacking the widespread
support needed to sustain a long-term
movement.
• Organisational Unity: The communal unity
witnessed during these events was more
organisational than among the people.
Different communities sought advice from
their respective political organizations,
indicating a lack of deep-rooted unity.
• Intact British Repression Infrastructure:
Despite the erosion of the morale of the
bureaucracy, the British infrastructure to
repress these upsurges remained intact,
allowing them to control the situation
quickly.
Congress Strategy:
• The Congress did not officially support
these upsurges due to their violent tactics
and timing, as negotiations had been an
integral part of the Congress strategy. The
Congress preferred to explore negotiations
before launching a mass movement,
especially when the British were preparing
to leave.
• Gandhi viewed the mutiny as "badly
advised," emphasizing that if the grievances
were related to India's freedom, the
mutineers should have waited for the
guidance of national leaders.
Election Results
Category Details
• Secured 91% of non-
Muslim votes. Won 57 out
of 102 seats in the Central
Assembly.
Congress
• Majority in most provinces
Performance
except Bengal, Sindh, and
Punjab. NWFP and Assam,
claimed for Pakistan, had
Congress majorities.
Muslim • Received 86.6% of Muslim
League’s votes. Won all 30 reserved
Performance
94
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seats in the Central o Danger in dividing armed forces.

Assembly. • Grouping of Provincial Assemblies: Into three
• Majority in Bengal and sections:
Sindh. Dominant party o Section A: Madras, Bombay, Central
among Muslims. In Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, and
Punjab, a coalition of Orissa (Hindu-majority provinces).
Unionist-Congress-Akali o Section B: Punjab, North-West Frontier
under Khizr Hayat Khan Province, and Sindh (Muslim-majority
came to power. provinces).
• Marked by communal o Section C: Bengal and Assam (Muslim-
voting due to separate majority provinces).
electorates. • Three-Tier Executive and Legislature: At
• Limited franchise: less provincial, section, and union levels.
Key Features
than 10% of the • Constituent Assembly: Elected by provincial
of Elections
population could vote in assemblies, with 389 members representing
provinces; less than 1% provincial assemblies, chief commissioner’s
was eligible for the Central provinces, and princely states.
Assembly. • Separate and Combined Sessions: Members
from groups A, B, and C to decide on provincial
The Cabinet Mission UPSC (2015) and group constitutions, then unite to
• Announcement: The Attlee government formulate the union constitution.
announced in February 1946 the decision to • Common Centre: Controlling defense,
send a high-powered mission to India for a communication, and external affairs with a
peaceful transfer of power. federal structure.
• Members: The mission comprised three British • Communal Questions: Decided by a simple
cabinet members: Pethick Lawrence majority of both communities in the central
(Chairman), Stafford Cripps, and A.V. legislature.
Alexander. • Provincial Autonomy: Full autonomy and
• Arrival in India: The Cabinet Mission arrived in residual powers for provinces.
Delhi on March 24, 1946. • Princely States: Freed from British
• Discussions: Prolonged discussions were held paramountcy, allowed to make arrangements
with Indian leaders on: with successor governments or the British
o Interim government government.
o Principles and procedures for framing a • Reconsideration and Exit Clauses: Provinces
new constitution for India's freedom. can reconsider group or union constitution
• Outcome: Due to the inability of the Congress after 10 years or exit a group after the first
and the League to agree on the unity or general elections.
partition of India, the mission put forward its • Interim Government: To be formed from the
own plan for the constitutional solution in May constituent assembly.
1946. Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause
Cabinet Mission Plan (Key Points)
• Congress: Viewed the plan as against the
• Rejection of Full-Fledged Pakistan: creation of Pakistan, with optional grouping,
o Large non-Muslim populations in proposed one constituent assembly, and no veto for the
areas. League.
o Potential demands for separation by • Muslim League: Believed Pakistan was implied
Hindu-majority western Bengal and Sikh- in compulsory grouping (later clarified by the
Hindu-dominated Punjab regions. Mission that grouping was compulsory).
o Disturbance of regional ties in Bengal and
Main Objections to the Cabinet Mission Plan
Punjab.
o Economic and administrative challenges. • Congress Objections:

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o Immediate Exit from Groups: Congress
argued that provinces should have the
option to not join a group initially,
especially concerning Congress-ruled
NWFP and Assam, which were included in
groups B and C.
o Provincial Autonomy: Compulsory
grouping was seen as contradictory to the
demand for provincial autonomy.
o Future Rebellion: Concern over British
acknowledgment of the impossibility of
suppressing any future Congress-led
rebellion.
o "Northern Ireland" Scenario: Some
officials desired to create a "Northern
Ireland" out of Pakistan.
o Princely States Representation: The lack
of provision for elected representatives
from princely states in the constituent
assembly was unacceptable; members
could only be nominated by princes.
• League Objections:
o Compulsory Grouping: The League
insisted on compulsory grouping, with
sections B and C eventually seceding into
Pakistan.
• Acceptance and Rejection:
o Initial Acceptance: The Muslim League
accepted the plan on June 6, and Congress
on June 24, 1946.
o 1946 Elections: Elections for the
Constituent Assembly were held in July
1946.
o Nehru's Statement: On July 10, 1946,
Nehru stated the Constituent Assembly's
sovereignty, suggesting a likelihood of no
grouping due to objections from NWFP
and Assam.
o League's Withdrawal: On July 29, 1946,
the League withdrew its acceptance in
response to Nehru's statement and called
for "direct action" on August 16 to achieve
Pakistan.
Wavell's 'Breakdown Plan'
• Presentation: Wavell presented his plan to
the Cabinet Mission in May 1946.
• Middle Course: The plan aimed to find a
middle ground between "repression" and
"scuttle" (abandonment).
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Withdrawal: It envisaged the withdrawal of
the British Army and officials to the Muslim
provinces of North-West and North-East.
• Handover: The rest of the country would be
handed over to the Congress.
• Supersession: Though superseded by the
Cabinet Mission Plan, Wavell's plan
indicated:
• British Recognition: Acknowledgment of
the impossibility of suppressing any future
Congress-led rebellion.
Communal Holocaust and the Interim
Government
Communal Riots:
• From August 16, 1946, India witnessed
unprecedented communal riots, resulting in
several thousand deaths.
• Worst-hit areas included Calcutta, Bombay,
Noakhali, Bihar, and Garhmukteshwar (United
Provinces).
Changed Government Priorities:
• Viceroy Wavell sought to include the Congress
in the Interim Government, even if the League
stayed out, marking a departure from his
earlier stance at the Shimla Conference.
• This shift countered the League's demand for
all settlements to be acceptable to it and
previous government attitudes that
encouraged communal forces and denied the
representative nature of Congress.
Interim Government Formation:
• A Congress-dominated Interim Government
led by Nehru was sworn in on September 2,
1946, with Nehru opposing compulsory
grouping.
• Despite being called "Interim," the
government functioned similarly to the old
viceroy's executive, with Wavell overruling
ministers on key issues like the release of INA
prisoners.
• On October 26, 1946, the Muslim League
joined the Interim Government without
abandoning 'direct action,' rejecting the
Cabinet Mission's plans, and insisting on
compulsory grouping, which would
marginalize opponents of Pakistan in Assam
and NWFP.
• Ministers of the Interim Government
(September 2, 1946–August 15, 1947):
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o Jawaharlal Nehru: Vice President of
Executive Council, External Affairs, and
Commonwealth Relations
o Vallabhbhai Patel: Home, Information, and
Broadcasting
o Baldev Singh: Defence
o Dr. John Mathai: Industries and Supplies
o C. Rajagopalachari: Education
o C.H. Bhabha: Works, Mines, and Power
o Rajendra Prasad: Agriculture and Food
o Jagjivan Ram: Labour
o Asaf Ali: Railway
o Liaquat Ali Khan (Muslim League): Finance
o Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (Muslim
League): Commerce
o Abdur Rab Nishtar (Muslim League):
Communications
o Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Muslim League):
Health
o Jogendra Nath Mandal (Muslim League):
Law
Communal Reaction by Majority Community
• Anti-Muslim Sentiments (1870s): Hindu
zamindars, moneylenders, and middle-class
professionals expressed anti-Muslim
sentiments, claiming British liberation from
Muslim tyranny. Some declared Urdu as the
language of Muslims, contributing to a
communal narrative.
• Punjab Hindu Sabha (1909): Founded by
U.N. Mukherjee and Lal Chand, it opposed
Congress's efforts to unite Indians,
advocating Hindu support for the colonial
government against Muslims.
• All-India Hindu Mahasabha (1915): Held its
first session in April 1915 with the Maharaja
of Kasim Bazar as president, emphasizing a
communal outlook.
• Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS)
(1925): Established in 1925 to promote
Hindu nationalism.
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Timeline of the Evolution of the Two-Nation
Theory and Communal Developments
• 1887: Syed Ahmed Khan promotes Muslim
distance from Congress.
• 1906: Agha Khan demands separate Muslim
electorates; Muslim League founded.
• 1909: Morley-Minto Reforms establish
separate Muslim electorates.
• 1915-1924: Rise of communal tendencies in
the Muslim League; Congress accepts
separate electorates in 1916.
• 1920s: Increase in communal riots; Arya
Samajist movements lead to Muslim
retaliatory movements.
Congress and Communalism
• Failed Strategy: Congress unable to
effectively counter rising communalism.
Communal Developments
• 1930-34: Limited Muslim participation in
Civil Disobedience Movement;
communalists attend Round Table
Conferences.
• Post-1937: Muslim League adopts extreme
communalism, leading to mass movement
and propaganda against Congress.
Muslim League's Stance
• 1937-39: Jinnah's demands lead to
deadlock.
• 1940: Pakistan Resolution calls for
independent Muslim-majority states.
• World War II: British government's virtual
veto to the League paves the way for
Pakistan's creation in 1947.
Hindu Communalism
• Militant Nationalism: Rise of Hindu
Mahasabha and RSS.
• Reasons for Extreme Communalism:
Radicalization, colonial division strategies,
and failure to challenge communal
tendencies.
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21 Independence with Partition
Attlee's Statement of February 20, 1947
• Background: Clement Attlee, the British Prime
Minister, announced the British intention to
leave India, amidst growing unrest and
demand for independence.
• Key Points:
o Deadline: A deadline of June 30, 1948, was
set for the transfer of power, regardless of
whether Indian politicians had agreed on a
constitution.
o Transfer of Power: Power would be
relinquished to a central government or, in
some areas, to existing provincial
governments if the Constituent Assembly
was not fully representative.
o Princely States: British obligations towards
princely states would lapse with the
transfer of power, without being
transferred to any successor government
in British India.
o New Viceroy: Mountbatten would replace
Wavell as the viceroy.
• Implications:
o Partition Hints: The statement hinted at
the partition of India and even the
balkanization of the country into
numerous states.
o Reversion to Cripps Offer: The essence of
the statement was seen as a reversion to
the Cripps Offer.
• Reasons for Fixed Withdrawal Date:
o Shock Effect: The government hoped a
fixed date would prompt parties to reach
an agreement.
o Averting Crisis: The aim was to avert a
developing constitutional crisis.
o Demonstrating Sincerity: The government
wanted to convince Indians of British
sincerity.
o Acknowledging Decline: It was recognized
that there was an irreversible decline in
the government's authority.
o Congress's Stand:
o Acceptance: The provision for the transfer
of power to more than one center was
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
acceptable, as it allowed the existing
assembly to frame a constitution for the
areas represented by it.
o Deadlock Solution: It offered a way out of
the existing deadlock.
• Aftermath: The statement was a prelude to
the final showdown, with the League launching
a civil disobedience movement to overthrow
the coalition government.
Independence and Partition
• Communal Tensions: The riots and the
unworkable Congress-League coalition led to
the consideration of partition.
• Demand for Partition: The demand came from
Hindu and Sikh groups in Bengal and Punjab,
fearing inclusion in Pakistan.
• Congress's Stance: In April 1947, Congress
communicated willingness to accept partition
for a fair division of Bengal and Punjab.
Mountbatten as the Viceroy
• Firm Decision-Making: Mountbatten had
more informal powers and a clear mandate to
expedite the British withdrawal.
• Exploring Options: His task was to explore
unity and division options, but he found the
scenario for partition already clear upon his
arrival.
• Preference for Wooing: Mountbatten
preferred to woo both sides, rather than
supporting one over the other.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)
• Dominion Status: The plan proposed
immediate transfer of power based on
dominion status, avoiding waiting for a new
political structure agreement.
• Partition Process: Punjab and Bengal
assemblies would vote in groups for partition.
If a simple majority in either group voted for it,
partition would occur.
• Provincial Decisions: Sindh would decide
independently, while referendums would
determine the fate of NWFP and Sylhet district.
• Congress Concessions: The plan addressed
Congress's points, such as no independence for
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princely states, Bengal, or Hyderabad, and set
August 15, 1947, as the freedom date.
• Boundary Commission: A commission would
be set up if partition was to be effected.
Outcome
• Balanced Formula: The plan aimed to divide
India while retaining maximum unity,
conceding Pakistan's creation and limiting its
size to accommodate Congress's unity stance.
Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status
• Peaceful Transfer of Power: Dominion status
ensured a smooth transition.
• Urgent Need for Authority: Congress
prioritized taking control to manage the
volatile situation.
• Continuity in Administration: It allowed for
stability in bureaucracy and the army.
Britain's Perspective on Dominion Status
• Commonwealth Inclusion: Britain aimed to
retain India in the Commonwealth, valuing its
economic and defense potential.
Rationale for Early Independence Date (August
15, 1947)
• Congress Agreement: The early date aimed to
secure Congress's acceptance of dominion
status.
• Avoiding Responsibility: Britain sought to
evade accountability for communal tensions.
Implementation of the Mountbatten Plan
• Legislative Decisions: Bengal and Punjab
assemblies voted for partition, leading to the
division of these provinces.
• Referendums and Commissions: Sylhet joined
East Bengal, NWFP chose Pakistan, and
boundary commissions were set up for
demarcation.
• Indian Independence Act: Passed on July 5,
1947, it established two independent
dominions effective August 15, 1947, with
governance based on the Government of India
Act, 1935.
Problems of Early Withdrawal
• Lack of Transitional Structures: The rapid pace
of events led to a lack of proper arrangements
for partition.
• Governor-General Issue: Mountbatten's hope
to be a common Governor-General was
thwarted by Jinnah's desire for the position in
Pakistan.
99 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Delay in Boundary Commission Award: The
announcement was postponed to avoid British
responsibility for any disturbances.
Integration of States
• Context: Post-independence, there was a
strong demand for political rights and
representation from the State People’s
Movement.
• Plan Balkan: Proposed by Mountbatten, it
suggested transferring power to separate
provinces or a confederation, with options for
partition and independence for princely states.
It was quickly abandoned due to Nehru's
strong opposition.
• Phase I: Accession
o By August 15, 1947, all states except
Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagarh had
signed an instrument of accession.
o Princely states surrendered control over
defense, external affairs, and
communication to the Indian government.
o This phase did not alter the internal
political structure of the states.
• Phase II: Integration
o Involved merging states with neighboring
provinces or forming new units like
Kathiawar Union, Vindhya, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Himachal
Pradesh.
o Internal constitutional changes were
implemented in some states.
o Incentives such as generous privy purses
and positions like governors and
rajpramukhs were offered to the princes.
• Outcome: The rapid political unification of
India post-independence, primarily led by
Vallabhbhai Patel, stands as a significant
achievement in the country's history.
Reasons for Congress Accepting Partition
• Inevitability: The long-term failure to
integrate Muslim masses into the national
movement made partition seem inevitable.
Congress had succeeded in building national
consciousness but failed to unify the nation,
especially regarding Muslim integration.
• Preventing Further Violence: Immediate
transfer of power was seen as a way to stop
the spread of communal violence and the
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'direct action' initiated by the Muslim the compulsory grouping of Muslim-

League.
• Princely States: The partition plan ruled out
independence for princely states,
preventing the potential Balkanization of
India, which could have posed a greater
threat to national unity.
• Gradual Concessions: Congress had made
step-by-step concessions to the League's
demand for a separate Muslim state, such as
accepting autonomy for Muslim-majority
provinces during the Cripps Mission and the
right of self-determination during Gandhi-
Jinnah talks.
• Compulsory Grouping: Despite initial
resistance, Congress eventually accepted
majority provinces and the possibility of a
separate constituent assembly.
• Underestimation of Communal Dynamics:
Congress leadership, particularly Nehru,
underestimated the dynamics of communal
feelings and the assertiveness of the
'Muslim nation' concept in the 1940s.
• Wishful Thinking: There was a belief that
partition would be temporary and that
Hindu-Muslim differences would be
resolved once the British left, leading to a
peaceful, unified India.

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20 Economic Impact of British Rule in India

UPSC 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017

Deindustrialisation
Impoverishment of Peasantry Under British Rule
Ruin of Artisans and Handicraftsmen
• Government Policies: Focused on maximizing
One-Way Free Trade and Its Consequences
rents and revenue through the Permanent
• Charter Act of 1813: Allowed one-way free
Settlement system, causing insecurity among
trade for British citizens, leading to an influx of
tenants who lost traditional land rights.
cheap, machine-made imports into the Indian
• Neglect of Agricultural Improvement: Minimal
market.
government investment in enhancing land
• Tariffs on Indian Textiles: European markets
productivity.
imposed tariffs of nearly 80% on Indian
• Zamindar Exploitation: Increased powers led
textiles, making them expensive and non-
zamindars to demand illegal dues and engage
competitive.
in summary evictions, with no incentive to
• Closure of European Markets: After 1820,
invest in agricultural improvement.
European markets were virtually closed to
• Dependence on Moneylenders:
Indian exports, leading to a flood of cheap
Overburdened peasants forced to sell produce
British cloth in the Indian market.
at low prices to clear debts, with moneylenders
• Impact of Rail Network: The introduction of
manipulating judiciary in their favor.
the rail network facilitated the reach of
• Triple Burden: Peasants suffered under the
European products to remote corners of India,
combined pressures of the government,
further impacting Indian industries.
zamindars, and moneylenders, especially
• Shift from Exporter to Importer: India
during famines and scarcity.
transitioned from being a net exporter to a net
• Loss of Land: Policies and exploitation
importer due to these trade policies.
rendered peasants landless, affecting those in
Lack of Modern Industrialisation
zamindari, ryotwari, and mahalwari systems
• Deindustrialisation: The loss of traditional
alike.
livelihoods was not compensated by
industrialisation, leading to deindustrialisation Emergence of Intermediaries and Absentee
in India during a time of intensified Industrial Landlordism
Revolution in Europe.
• Rise of new zamindars (merchants,
• Decline of Artisans and Handicraftsmen:
moneylenders) with increased powers but no
Indian artisans and handicraftsmen faced a
investment incentives.
decline due to loss of patronage and western
• Growth of absentee landlordism due to sub-
influence on Indian princes and nobility.
infeudation, increasing peasant burden.
Ruralisation
• Lack of traditional ties led to zamindars
• Decline of Cities: Many cities declined as a
focusing solely on perpetuating British rule and
result of deindustrialisation, leading to a
opposing nationalism.
process of ruralisation in India.
• Shift to Agriculture: Artisans facing Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture
diminishing returns and repressive policies
• Cultivators lacked means and incentives for
moved to villages and took up agriculture,
agricultural investment.
increasing pressure on land.
• Zamindars had no connection to villages, and
• Overburdened Agriculture Sector: This shift
government spending on agriculture and
contributed to an overburdened agriculture
education was minimal.
sector, a major cause of poverty during British
• Fragmentation of land and absence of modern
rule, and disrupted the village economic setup.
technology resulted in low productivity.

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Famine and Poverty low-value revenue from Bengal, impoverishing

peasants further.
• Regular famines became common, not just due
• Ship-building Industry: British laws and
to food scarcity but also due to colonial-
monopolies crushed Indian ship-building, with
induced poverty.
heavy duties and restrictions on Indian ships.
• Approximately 28 million people died in
• Steel Industry: Indian steel industry growth
famines between 1850 and 1900.
was hampered by British restrictions, forcing
Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture higher standards for British use while limiting
access to larger markets.
• Emergence of Commercial Crops: Shift from
• Role of Indian Traders and Bankers: Indian
traditional agriculture to cultivation of
capitalists served as junior partners in the
commercial crops (cotton, jute, oilseeds,
colonial exploitation, facilitating revenue
sugarcane, tobacco) for national and
collection and distribution of British goods but
international markets.
hindered from developing into an independent
• Influence of Market Forces: Agriculture began industrial bourgeoisie.
to be influenced by commercial
• Emergence of Modern Industries: Modern
considerations, leading to the cultivation of
industries like cotton textiles and jute mills
specialized crops for wider markets.
emerged in the mid-19th century, largely
• Plantation Sector: Significant development in foreign-owned and controlled by British
the plantation sector (tea, coffee, rubber, managing agencies.
indigo), mostly owned by Europeans for global
• Foreign Capital Influx: High profits, cheap
markets. UPSC (2019)
labor, and raw materials attracted foreign
• Drivers of Commercialisation: Contributing capital, but Indian-owned industries faced
factors included the spread of a money numerous handicaps including credit issues,
economy, emergence of a unified national lack of tariff protection, and competition from
market, growth in internal trade, foreign companies.
improvements in transportation (railroads,
• Structural and Institutional Changes:
roads), and the impact of British finance
Industrial development was uneven,
capital.
neglecting core industries and causing regional
• Impact on Indian Peasants: disparities, which impeded nation-building.
o Commercialisation often felt forced upon
• Technical Education: Lack of technical
Indian peasants, who lacked surplus to
education led to a shortage of technical
invest in commercial crops.
manpower in the industry.
o Linked Indian agriculture to global market
• Social Changes: The rise of an industrial
fluctuations, making peasants vulnerable
capitalist class and the working class marked
to price changes.
significant social changes during this period.
o Benefited intermediaries during price
rises but led to peasant indebtedness and
Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy UPSC
agrarian distress during slumps (e.g.,
(2015, 2012)
Deccan riots in the 1870s).
• Initial Support for British Rule: Early
o Overall, commercialisation did not
intellectuals believed British rule would
substantially improve the economic
modernize India with the latest technology and
condition of the cultivator.
capitalist organization.
Destruction of Industry and Late Development of • Disillusionment Post-1860s: Growing
Modern Industry awareness of the adverse effects of British rule
led to a critical examination of its impact on
• De-industrialization: Indian industry,
India.
particularly textiles and ship-building, was
• Key Economic Analysts:
systematically destroyed by British policies.
o Dadabhai Naoroji: Proposed the theory of
• Textile Industry: The British ceased paying for
economic drain in his work "Poverty and
Indian textiles in pounds, opting to pay with
UnBritish Rule in India."

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o Other Analysts: Justice Mahadeo Govind
Ranade, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, G. Subramaniya Iyer, and
Prithwishchandra Ray.
• Colonialism's Essence: Transformation of India
into a supplier of raw materials and foodstuffs,
a market for British goods, and a field for
British capital investment.
• Advocacy for Independence: Intellectuals
called for severing India's economic
subservience to Britain and developing an
independent economy based on modern
industries.
Poverty and Development
• Poverty was seen as a result of British
imperialism, with solutions lying in raising
productive capacity and national
development.
• Emphasis on industrialization based on Indian
capital, as foreign capital was viewed as
suppressive and perpetuating British control.
• Critique of British Policies: Highlighted the
detrimental effects of British policies on India's
economy and advocated for a shift towards
self-reliance and indigenous development.
Foreign Trade and Railways
Nationalists argued that the growth of foreign
trade and railways, while seemingly beneficial,
actually served British interests at the expense of
India's development.
• Foreign Trade: India was reduced to an
importer of British finished goods and an
exporter of raw materials, disrupting the
traditional balance of trade.
• Railways: Development of railways was not
aligned with India's industrial needs and
facilitated the penetration of British goods into
the Indian market, undermining local
industries.
• Subsidy to British Industries: G.V. Joshi noted
that Indian expenditure on railways effectively
acted as a subsidy to British industries.
One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy
• Impact on Handicrafts: One-way free trade
exposed the Indian handicrafts industry to
unequal competition, leading to its decline.
• Tariff Policy: Tariff policies were designed to
protect British capitalist interests, imposing
103 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
high duties on Indian exports while allowing
British goods to enter India with minimal
tariffs.
• Taxation: Taxes were structured to burden the
poor, with demands for the reduction of land
revenue, abolition of salt tax, and imposition of
taxes on luxury goods consumed by the
wealthy.
• Government Expenditure: Expenditure was
criticized for focusing solely on colonial needs,
neglecting development and welfare in India.
Consequences of Economic Drain
• Depletion of Productive Capital: India
experienced a significant loss of its productive
capital due to economic drain.
• Magnitude of Drain: Nationalist estimates
during that era highlighted the extent of the
economic drain, which was:
o More than the total land revenue.
o Half the total government revenue.
o One-third of the total savings, equivalent
to 8% of the national product.
Economic Issues as a Stimulant to National Unrest
• Challenge to Foreign Rule: Nationalist
agitation on economic issues challenged the
belief that foreign rule was beneficial for
Indians.
• Spread of National Consciousness: This
agitation stimulated intellectual unrest and the
spread of national consciousness during the
moderate phase of the freedom struggle
(1875–1905).
Stages of Colonialism in India
First Stage: Period of Merchant Capital
(Mercantilism)
• Duration: 1757-1813, marked by the East India
Company's domination.
• Objectives:
o Acquire a monopoly of trade with India
against both European and Indian
merchants.
o Direct appropriation of governmental
revenues through control over state
power.
o Lack of Major Changes: No significant
alterations were made in administration,
judicial system, agriculture, industrial
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production, or education. The traditional
Indian civil structure remained largely
unaffected.
• Changes Implemented:
o Military organization and technology were
enhanced, mirroring trends among native
rulers.
o Administrative adjustments at the top
level of revenue collection for efficiency.
• Economic Impact:
o Significant wealth was drained from India,
contributing 2-3% to Britain's national
income, aiding in financing the British
Industrial Revolution.
o Unlike later stages, this phase did not see
a large-scale import of British
manufactures into India. Instead, exports
of Indian textiles increased, though
weavers suffered due to the Company's
monopoly and exploitation. They were
coerced into producing under
uneconomical conditions.
Second Stage: Colonialism of Free Trade
• Duration: 1813 to 1860s, beginning with the
Charter Act of 1813.
• Economic Shift: The focus shifted from the East
India Company's exploitation to serving the
interests of British industrial capitalists. India
became a market for British manufactured
goods, especially textiles, and a source of raw
materials and foodgrains.
• Trade Liberalization: Import duties in India
were significantly reduced or abolished,
allowing free trade and entry of British
capitalists into various sectors like plantations,
trade, and modern industries.
• Agricultural Reforms: Introduction of the
Permanent Settlement and Ryotwari system
aimed at transforming traditional agrarian
structure into a capitalist one.
• Administrative Expansion: Administration
extended to villages and remote areas to
facilitate the reach of British goods and
extraction of agricultural products.
• Legal Reforms: Changes in criminal law,
contract law, and legal procedures to promote
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
capitalist commercial relations and maintain
law and order.
• Education: Introduction of modern education
to provide cheap manpower for administration
and to transform Indian society and culture,
fostering loyalty to the rulers.
• Increased Taxation: Sharper rise in taxation
and burden on the peasantry due to economic
transformation and costly administration.
• Trade Impact: India absorbed a significant
portion of British exports, especially textiles,
and imported railway materials on a large
scale.
• Military Use: The Indian army was used for
British expansion of colonialism in Asia and
Africa.
Third Stage: Era of Foreign Investments and
International Competition for Colonies
• Duration: Began around the 1860s.
• Global Economic Changes:
o Britain's industrial supremacy was
challenged by Europe, the United States,
and Japan.
o Accelerated industrialization due to
scientific advancements.
o Unified world market due to improved
international transport.
• Consolidation of British Control in India:
Liberal imperialist policies were replaced with
reactionary ones under viceroys like Lytton,
Dufferin, Lansdowne, and Curzon.
• British Capital Investment: Significant
investment in railways, loans to the
Government of India, trade, plantations, coal
mining, jute mills, shipping, and banking.
• Shift in British Policy: Abandonment of
training Indians for self-government, replaced
with the notion of permanent 'trusteeship' and
the idea that Indians were permanently
immature and unfit for self-government.
• Justification of British Rule: The British
portrayed themselves as civilizers of a
'barbaric' people, with the aim of ruling India
indefinitely under the guise of the "White
Man's burden."
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18 Survey of British Policies in India
Administrative Policies Post-1857
Reactionary Policies
• Contrary to pre-1857 intentions of
modernizing India, the administration adopted
reactionary policies.
• Indians were deemed unfit for self-
governance, necessitating British presence.
Divide and Rule Strategy
• To avoid united mass action, the British
practiced a policy of divide and rule.
• Created divisions among princes, states'
people, regions, provinces, castes, and
religious communities (Hindus against
Muslims).
• Post-1857, initially repressed Muslims but later
used educated middle and upper classes
among Muslims against the rising tide of
nationalism.
• Utilized conflicts over scarce resources in
education, administrative jobs, and political
spoils to create religious splits among
educated Indians.
Hostility Towards Educated Indians
• The emerging middle-class nationalist
leadership analyzed the exploitative nature of
British rule and demanded Indian participation
in administration.
• The British interpreted these moves as a
challenge to their authority and adopted a
hostile attitude towards such leadership.
• Opposition to those advocating for modern
education intensified with the birth of the
nationalist movement (Indian National
Congress founded in 1885).
British Attitudes Post-1857
Attitude Towards the Zamindars
• British sought alliances with reactionary social
groups like princes and zamindars.
• Zamindars hailed as 'natural' and 'traditional'
leaders, used as a counterweight against
nationalist intelligentsia.
• Lands of Awadh taluqdars confiscated before
1857 were restored.
• Interests and privileges of zamindars protected
against those of peasants; zamindars became
firm supporters of the British.
105 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Attitude Towards Social Reforms:
• British withdrew support from social reforms,
siding with reactionary elements of Indian
society.
• Encouraged caste and communal
consciousness, aiding reactionary forces.
• Social reforms that had previously aroused the
wrath of orthodox sections were abandoned.
Underdeveloped Social Services
• Large expenditure on army and civil
administration, along with the cost of wars, left
little for social services.
• Education, health, sanitation, and physical
infrastructure were neglected.
• Facilities that were established catered mainly
to elite sections and urban areas.
Labour Legislations in Nineteenth-Century India
Working Conditions:
• Miserable working conditions in factories and
plantations.
• Long working hours for women, children, and
men, with low wages.
• Overcrowded, poorly ventilated, and poorly
lighted working places with practically non-
existent safety measures.
Demand for Regulation:
• The first-ever demand for the regulation of
workers' conditions in factories came from the
Lancashire textile capitalist lobby.
• They feared the emergence of a competitive
rival in the Indian textile industry due to cheap
and unregulated labor.
• A commission was appointed in 1875, but the
first Factory Act was not passed until 1881.
Indian Factory Act, 1881 UPSC (2017), (2012):
• Dealt primarily with the problem of child labor
(between 7 and 12 years of age).
• Prohibited employment of children under 7
years of age.
• Restricted working hours to 9 hours per day for
children.
• Mandated four holidays per month for
children.
• Required hazardous machinery to be properly
fenced off.
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Indian Factory Act, 1891:
• Increased the minimum age for children from
7 to 9 years and the maximum from 12 to 14
years.
• Reduced maximum working hours for children
to 7 hours a day.
• Fixed maximum working hours for women at
11 hours per day with a one-and-a-half-hour
interval.
• Provided weekly holiday for all.
• However, these laws did not apply to British-
owned tea and coffee plantations, where labor
was exploited ruthlessly.
Continued Exploitation:
• The government helped planters by passing
laws that made it virtually impossible for a
laborer to refuse work once a contract was
entered into.
• A breach of contract was a criminal offense,
with planters having the right to get the
defaulting laborer arrested.
• More labor laws were passed under nationalist
pressures, but overall working conditions
remained deplorable.
Restrictions on Freedom of the Press:
• Early Use: Nationalists used press
advancements to educate public opinion,
influence government policies, and arouse
national consciousness.
• Metcalfe's Liberalization: In 1835, Metcalfe
lifted restrictions on the Indian press.
• Vernacular Press Act, 1878: Lytton imposed
restrictions on the Indian language press,
fearing nationalist influence. The Act was
repealed in 1882 under public protest.
• Later Repression: The press faced repression
again during the swadeshi and anti-partition
movement, with restrictions imposed in 1908
and 1910.
White Racism
• Superiority Maintenance: Colonial rulers
maintained the notion of white superiority by
excluding Indians from higher grades of
services, railway compartments, parks, hotels,
clubs, etc.
• Public Display of Arrogance: Racial arrogance
was displayed through beatings, blows, and
murders (reported as accidents).
• Elgin's Statement: Emphasized the importance
of maintaining dominance as the superior race
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
while encouraging Indian participation in
services to a certain extent.
Agrarian Impact of British Policies
Warren Hastings' Revenue System (1769-1770)
• Background:
o After the British acquisition of Diwani
Rights in 1765, agriculture became crucial
to the overall economy, transitioning from
its predominantly rural focus.
o Introduction of new land tenures and
revenue administration systems led to
economic challenges and a decline in
agricultural and trade productivity.
• Warren Hastings' Revenue System:
o Adopted the Izaredari System (also known
as the farming system) to bring order to
revenue collection.
o Contractors were selected based on a
bidding system and given the right to
collect revenue for five years, later made
annual in 1777.
• Impacts:
o Extortion and oppression by contractors
focused on profit, disregarding peasants'
welfare.
o Contractors' excessive bids often exceeded
the land's production capacity.
o Traditional zamindars were discouraged
from bidding, leading to the removal of
many hereditary zamindars.
o Corruption was rampant, reducing
revenue to the government.
Permanent Settlement (1793) UPSC (2011)
• Introduction:
o Established to fix a permanent land
revenue amount.
o Introduced in Bengal and Bihar in 1793 by
Lord Cornwallis, planned by John Shore.
o Later extended to Orissa, Northern
Districts of Madras, and District of
Varanasi.
• Key Features:
o Transformed zamindars from mere tax
collectors to landowners with proprietary
rights.
o Ownership became hereditary, conditional
on timely tax payment; failure led to land
auctions.
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o Zamindars received 1/11th of rent from
peasantry; state claimed 10/11th. Land
revenue payments by zamindars were
permanently fixed.
o Zamindars retained any additional rent
without further state demands.
o Initial revenue fixation was arbitrary and
conducted without zamindar consultation,
aiming to maximize state revenue.
• Impacts on Zamindars:
o Required to pay revenue on time,
regardless of crop failure, leading to land
sales if unable to pay.
o High and uncertain land revenue resulted
in the sale of almost half the lands
between 1794-1807.
o Traditional zamindars were replaced by a
new class of landlords.
• Impacts on Peasants:
o Reduced to mere tenants of zamindars.
o High tax rates forced zamindars to oppress
peasants to meet state demands, leading
to property seizures, beatings, and other
forms of mistreatment.
o Rise in absentee landlordism, with
intermediaries collecting revenue on
behalf of actual landlords.
• Impact on Agriculture Sector:
o Stagnation of agriculture due to the rise of
intermediaries, peasant distress, and
zamindars' detachment from the land.
o Land became a commodity, further
exacerbating agricultural issues.
Ryotwari Settlement (1820) UPSC (2017)
• Introduction:
o Introduced by Alexander Reed and Thomas
Munro in parts of Madras and Bombay
Presidencies.
• Features:
o Not a permanent settlement; periodically
revised every 20 to 30 years with typically
increased revenue demands.
o Land revenue collected individually from
each ryot (peasant), recognizing them as
landowners.
o No peasant ownership system existed
prior to the Ryotwari Settlement.
• Impacts:
o High land revenue left ryots with barely
enough for basic maintenance, leading to
107 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
impoverishment and lack of resources for
cultivation.
o Ryots required to pay revenue even when
agricultural produce was destroyed by
drought or flooding.
o Peasants oppressed by intermediaries and
moneylenders, often forced to take loans
to meet state taxation demands.
o Deccan Riot of 1875 resulted from ryot
oppression by moneylenders.
o High taxes and lack of buyers led to large
areas of uncultivated land in Madras and
Bombay Presidencies.
Mahalwari System (1822)
• Introduction:
o A modified version of the Zamindari
settlement, introduced in the Gangetic
Valley, North-West Provinces, parts of
Central India, and Punjab.
o Conceptualized by Holt Mackenzie in 1819
and introduced by the British in 1822.
• Features:
o Land revenue settlement made village by
village or estate (mahal) with landlords or
heads of families collectively claiming to be
landlords.
o Not a permanent settlement; revised
periodically after 20 to 30 years with
usually raised revenue demands.
• Impacts:
o British made direct settlements with
village zamindars, undermining the control
and status of big taluqdars.
o High taxes led to the transfer of land
proprietorship from village zamindars to
merchants and moneylenders.
o Brought impoverishment to cultivators of
North India, leading to their resentment
and the popular revolt of 1857.
o Villagers (peasants), taluqdars, and new
zamindars resisted British officials,
destroying courts and official records
British Social and Cultural Policy in India
• Pre-1813: Non-interference in India's social,
religious, and cultural life.
• Post-1813: Transformation of Indian society
due to:
• Industrial Revolution: India as a market for
British goods.
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• Intellectual Revolution: New attitudes and
morals.
• French Revolution: Ideas of democracy and
nationalism.
• Characteristics of New Thought:
o Rationalism: Faith in reason and science.
o Humanism: Respect for every individual.
o Doctrine of Progress: Belief in societal
change and human capacity to remodel
society.

Schools of Thought Characteristics

The Conservatives Advocated minimal changes. Respected Indian civilization and culture. Introduced
Western ideas gradually and cautiously. Emphasized social stability.
Early Proponents: Warren Hastings, Edmund Burke Later: Munro, Metcalfe,
Elphinstone
The Paternalistic Became influential after 1800. Criticized Indian society and culture to justify
Imperialists economic and political enslavement.
The Radicals Went beyond narrow criticism and imperialistic outlook. Applied advanced
humanistic and rational thought to India. Believed in India's capacity to improve
and advocated modern Western science, philosophy, and literature. Supported by
Raja Rammohan Roy and other reformers.
Overall Predominantly imperialistic and exploitative. Sought modernization of India
Administration within limits for easier exploitation. Radicals often aligned with conservative views
for the safety and perpetuation of British rule.

Indian Renaissance and British Policies • Demanded governance based on modern

Indian Renaissance:
• Social reformers like Rammohan Roy, Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, and B.M. Malabari
worked to eradicate social evils through
legislation.
• Efforts focused on removing social evils
embedded in tradition.
Dilemma Before the Government:
• Fear that excessive modernization might
generate hostility towards British interests.
• Opted for partial modernization, termed
'colonial modernization,' introducing changes
selectively.
Role of Christian Missionaries:
• Viewed Christianity as superior and aimed to
spread it through Westernization.
• Supported Radicals to undermine native
culture and beliefs.
• Backed Imperialists for maintaining law, order,
and British supremacy.
• Sought business and capitalist support,
promising that Christian converts would be
better consumers.
British Retreat Post-1858:
• Policy of hesitant modernization gradually
abandoned.
• Indians rapidly moved towards modernizing
society and asserting their culture.
principles of liberty, equality, and justice.
• British began siding with socially orthodox and
conservative elements.
• Encouraged casteism and communalism to
maintain control.
British Policy Towards Princely States
• Subordinate Union: Princely states used as a
bulwark of the empire but subordinated to
British authority.
• Post-1857 Approach: Abandoned policy of
annexation, guaranteed territorial integrity,
and respected the right to adopt an heir.
• Sovereignty: Queen's title as Kaiser-i-Hind
(1876) emphasized British sovereignty over
India. Princes ruled as agents of the British
Crown.
• Paramountcy: British interference in internal
affairs of states through residents,
appointment/dismissal of officials, and
modern communication developments.
• Nationalist Suppression: Suppressed rising
nationalist, democratic sentiments in states for
British survival, while helping states adopt
modern administrative institutions.

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British Foreign Policy in India Administration

• Conflicts with Neighbours: Arisen from Central Government
political and administrative consolidation, and
• Act for Better Government of India, 1858:
the pursuit of natural geographical frontiers.
Transferred power from the East India
• Major Aims: Protection of the Indian empire,
Company to the British Crown.
expansion of commercial interests, and
• Secretary of State: Replaced the Directors of
keeping European imperialist powers at bay.
the Company and the Board of Control,
• Consequences: Expansion and territorial
assisted by a council of 15, answerable to the
conquests outside India's natural frontiers, British Parliament.
conflicts with powers like Russia and France.
• Governor-General/Viceroy: Assisted by an
• Costs: Money spent and bloodshed were
executive council, with the main authority
Indian, while interests served were British.
concentrated in the hands of the Secretary of
State in London.
Changes in Administrative Structure after 1857
• Influence of British Industrialists: Increased
Genesis of Administrative Changes after 1858, making the Indian administration
more reactionary.
• Learning from 1857: The British realized the
• Indian Councils Act, 1861: Added a fifth
threat of organized mass action and sought to
member (jurist) to the viceroy's executive
reduce the alienation of the masses from the
council and allowed for additional non-official
administration.
members in the legislative council, which had
• Association of Natives: Involving natives in limited powers and was advisory in nature.
administration was seen as a way to Weaknesses of the Legislative Council
understand the customs and traditions of the
• Limited discussion on important matters.
people, and to handle situations like 1857
• No control over the budget.
more tactfully.
• Could not discuss executive action.
• Industrial Revolution: The second half of the
• Final approval of bills required the viceroy's
19th century saw the spread of the industrial
consent, and the Secretary of State could
revolution, with new industrial powers
disallow legislation.
emerging and competition for colonies
• Non-official Indian members were from elite
intensifying.
sections and not representative of the Indian
• British Investments: There were significant
opinion.
British capital investments in India in railways,
• The viceroy could issue ordinances in case of
tea plantations, coal mining, jute mills,
emergency.
shipping, trade, and banking.
• New Stage of Colonialism: The primary Provincial Government
concern was to consolidate the British position
• Indian Councils Act, 1861: Restored legislative
in India to secure economic and commercial
powers to the provinces of Madras and
interests and extend the sphere of influence to
Bombay, later extended to other provinces.
other parts of the world.
• Administration: Bombay, Madras, and
• Reactionary Policies: There was a renewed
Calcutta presidencies were administered by a
upsurge of imperial control and imperialist
governor and an executive council appointed
ideology, reflected in the policies during the
by the Crown, while other provinces were
vice-royalties of Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne,
administered by lieutenant governors and
Elgin, and Curzon.
chief commissioners appointed by the
• Impact on Modern India: The changes in the
governor-general.
governmental structure and policies shaped
• Financial Decentralisation: Steps taken
the destiny of modern India in many ways.
towards financial decentralisation were aimed
at increasing revenues and reducing
expenditure, without indicating progress
towards provincial autonomy.

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• Lord Mayo's Reforms (1870): Granted fixed
sums from central revenues for certain
services like police, jails, education, medical
services, and roads to provincial governments.
• Lord Lytton's Reforms (1877): Transferred
additional heads of expenditure to provinces
and allowed them to receive a fixed share of
income from sources like stamps, excise, and
income tax.
• Revenue Division (1882): Revenue sources
were divided into three groups: general (for
the centre), provincial (for the provinces), and
divided between centre and provinces.
• Central Supremacy: Despite these reforms,
the central government retained detailed
control over provinces, as both central and
provincial governments were subordinated to
the Secretary of State and the British
Government.
Local Bodies
• Decentralisation: Promotion of local
government through municipalities and
district boards for administering local services
like education, health, sanitation, water
supply, and roads, financed through local
taxes.
• Factors Necessitating Local Bodies:
o Financial difficulties and overcentralisation
faced by the British government.
o Need to transplant modern civic amenities
from Europe to India.
o Rising nationalism with an agenda for
improvement in basic facilities.
o British policymakers' strategy to involve
Indians in administration to check
politicisation.
o Utilisation of local taxes for local welfare to
counter public criticism of British financial
policies.
• Evolution of Local Government (1864-1868):
o Formation of local bodies with mostly
nominated members, headed by district
magistrates.
o These bodies were primarily seen as
instruments for additional tax collection.
Mayo's Resolution of 1870: Financial
Decentralisation
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Aimed at legislative devolution and allowed
provincial governments to resort to local
taxation for balancing budgets.
• Transferred control of departments like
medical services, education, and roads to
provincial governments.
• Emphasized local interest, supervision, and
care for successful management of funds.
Ripon's Resolution of 1882: Development of Local
Bodies
• Advocated for the development of local bodies
to improve administration and as a tool for
political and popular education.
• Introduced the policy of administering local
affairs through urban and rural local bodies
with definite duties and revenues.
• Recommended a majority of non-official
members in these bodies, with the possibility
of elections.
• Reduced official interference to a minimum,
with official executive sanction required in
certain cases.
• Led to the passing of many Acts between 1883
and 1885, altering the constitution, powers,
and functions of municipal bodies.
Drawbacks of Existing Local Bodies:
• Elected members were in the minority in many
district boards and municipalities.
• Limited franchise.
• District boards were often headed by district
officials, though non-officials gradually came
to head municipalities.
• Government retained strict control, with the
ability to suspend or supersede these bodies at
will.
• Bureaucracy was generally not in favor of self-
government for Indians.
• Lord Curzon, representing imperialist views,
increased official control over local bodies.
Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1908)
Recommendations
• Village panchayats should have more powers,
including judicial jurisdiction in petty cases,
managing minor village works, schools, and
small reserves of fuel and fodder. They should
also have adequate sources of income.
• Establishment of sub-district boards in every
taluka or tehsil, with separate duties and
revenue sources from district boards.
• Removal of existing restrictions on taxation
powers and discontinuation of regular grants-
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in-aid from provincial governments, except for • Demarcation of taxation between provincial
large projects. and local finance since 1919 reforms was
• Municipalities should take responsibility for scrapped.
primary education and middle vernacular • New Acts in provinces gave more authority to
schools, if willing. Otherwise, the government local bodies.
should relieve them of charges related to • Financial resources and taxation powers of
secondary education, hospitals, relief, police, local institutions remained limited, with new
veterinary works, etc. restrictions on powers to levy or enhance taxes
Government of India Resolution of 1915 post-1935.
• Contained official views on the Constitution of Free India
Decentralisation Commission's • Directs state governments to organize village
recommendations, but most remained panchayats as effective organs of local self-
unimplemented, leaving the condition of local government (Article 40).
bodies unchanged from Lord Ripon's time. • Seventy-third and Seventy-fourth
Resolution of May 1918 Amendments aimed at strengthening the
• Reviewed the entire question of local self- structure of local self-governing institutions in
government in light of the announcement of rural and urban areas.
August 20, 1917, which declared the future
direction of constitutional advance towards
responsible government for the people of
India.
• Suggested that local bodies be made as
representative as possible of the people, with
real authority vested in them.
Under Dyarchy (Post-1919):
• Local self-government became a 'transferred'
subject under popular ministerial control as
per the Government of India Act, 1919.
• Each province could develop local self-
institutions according to its needs and
requirements.
• Lack of funds hindered significant progress in
local self-government due to finance being a
'reserved' subject.
Simon Commission (1930) Observations:
• Noted lack of progress in village panchayats
except in UP, Bengal, and Madras.
• Suggested increasing provincial control over
local bodies for efficiency.
• Criticized elected members' reluctance to
impose local taxes and observed deterioration
in financial management of local bodies post-
1919 reforms.
Government of India Act, 1935 and After:
• Provincial autonomy allowed for better
development of local self-governing
institutions.
• Portfolio finance under popular ministries
enabled availability of funds for local bodies.

111 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024

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15 Movements of various Classes
Working Class Movements
• The early Indian nationalists, mainly the
Moderates, were largely indifferent to labor
issues and focused more on political reforms.
They differentiated between workers in
Indian-owned and British-owned factories,
fearing that labor legislation would harm the
competitiveness of Indian industries. As a
result, early efforts to improve workers'
conditions were mostly philanthropic and
sporadic, addressing local grievances.
• Key events in the early labor movement
include:
o 1870: Sasipada Banerjea started a
workingmen's club and the newspaper
Bharat Shramjeevi.
o 1878: Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee
attempted to pass a bill for better working
conditions in the Bombay Legislative
Council.
o 1880: Narain Meghajee Lokhanday
launched the newspaper Deenbandhu
and established the Bombay Mill and
Millhands Association.
o 1899: The first strike by the Great Indian
Peninsular Railways occurred, supported
by Tilak's Kesari and Maharatta.
• Some nationalist leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal
and G. Subramanya Aiyar advocated for
improved worker conditions and pro-labor
reforms.
During Swadeshi Upsurge
• Political Participation: Workers actively
engaged in wider political issues.
• Strikes: Organized by leaders such as Ashwini
Coomar Banerjea, Prabhat Kumar Roy
Chaudhuri, Premtosh Bose, and Apurba Kumar
Ghosh in sectors like government press,
railways, and jute industry.
• Trade Union Attempts: Efforts to form trade
unions were made but with limited success.
• Notable Strikes: Led by Subramaniya Siva and
Chidambaram Pillai in Tuticorin and
Tirunelvelli; both leaders were arrested.
• Largest Strike: Occurred in response to Bal
Gangadhar Tilak's arrest and trial, highlighting
the growing political activism among workers.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
During the First World War and After
• Economic Impact: The war led to a rise in
exports, soaring prices, and massive
profiteering opportunities for industrialists,
but very low wages for workers, causing
discontent among them.
• Emergence of Gandhi: Gandhi's leadership led
to a broad-based national movement,
emphasizing the mobilization of workers and
peasants for the national cause.
• Need for Organization: There was a felt need
for the organization of workers in trade unions.
• International Influence: Events like the
establishment of a socialist republic in the
Soviet Union, the formation of the Comintern,
and the setting up of the International Labour
Organization (ILO) added a new dimension to
the working-class movement in India.
The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)
• Founding: AITUC was founded on October 31,
1920, with Lala Lajpat Rai as its first president
and Dewan Chaman Lal as the first general
secretary.
• Linking Capitalism with Imperialism: Lajpat
Rai was the first to link capitalism with
imperialism, stating that "imperialism and
militarism are the twin children of capitalism."
• Involvement of Prominent Leaders: C.R. Das
presided over the third and fourth sessions of
AITUC. Other leaders like Nehru, Subhas Bose,
C.F. Andrews, J.M. Sengupta, Satyamurthy,
V.V. Giri, and Sarojini Naidu also maintained
close contacts with AITUC.
• Congress's Support: The Gaya session of the
Congress (1922) welcomed the formation of
AITUC, and a committee was formed to assist
it. C.R. Das advocated for the incorporation of
workers' and peasants' causes into the struggle
for swaraj.
• Influence: Initially, AITUC was influenced by
the social democratic ideas of the British
Labour Party and later by Gandhi's philosophy
of non-violence, trusteeship, and class-
collaboration.
• Gandhi's Role: Gandhi organized the
Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association (1918)
112
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and secured a 27.5% wage hike for workers
through a protest, which was later increased to
35% by an arbitrator's award.
The Trade Union Act, 1926
• Legal Recognition: Recognized trade unions as
legal associations.
• Regulation: Laid down conditions for the
registration and regulation of trade union
activities.
• Immunity: Secured both civil and criminal
immunity for trade unions from prosecution
for legitimate activities but imposed some
restrictions on their political activities.
Late 1920s
• Communist Influence: The movement
witnessed a strong communist influence,
lending it a militant and revolutionary content.
• Industrial Unrest: 1928 saw a six-month-long
strike in Bombay Textile Mills led by the Girni
Kamgar Union and unprecedented industrial
unrest throughout the year.
• Crystallization of Communist Groups: Leaders
like S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, P.C. Joshi,
and Sohan Singh Joshi emerged.
• Government Response: The government
passed the Public Safety Ordinance (1929) and
the Trade Disputes Act (TDA), 1929 to curb the
growing strength of the trade union
movement.
Trade Disputes Act, 1929 UPSC (2017)
• Made compulsory the appointment of Courts
of Inquiry and Consultation Boards for settling
industrial disputes.
• Made illegal strikes in public utility services
unless individual workers gave a one-month
advance notice.
• Forbade trade union activity of coercive or
purely political nature and even sympathetic
strikes.
Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929):
Peasant Movements1857-1947
Introduction
• The impoverishment of the Indian peasantry
during colonial rule was due to:
o Colonial Economic Policies: Disrupted
traditional agrarian economy and forced
peasants into a cash economy.
o Ruin of Handicrafts: Led to overcrowding
of land as artisans turned to agriculture.
113 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• In March 1929, 31 labor leaders were arrested,
leading to a three-and-a-half-year trial.
• Convictions included Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A.
Dange, Joglekar, Philip Spratt, Ben Bradley, and
Shaukat Usmani.
• The trial received worldwide publicity but
weakened the working-class movement.
Civil Disobedience Movement and After:
• Workers participated in the Civil Disobedience
Movement in 1930.
• A split in 1931 led by N.M. Joshi resulted in the
formation of the All India Trade Union
Federation.
• In 1935, communists rejoined the AITUC,
forming a left front with Congress socialists
and leftist nationalists like Nehru and Subhas.
Under Congress Ministries
• During the 1937 elections, the AITUC
supported Congress candidates.
• Congress governments in provinces were
sympathetic to workers' demands, leading to
favorable legislation for workers.
During and After the Second World War
• Initially, workers opposed the War, but after
Russia joined the Allies in 1941, communists
described it as a "people's war" and supported
it.
• Communists dissociated from the Quit India
Movement and advocated for industrial peace.
• In 1945-1947, workers actively participated in
post-War national upsurges.
• In 1945, dock workers in Bombay and Calcutta
refused to load ships with supplies for troops
in Indonesia.
• In 1946, workers went on strike in support of
the Naval Ratings.
• In the last year of foreign rule, there were
strikes by workers in posts, railways, and other
establishments.
o New Land Revenue System: Imposed
heavy taxes, prioritizing colonial revenue
over peasant welfare.
o Colonial Administration: Favored
landlords and moneylenders, leading to
exploitation of peasants through high
rents, illegal levies, and arbitrary
evictions.
• Peasants suffered from heavy land revenue,
high rents, and exploitation by moneylenders,
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often resulting in loss of land and livelihood.
Resistance to exploitation grew, with peasants
recognizing the colonial state as their main
enemy. In extreme cases, some resorted to
criminal activities like robbery and dacoity to
survive.
Indigo Revolt
The Indigo Revolt (1859-60) in Bengal was a
peasant uprising against the exploitation by
European indigo planters.
• Exploitation by Planters: Peasants were forced
to grow indigo instead of more profitable crops
like rice, through fraudulent contracts,
advances, and intimidation tactics like
kidnappings, flogging, and destruction of
property.
• Peasant Resistance: Led by Digambar Biswas
and Bishnu Biswas, peasants refused to grow
indigo under duress, resisted physical
pressure, and organized counterforces against
the planters and their retainers.
• Legal Battles: Peasants used legal machinery,
initiated legal action, and went on rent strikes
to resist enhanced rents and evictions.
• Role of Bengali Intelligentsia: Supported the
peasants through newspaper campaigns, mass
meetings, memoranda, and legal support.
• Government Intervention: An indigo
commission was appointed, and a notification
was issued in November 1860 stating that
ryots could not be compelled to grow indigo
and that disputes would be settled legally.
• End of Indigo Cultivation: By the end of 1860,
indigo cultivation was virtually wiped out from
Bengal due to the closure of factories by
planters. UPSC (2020)
Pabna Agrarian Leagues
• Context: The 1870s and 1880s saw agrarian
unrest in Eastern Bengal due to oppressive
practices by zamindars, such as enhanced rents
beyond legal limits and preventing tenants
from acquiring occupancy rights under Act X of
1859.
• Peasant Resistance: Peasants of Yusufshahi
Pargana in Patna district formed an agrarian
league to resist the demands of the zamindars.
They organized a rent strike, refusing to pay
enhanced rents and challenging zamindars in
courts with funds raised to fight legal battles.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Spread of Struggle: The movement spread
throughout Patna and other districts of East
Bengal, with legal resistance as the main form
of struggle and very little violence.
• Resolution: By 1885, most cases had been
resolved, partly due to official persuasion and
partly due to zamindars' fears. Many peasants
acquired occupancy rights and resisted
enhanced rents. The government promised
legislation to protect tenants from zamindari
oppression, leading to the Bengal Tenancy Act
of 1885.
• Intellectual Support: The peasants' cause was
supported by young Indian intellectuals like
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt, and the
Indian Association under Surendranath
Banerjea.
Deccan Riots
• Context: The ryots in the Deccan region
suffered under heavy taxation via the Ryotwari
system, with moneylenders (often Marwaris or
Gujaratis) exploiting them. The situation was
exacerbated by a crash in cotton prices post-
American Civil War in 1864, a 50% increase in
land revenue in 1867, and successive poor
harvests.
• Social Boycott Movement: In 1874, tensions
led to a social boycott of the outsider
moneylenders by the ryots. This included
refusing to buy from their shops, cultivate their
fields, or provide them with services like
barbering, laundry, or shoemaking. The
boycott spread rapidly across Poona,
Ahmednagar, Sholapur, and Satara.
• Transformation into Agrarian Riots: The social
boycott evolved into agrarian riots with
systematic attacks on the houses and shops of
moneylenders. Debt bonds and deeds were
seized and publicly burnt.
• Government Repression and Conciliatory
Measures: The government successfully
repressed the movement but, as a conciliatory
measure, passed the Deccan Agriculturists
Relief Act in 1879.
• Support from Nationalist Intelligentsia: The
modern nationalist intelligentsia of
Maharashtra supported the peasants' cause
during this period.
Changed Nature of Peasant Movements Post-1857
114
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• Focus: Peasants as the main force, fighting for
economic issues.
• Targets: Directed against foreign planters,
indigenous zamindars, and moneylenders.
• Objectives: Specific, limited objectives and
redressal of particular grievances.
• Scope: Limited territorial reach, no continuity
of struggle or long-term organization.
• Awareness: Strong awareness of legal rights,
asserted in and outside courts.
Weaknesses
• Understanding: Lack of adequate
understanding of colonialism.
• Ideology: Absence of a new ideology and a
new socio-economic-political program.
• Societal Order: Struggles occurred within the
framework of the old societal order, lacking a
vision of an alternative society.
Later Movements
Kisan Sabha Movement in Uttar Pradesh
• Background: Post-1857, Awadh taluqdars
regained lands, leading to the exploitation of
peasants through high rents, evictions, and
illegal levies. World War I exacerbated
peasants' conditions with increased prices.
• Formation: United Provinces Kisan Sabha
formed in February 1918 by Gauri Shankar
Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi, supported
by Madan Mohan Malaviya. By June 1919, it
had 450 branches.
• Leaders: Key figures included Jhinguri Singh,
Durgapal Singh, and Baba Ramchandra. Baba
Ramchandra played a pivotal role in urging
Nehru to engage with the movement.
• Awadh Kisan Sabha: Established in October
1920 due to differences within nationalist
ranks. Advocated for refusal to till bedakhali
land, boycotting unpaid labor (hari and begar),
and resolving disputes through panchayats.
• Shift in Tactics: By January 1921, the
movement saw a shift towards looting and
clashes with police, particularly in Rai Bareilly,
Faizabad, and Sultanpur districts.
• Decline: The movement waned due to
government repression and the enactment of
the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act, which
addressed some peasant grievances.
115 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Eka Movement
• Context: Resurfaced peasant discontent in late
1921 in northern districts of the United
Provinces—Hardoi, Bahraich, Sitapur—due to
high rents, oppression by revenue collectors
(thikadars), and share-rents.
• Key Features: The Eka (Unity) Movement
involved religious rituals where peasants
vowed to pay only recorded rent on time, resist
eviction, refuse forced labor, not assist
criminals, and follow panchayat decisions.
• Leadership: Grassroot leadership from lower-
caste individuals like Madari Pasi and some
small zamindars.
• End: Severe repression by authorities led to
the movement's end by March 1922.
Mappila Revolt
• Background: Mappilas, Muslim tenants in the
Malabar region, faced oppression from
predominantly Hindu landlords. Their
grievances included lack of tenure security,
high rents, and renewal fees.
• Influence of Congress and Khilafat
Movement: The local Congress's demand for
legislation on tenant-landlord relations and the
Khilafat agitation encouraged the Mappilas.
National leaders like Gandhi, Shaukat Ali, and
Maulana Azad addressed Mappila meetings.
• Escalation: The arrest of a respected priest
leader, Ali Musaliar, in August 1921 sparked
large-scale riots. Initial targets were symbols of
British authority and unpopular landlords.
• Communal Turn: Once martial law was
declared and repression intensified, the
rebellion acquired communal overtones, as
many Hindus were perceived to be aiding the
authorities.
• End: The communalization of the rebellion
isolated the Mappilas from the Khilafat-Non-
Cooperation Movement. By December 1921,
all resistance had ceased.
Bardoli Satyagraha:
• Location: Bardoli taluka, Surat district, Gujarat.
• Trigger: Authorities decided to increase land
revenue by 30% in January 1926.
• Response: Congress leaders protested, and the
Bardoli Inquiry Committee was set up, which
found the hike unjustified.
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• Leadership: Vallabhbhai Patel led the
movement and was given the title "Sardar" by
the women of Bardoli.
• Strategy: Peasants resolved to refuse payment
of the revised assessment until an
independent tribunal was appointed. Patel
organized the movement through 13 workers'
camps (chhavanis) and the Bardoli Satyagraha
Patrika to mobilize public opinion. An
intelligence wing ensured adherence to the
movement's resolutions, and a social boycott
was imposed on opponents.
• Mobilization: Special emphasis was placed on
mobilizing women. K.M. Munshi and Lalji
Naranji resigned from the Bombay Legislative
Council in support.
• Resolution: By August 1928, tension peaked.
Gandhi arrived in Bardoli for support. The
government sought a graceful exit, setting
conditions for a revised rent payment. A
committee recommended a revenue hike of
only 6.03%, accepting the peasants' demands.
• Impact: The Bardoli Satyagraha influenced the
peasant awakening in the 1930s, marked by
the Great Depression and the Civil
Disobedience Movement, leading to no-rent,
no-revenue movements in various regions.
The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha (AIKS):
• Formation: Founded in Lucknow in April 1936
with Swami Sahjanand Saraswati as president
and N.G. Ranga as general secretary.
• Manifesto: A kisan manifesto was issued, and
a periodical was started under Indulal Yagnik.
• Influence on Congress: The AIKS and the
Congress held their sessions in Faizpur in 1936.
The Congress manifesto for the 1937 provincial
elections, particularly the agrarian policy, was
strongly influenced by the AIKS agenda.
Under Congress Ministries:
• Peasant Movements: The period 1937-39
marked the peak of peasant movements and
activities under Congress provincial rule.
• Mobilization: The chief form of mobilization
was through holding kisan conferences and
meetings where demands were aired, and
resolutions were passed. Campaigns were
carried out in villages to mobilize peasants.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Peasant Activity in Provinces: UPSC (2015)
Kerala
• Malabar Region: Peasants were mobilized
mainly by Congress Socialist Party activists.
Various "Karshak Sanghams" (peasants'
organizations) were established.
• Method of Protest: Popular method involved
marching of jaths (peasant groups) to landlords
to get demands accepted.
• Significant Campaign: In 1938, peasants
campaigned for the amendment of the
Malabar Tenancy Act, 1929.
Andhra
• Decline of Zamindars: The region witnessed a
decline in the prestige of zamindars after their
defeat by Congressmen in elections. Anti-
zamindar movements were ongoing.
• Peasant Organizations: Many provincial ryot
associations were active.
• India Peasants’ Institute: Founded by N.G.
Ranga in 1933.
• Congress Socialists' Involvement: After 1936,
Congress socialists started organizing
peasants.
• Summer Schools: Summer schools of
economics and politics were held, addressed
by leaders like P.C. Joshi, Ajoy Ghosh, and R.D.
Bhardwaj.
Bihar
• Leaders: Sahjanand Saraswati, Karyanand
Sharma, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul
Sankritayan, Panchanan Sharma, Jamun Karjiti.
• Anti-Zamindari Slogan: Adopted by the
Provincial Kisan Conference in 1935.
• Rift with Congress: Over the 'bakasht land'
issue due to an unfavourable government
resolution not accepted by the sabha. The
movement faded by August 1939.
Punjab
• Earlier Mobilization: Organized by Punjab
Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Kirti Kisan Party,
Congress, and Akalis.
• New Direction: Given by the Punjab Kisan
Committee in 1937, targeting landlords of
western Punjab.
• Immediate Issues: Resettlement of land
revenue in Amritsar and Lahore, increase in
water rates in canal colonies of Multan and
Montgomery. Peasants went on strike and
won concessions.
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• Concentration: Mainly in Jullundur, Amritsar,
Hoshiarpur, Lyallpur, and Shekhupura. Muslim
tenants-at-will of west Punjab and Hindu
peasants of southeastern Punjab (today's
Haryana) remained largely unaffected.
Other Regions
• Bengal: Activity organized in Burdwan and 24
Parganas.
• Assam: Mobilization in Surma Valley.
• Orissa: Peasant activity organized.
• Central Provinces: Peasant movements
organized.
• NWFP: Peasant activity reported.
Post War Phase
Tebhaga Movement UPSC (2013)
• Context: In September 1946, the Bengal
Provincial Kisan Sabha called for the
implementation of the Flood Commission's
recommendations for a two-thirds share
(tebhaga) to the share-croppers (bargardars)
instead of the traditional half share.
• Demands: The central slogan was "nij khamare
dhan tolo," meaning sharecroppers should
take the paddy to their own threshing floor
instead of the jotedar's (landlord's) house to
enforce tebhaga.
• Mobilization: Communist cadres, including
urban student militias, organized the
bargardars in the countryside.
• Geographical Focus: The movement was
concentrated in north Bengal, especially
among the Rajbanshis, a low caste of tribal
origin, with significant participation from
Muslims.
• Decline: The movement dissipated due to the
League ministry's Bargardari Bill, increased
repression, the Hindu Mahasabha's separate
Bengal agitation, and renewed riots in
Calcutta, which ended urban support.
Telangana Movement
• Scope: Largest peasant guerrilla war in modern
Indian history, affecting 3,000 villages and 3
million people in the princely state of
Hyderabad.
• Context: Hyderabad was marked by religious-
linguistic domination, lack of political and civil
liberties, and exploitation by landlords
117 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
(deshmukhs, jagirdars, doras) through forced
labor (vethi) and illegal exactions.
• Communist Involvement: Communist-led
guerrillas had built a strong base in Telangana
villages through Andhra Mahasabha, leading
local struggles on issues such as wartime
exactions, abuse of rationing, excessive rent,
and vethi.
• Uprising: Began in July 1946 with the murder
of a village militant in Jangaon taluq of
Nalgonda. Spread to Warrangal and
Khammam. Peasants organized into village
sanghams and attacked using lathis, stone
slings, and chili powder.
• Repression: Faced brutal repression. The
movement was at its greatest intensity
between August 1947 and September 1948.
Peasants routed the Razaqars (Nizam’s
stormtroopers). The movement fizzled out
once Indian security forces took over
Hyderabad.
• Achievements:
o Disappearance of vethi and forced labor in
guerrilla-controlled villages.
o Increase in agricultural wages.
o Restoration of illegally seized lands.
o Steps to fix ceilings and redistribute lands.
o Measures to improve irrigation and fight
cholera.
o Improvement in the condition of women.
o Shaking up of the autocratic-feudal
regime, paving the way for the formation
of Andhra Pradesh on linguistic lines and
realizing a goal of the national movement
in the region.
Impact of Peasant Movements on Post-
Independence Agrarian Reforms
• Agrarian Reforms: The movements created an
atmosphere conducive to post-independence
agrarian reforms, such as the abolition of
zamindari (landlordism).
• Erosion of Landed Class Power: They eroded
the power of the landed class, contributing to
the transformation of the agrarian structure.
• Ideology: These movements were based on
the ideology of nationalism, aiming for broader
social and political change.
• Similar Nature Across Regions: The nature of
these movements was similar in diverse areas,
indicating a widespread demand for agrarian
reform and social justice.
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Event / Legislation Year Key Figures / Main Achievements / Provisions

Governors
Ahmedabad 1918 Anasuya Sarabhai Established to improve working conditions in textile
Textile Labour mills, led to a successful strike for wage increase.
Association (TLA)
Kanpur Textile 1921 Madan Mohan Highlighted issues like low wages and long working
Workers' Strike Malaviya, Baba hours, raised awareness about labor issues.
Ramchandra
Bardoli Satyagraha 1928 Sardar Vallabhbhai Showcased rural communities' resilience against
Patel oppressive taxation, led to fairer tax rates and land
reforms.
Lal Bal Pal 1905 Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Encouraged economic self-sufficiency and use of
Movement Gangadhar Tilak, indigenous goods, indirectly benefiting workers.
Bipin Chandra Pal
Railway Workers' 1920 Lala Lajpat Rai Aimed at better working conditions and ending racial
Strike discrimination in railways.
All India Trade 1920 Lala Lajpat Rai, United workers across sectors, organized strikes for
Union Congress Joseph Baptista, improved conditions.
(AITUC) Diwan Chaman Lall
Madras Labor 1918 B.P. Wadia, V. Focused on wage hikes and better working conditions
Union Kalyanasundaram for industrial workers in southern India.
Trade Unions Act, 1926 Lord Irwin Legalized the formation of trade unions, protected
1926 workers during peaceful strikes.
Industrial Disputes 1947 Lord Louis Provided a framework for resolving industrial disputes,
Act, 1947 Mountbatten required notice before a strike or lockout.
Factories Act, 1948 1948 C. Rajagopalachari Updated regulations for factories, including working
hours, safety measures, and employment of young
persons.
Important Publications Related to Trade Union
Publication Author Main Theme
Labour Kisan Swaraj Lala Lajpat Addresses labor and peasant issues, discussing their
Rai role in self-governance.
The Great Indian Strike Annie Besant Highlights the 1919 general strike in India and its impact
on labor movement.
Strikes and Lockouts B.P. Wadia Focuses on strikes and lockouts as tactics used by
workers for their rights.
Labour Movement in India A.R. Desai Comprehensive analysis of the labor movement in India,
including trade unions' impact.
Trade Union Movement in India P.K. Ghosh Detailed examination of the trade union movement in
India and its growth.
Strikes in India D.R. Provides insights into strikes and their impact on labor
Thengadi relations in India.
Labour and Nationalism in Rana P. Behal Explores the relationship between labor movements
Colonial India, 1825-1947 and nationalist struggles in colonial India.
The Role of Trade Unions in M.L. Dhar Examines the role of trade unions in shaping industrial
Industrial Relations relations in British India.

SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024 118

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17 Development of Indian Press

Early Newspapers in India
• The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General
Advertiser (1780): Founded by James
Augustus Hickey, this was the first
newspaper in India. It was seized in 1782
due to its critical stance against the
Government.
• Subsequent Publications: Following the
Bengal Gazette, other newspapers and
journals emerged, including The Bengal
Journal, The Calcutta Chronicle, The Madras
Courier, and The Bombay Herald.
• Concerns of the Company's Officers: The
officers of the East India Company were
apprehensive that these newspapers might
reach London and expose their misdeeds,
leading to a perceived need for press
restrictions.

Early Regulations
Year Act Details
1799 Censorship of Press Enacted anticipating French invasion. Imposed wartime press restrictions
Act (Lord including pre-censorship. Restrictions relaxed under Lord Hastings (1818),
Wellesley) pre-censorship dispensed with.
1823 Licensing Required a license to start or use a press. Extended to cover journals,
Regulations (John pamphlets, and books. Targeted Indian language newspapers and those
Adams) edited by Indians. Rammohan Roy's Mirat-ul-Akbar ceased publication.
1835 Press Act (Metcalfe Repealed 1823 ordinance, Metcalfe known as “liberator of the Indian press.”
Act) Required printer/publisher to provide premises details, could be ordered to
cease functioning. Led to rapid growth of newspapers.
1857 Licensing Act Imposed due to the emergency of the 1857 revolt. Added licensing
restrictions to Metcalfe Act's registration procedure. Government could stop
publication and circulation of any material.
1867 Registration Act Replaced Metcalfe’s Act of 1835. Regulatory, not restrictive in nature.
Required printing of printer/publisher's name and place of publication. A copy
of the publication to be submitted to local government within one month of
publication.

Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure Press
Freedom
• Early Advocacy: As early as 1824, Raja
Rammohan Roy protested against restrictions
on press freedom.
• Role of Press in Nationalist Movement: From
around 1870 to 1918, the press was a crucial
tool for political propaganda, education, and
mobilization of public opinion. The Indian
National Congress relied heavily on the press
to propagate its resolutions and proceedings.
• Prominent Newspapers and Journalists: Many
newspapers emerged under distinguished
journalists, including The Hindu (G.
Subramaniya Aiyar), The Bengalee
(Surendranath Banerjea), Voice of India
(Dadabhai Naoroji), Amrita Bazar Patrika (Sisir
Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh), Kesari
(Balgangadhar Tilak), and others. These
newspapers were seen as serving national and
public service rather than profit-making
ventures.
• Impact and Reach: The newspapers had a wide
reach, extending to remote villages. They
stimulated a library movement and served as a
platform for political education and
participation. They critically scrutinized
government acts and policies, acting as an
institution of opposition.
• Government Repression: The government
enacted laws like Section 124A of the Indian
Penal Code to curb dissent. However,

119 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024

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nationalist journalists devised clever strategies
to subvert legal hurdles, such as prefacing
hostile writings with sentiments of loyalty or
quoting critical writings from foreign
newspapers.
• National Movement's Stand: The national
movement consistently advocated for press
freedom. The Indian newspapers became
highly critical of Lord Lytton's administration,
especially regarding the famine of 1876-77. In
response, the government enacted the
Vernacular Press Act, 1878, to clamp down on
the vernacular press.
Vernacular Press Act, 1878
• Background: The Act was enacted in the
backdrop of racial bitterness post-1857 revolt,
critical vernacular press, and public outrage
against Lytton's imperialistic policies and
extravagant expenditure on the Delhi Durbar
during the famine of 1876-77.
Provisions of the Act:
• Empowered district magistrates to demand a
bond from vernacular newspaper publishers,
undertaking not to publish content causing
disaffection against the government or
promoting religious, caste, or racial antipathy.
• Required publishers to deposit security, which
could be forfeited for violations, and allowed
for the seizure of press equipment for
repeated offenses.
• Denied the right to appeal against the
magistrate's decision in a court of law.
• Allowed vernacular newspapers to seek
exemption by submitting proofs to a
government censor.
Impact and Criticism:
• The Act was nicknamed "the gagging Act" due
to its repressive nature.
• It was criticized for discriminating between
English and vernacular press and for denying
the right of appeal.
• Proceedings under the Act were instituted
against newspapers like Som Prakash, Bharat
Mihir, Dacca Prakash, and Samachar.
• Amrita Bazar Patrika famously turned into an
English newspaper overnight to escape the
Act's provisions.
Repeal and Aftermath:
• The Act faced strong opposition, leading to its
repeal by Lord Ripon in 1882.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• In 1883, Surendranath Banerjea became the
first Indian journalist to be imprisoned for
criticizing a judge's insensitivity to religious
sentiments in an editorial in The Bengalee.
Lokmanya Tilak’s Struggle for Press Freedom
• Background: Tilak was a key figure in the
nationalist movement, using cultural festivals
and his newspapers, Kesari and Maharatta, to
build anti-imperialist sentiments.
• Advocacy: He advocated for the inclusion of
lower middle classes, peasants, artisans, and
workers in the Congress and organized
campaigns against British policies.
• Plague Incident (1897): Despite supporting
government measures to check the plague,
Tilak faced popular resentment against harsh
methods like segregation and house searches.
The murder of the Plague Committee
chairman by the Chapekar brothers added to
the unrest.
• Arrest and Trial: Tilak was arrested for his
writings and speeches, which were seen as
incitements to kill British officials. He was
sentenced to eighteen months of rigorous
imprisonment, sparking widespread protests.
• Lokmanya Title: Tilak became a national hero
and was honored with the title 'Lokmanya,'
signifying his leadership in the nationalist
movement.
• Legal Challenges: The government enacted
several repressive laws, including amendments
to Section 124A and Section 153A, to curb
nationalist activities in the press.
• Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act,
1908: This act aimed to suppress extremist
nationalist activities by empowering
magistrates to confiscate press property
publishing objectionable material.
• Indian Press Act, 1910: This act reintroduced
harsh measures against the press, requiring
printers and publishers to submit copies of
each issue to the local government and to
provide security at registration.
• Impact: Tilak's leadership and the nationalist
movement's struggle for press freedom led to
widespread protests and the eventual
entrance of the Indian working class into the
political stage, as noted by Lenin.
120
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Press Restrictions During and After the First World
War
• Defence of India Rules: During the First World
War, these rules were implemented to
suppress political agitation and public
criticism.
• Repeal of Press Acts (1921): Following the
recommendations of the Press Committee
chaired by Tej Bahadur Sapru, the Press Acts of
1908 and 1910 were repealed.
Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931
• Purpose: This Act was enacted to curb
propaganda for the Civil Disobedience
Movement, giving provincial governments
extensive powers to suppress dissent.
• Expansion (1932): The Act was expanded to
include all activities deemed to undermine
government authority.
Press Restrictions During the Second World War
• Defence of India Rules: Pre-censorship was
implemented, and amendments were made to
the Press Emergency Act and Official Secrets
Act to restrict the dissemination of
information.
• Ban on Congress-Related News: At one point,
the publication of all news related to Congress
activity was declared illegal, further limiting
the freedom of the press.

UPSC 2015, 2020, 2021

Newspaper Year Location Founder(s)
Bengal Gazette (Calcutta General 1780 Calcutta James Augustus Hicky
Advertiser)
India Gazette (weekly) 1787 Calcutta Associated with Henry Louis Vivian
Derozio
Indian Herald (in English) 1795 Madras R. Williams
Bengal Gazette (First Bengali 1818 Calcutta Harishchandra Ray
newspaper)
Calcutta Journal 1818 Calcutta J.S. Buckingham
Sambad Kaumudi (Weekly in 1821 Calcutta Raja Rammohan Roy
Bengali)
Mirat-ul-Akbar (First journal in 1822 Calcutta Raja Rammohan Roy
Persian)
Banga-Duta (a weekly) 1822 Calcutta Rammohan Roy, Dwarkanath Tagore,
and others
East Indian (daily) 19th Unknown Henry Vivian Derozio
century
Bombay Times 1838 Bombay Founded by Robert Knight, started by
Thomas Bennett
Rast Goftar (Gujarati fortnightly) 1851 Unknown Dadabhai Naoroji
Hindu Patriot 1853 Calcutta Girish Chandra Ghosh
Som Prakash (First Bengali political 1858 Calcutta Dwarkanath Vidyabhushan
paper)
Indian Mirror (first Indian daily 1862 Calcutta Devendranath Tagore
paper in English)
Bengalee (the first vernacular 1862 Calcutta Girishchandra Ghosh (later taken over
paper) by S.N. Banerjea in 1879)
Amrit Bazar Patrika (Bengali in the 1868 Jessore Sisir Kumar Ghose and Moti Lal Ghosh
beginning, later English) District
National Paper 1865 Calcutta Devendranath Tagore
Bangadarshana (Bengali) 1873 Calcutta Bankimchandra Chatterjee
Indian Statesman 1875 Calcutta Robert Knight

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The Hindu (started as English 1878 Madras G.S. Aiyar, Viraraghavachari, and
weekly) Subba Rao Pandit
Tribune (daily) 1881 Lahore Dyal Singh Majithia
Kesari (Marathi daily) 1881 Bombay Tilak, Chiplunkar, Agarkar
Swadesamitran (Tamil) Unknown Madras G.S. Aiyar
Paridasak (weekly) 1886 Unknown Bipin Chandra Pal (publisher)
Yugantar 1906 Bengal Barindra Kumar Ghosh and
Bhupendranath Datta
Sandhya 1906 Bengal Brahmabandhab Upadhyay
Indian Sociologist Unknown London Shyamji Krishna Varma
Bande Mataram Unknown Paris Madam Bhikaji Cama
Talvar Unknown Berlin Virendranath Chattopadhyaya
Free Hindustan Unknown Vancouver Tarak Nath Das
Ghadr Unknown San Francisco Ghadar Party [UPSC (2022)]
Bombay Chronicle (daily) 1913 Bombay Pherozeshah Mehta
The Hindustan Times 1920 Delhi K.M. Panikkar
The Milap (Urdu daily) 1923 Lahore M.K. Chand
Kirti 1926 Punjab Santosh Singh
Bahishkrit Bharat (Marathi 1927 Unknown B.R. Ambedkar
fortnightly)
Kudi Arasu (Tamil) 1910 Unknown E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar)
Kranti 1927 Maharashtra S.S. Mirajkar, K.N. Joglekar, S.V. Ghate
Langal and Ganabani 1927 Bengal Gopu Chakravarti and Dharani
Goswami
Bandi Jivan Unknown Bengal Sachindranath Sanyal

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18 Constitutional, Administrative, Judicial and
Educational Developments
Constitutional Development between 1773 and
1858
Post-Battle of Buxar (1764):
• East India Company gained Diwani rights in
Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• Annual subsidies paid to Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II and Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula.
• Dual system of government: Company had
authority but no responsibility; Indian deputies
had responsibility but no authority.
First British Intervention (1767):
• British government demanded 10% share in
plunder, amounting to 4 million pounds
annually.
Dual System of Government (1765-72):
• Rampant corruption among Company
servants.
• Excessive revenue collection and oppression of
peasantry.
• Company's bankruptcy despite flourishing
servants.
Regulating Act of 1773:
• British government's involvement in Indian
affairs to control and regulate the East India
Company.
• Centralized administration introduced.
• Directors required to submit correspondence
to the government.
• Administration in Bengal by governor-general
and a council of four members.
• Supreme Court of judicature established in
Bengal.
• Governor-general given some powers over
Bombay and Madras.
Amendments (1781):
• Jurisdiction of Supreme Court defined, limited
to Calcutta.
• Government servants immune while
discharging duties.
• Social and religious usages of subjects to be
honored.
Pitt’s India Act of 1784:
• Gave the British government significant
control over the Company’s affairs.
• Company’s territories in India termed ‘British
possessions’.
123 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Board of Control established to oversee the
Company’s civil, military, and revenue affairs.
• Dual system of control set up.
• Governor-general in India to have a council of
three, with Bombay and Madras presidencies
subordinate to him.
• General prohibition on aggressive wars and
treaties.
The Act of 1786:
• Cornwallis granted powers of both governor-
general and commander-in-chief.
• Allowed to override the council’s decision if he
owned responsibility.
The Charter Act of 1793:
• Renewed the Company’s commercial
privileges for 20 years.
• Company to pay 5 lakh pounds annually to the
British government.
• Royal approval required for appointments of
governor-general, governors, and
commander-in-chief.
• Senior officials prohibited from leaving India
without permission.
• Company empowered to give licences for trade
in India, paving the way for opium shipments
to China.
• Separation of revenue administration from
judiciary functions, leading to the
disappearance of Maal Adalats.
• Home Government members to be paid out of
Indian revenues until 1919.
The Charter Act of 1813 UPSC (2019, 2018)
• End of Company's Monopoly: Company's
monopoly over trade in India ended, except for
trade with China and tea trade.
• Dividend for Shareholders: Company's
shareholders granted a 10.5% dividend on the
revenue of India.
• Territorial Possession: Company retained
possession of territories and revenue for 20
more years, without prejudice to the
sovereignty of the Crown.
• Increased Powers of the Board of Control:
Powers of the Board of Control further
enlarged.
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• Funding for Education: One lakh rupees set
aside annually for the revival, promotion, and
encouragement of literature, learning, and
science among natives of India.
• Regulations and Parliamentary Oversight:
Regulations made by the Councils of Madras,
Bombay, and Calcutta required to be laid
before the British Parliament.
• Separate Accounts: Separate accounts to be
kept for commercial transactions and
territorial revenues.
• Permission for Christian Missionaries:
Christian missionaries permitted to come to
India and preach their religion.
The Charter Act of 1833 UPSC (2023)
• Extended the Company's lease for another 20
years, with territories governed in the name of
the Crown.
• Ended the Company's monopoly over trade
with China and in tea.
• Lifted restrictions on European immigration
and property acquisition in India.
• Centralized financial, legislative, and
administrative control under the governor-
general.
• Added a law member to the governor-
general's council for legal advice.
• Called for the codification and consolidation of
Indian laws.
• Prohibited discrimination in Company
employment based on religion, color, birth,
descent, etc.
• Urged steps to ameliorate conditions of slaves
and ultimately abolish slavery (abolished in
1843).
The Charter Act of 1853
• Continued the Company's possession of
territories unless otherwise provided by
Parliament.
• Reduced the strength of the Court of Directors
to 18.
• Opened services to competitive examination,
ending the Company's patronage.
• Made the law member a full member of the
governor-general's executive council.
• Separated executive and legislative functions,
adding six additional members for legislative
purposes.
• Introduced local representation in the Indian
legislature, known as the Indian Legislative
Council.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Required the governor-general's assent for
laws to be promulgated, with the power to
veto any Bill of the legislative council.
The Act for Better Government of India, 1858
• Shifted governance from the East India
Company to the Crown, with a secretary of
state and a 15-member council.
• Ended the dual system introduced by Pitt’s
India Act; the council was advisory, with the
final decision resting with the secretary of
state.
• The governor-general was elevated to the
position of viceroy.
Constitutional Development post 1858
Indian Councils Act, 1861
• Introduced the principle of non-official
representation in legislative bodies.
• Established the portfolio system, laying the
foundations of cabinet government in India.
• Vesting legislative powers in the Governments
of Bombay and Madras, and provision for
similar councils in other provinces, laid the
foundations of legislative devolution.
• However, the legislative councils had limited
powers: they couldn't discuss important or
financial matters without government
approval, had no control over the budget,
couldn't discuss executive action, and needed
the viceroy's approval for passing bills. Even
approved legislation could be disallowed by
the secretary of state. Non-official members
were from elite sections only.
Indian Councils Act, 1892
• Response to Indian National Congress demand
for council reform.
• Increased the number of non-official members
in both Imperial and provincial legislative
councils.
• Introduced the principle of representation,
with universities, district boards,
municipalities, zamindars, trade bodies, and
chambers of commerce empowered to
recommend members.
• Indirect election accepted for the selection of
some non-official members.
• Members entitled to express views on financial
statements and ask questions to the executive
with notice.
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Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms)
• First attempt to introduce a representative and
popular element in governance.
• Increased the strength of the Imperial
Legislative Council.
• Included an Indian member in the Executive
Council of the Governor-General for the first
time (Satyendra Prasad Sinha as law member).
• Increased members of the Provincial Executive
Council.
• Increased powers of legislative councils, both
central and provincial.
• Real power remained with the government;
councils mainly had a critical function.
• Introduced separate electorates for Muslims,
with representation in excess of their
population strength and lower income
qualification for Muslim voters.
• Very indirect election system, making
representation of the people at large remote
and unreal.
Government of India Act, 1919 (Montague-
Chelmsford Reforms) UPSC (2015, 2016, 2021)
• Objective: British government declared its
intention to gradually introduce responsible
government in India as part of the British
Empire.
• Bicameral Legislature: Introduced a bicameral
system at the Centre with a Council of State
(Upper House) and a Legislative Assembly
(Lower House), with a majority of directly
elected members.
• Extended Communal Representation:
Separate electorates for Sikhs, Christians, and
Anglo-Indians, in addition to Muslims.
• Introduction of Dyarchy in Provinces: A
significant step towards transferring power to
Indian people, with provincial subjects divided
into 'transferred' and 'reserved' categories.
• Provincial Legislature: Consisted of one house
(legislative council).
• Separation of Budgets: Provincial and central
budgets were separated, with provincial
legislatures authorized to make their budgets.
• Appointment of High Commissioner: A High
Commissioner for India was appointed in
London to look after Indian trade in Europe.
• Change in Secretary of State's Salary: The
salary of the Secretary of State for India was to
be paid by the British Exchequer instead of the
Indian revenue.
125 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Limited Fulfilment of Responsible
Government: Some administrative experience
was provided to Indian leaders, but the
demand for responsible government was not
fulfilled. The structure remained unitary and
centralized.
• Failure of Dyarchy: Dyarchy in the provincial
sector did not succeed.
• Limited Powers of Central Legislature:
Although more representative, the Central
Legislature had limited powers in legislation
and financial control, with the governor-
general retaining overriding powers.
Simon Commission and Subsequent
Developments UPSC (2013)
Simon Commission (Indian Statutory
Commission):
• Appointed in November 1927 to review the
working of the 1919 Act.
• Recommended abolishing dyarchy,
extending responsible government in
provinces, establishing a federation of
British India and Princely States, and
continuing communal electorates.
Round Table Conferences:
• Three conferences called by the British
government to consider the commission's
proposals.
• Discussions on constitutional reforms
involving Indian leaders and British officials.
White Paper on Constitutional Reforms (1933):
• Published by the British government,
containing provisions for a federal set-up
and provincial autonomy.
Joint Committee under Lord Linlithgow:
• Set up to further consider the scheme
outlined in the White Paper.
• Recommended the establishment of a
federation if at least 50% of the princely
states were ready to join.
Government of India Act, 1935:
• Based on the joint committee's report, the
bill was passed by the British Parliament.
• Established a federal structure and
provincial autonomy, marking a significant
step towards self-government in India.
Government of India Act, 1935 UPSC (2012, 2018,
2021)
• All-India Federation:
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o Establishment of a federation including
Governors' Provinces, Chief
Commissioners' Provinces, and acceding
Princely States.
o Rulers of Princely States to sign an
'instrument of accession' specifying
surrendered authority.
• Federal Executive and Legislature:
o Dyarchy provided for in the Federal
Executive.
o Bicameral Federal Legislature with a
Council of States (Upper House) and a
Federal Legislative Assembly.
o Provision for joint sitting in case of
deadlock.
o Three subject lists: Federal, Provincial, and
Concurrent. Residuary powers with the
governor-general.
• Provincial Autonomy:
o Abolition of dyarchy in provinces; full
responsible government established with
certain safeguards.
o Provinces given independent financial
powers and resources.
o Expanded provincial legislatures, with
bicameral legislatures in six provinces and
unicameral in others.
• Communal Electorates and Franchise:
o Extension of 'communal electorates' and
'weightage' to depressed classes, women,
and labor.
o Franchise extended to about 10% of the
total population.
• Federal Court:
o Establishment of a Federal Court with
original and appellate powers.
o Privy Council in London remained
dominant.
• Abolition of India Council:
o India Council of the Secretary of State was
abolished.
o Implementation and Opposition:
o The All-India Federation never came into
being due to opposition from Indian
parties.
o Provincial autonomy introduced on April 1,
1937, but the Central government
continued to be governed according to the
1919 Act with minor amendments.
o The operative part of the 1935 Act
remained in force till August 15, 1947.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
Evolution of Civil Services in India
Cornwallis' Role:
• First to establish and organize civil services in
India.
• Implemented measures to reduce corruption:
• Increased civil servants' salaries.
• Enforced rules against private trade.
• Prohibited acceptance of presents, bribes, etc.
• Enforced promotions based on seniority.
Wellesley's Role:
• Established Fort William College in 1800 for
training new recruits.
• After disapproval of Fort William College, East
India College was set up at Haileybury in
England in 1806 for two years' training.
Charter Act of 1853:
• Ended the Company’s patronage system,
introducing open competition for recruitment.
• Initially barred Indians from high posts due to:
o Belief that only the English could establish
administrative services serving British
interests.
o Belief that Indians were incapable,
untrustworthy, and insensitive to British
interests.
o High competition among Europeans for
lucrative posts.
• Although the Charter Act of 1833 theoretically
opened services to Indians, it was not
implemented.
• Proclamation of 1858 declared the British
intention to include Indians in higher services.
Indian Civil Service Act, 1861
• Reserved certain offices for covenanted civil
servants.
• Examinations held in England in English, based
on Greek and Latin.
• Maximum permissible age reduced from 23 (in
1859) to 19 (in 1878).
• Satyendra Nath Tagore became the first Indian
to qualify for the Indian Civil Service in 1863.
Statutory Civil Service:
• Introduced by Lytton in 1878-79.
• One-sixth of covenanted posts to be filled by
Indians through nominations, subject to
approval.
• System failed and was abolished.
Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee
126
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• Indian National Congress demanded lowering
of age limit and simultaneous examinations in
India and Britain.
• Aitchison Committee (1886) recommended
dropping 'covenanted' and 'uncovenanted'
terms, classification of civil service, and raising
the age limit to 23.
• House of Commons resolution in 1893 for
simultaneous exams was never implemented.
Montford Reforms (1919)
• Stated that more Indians should be employed
in public service for responsible government.
• Recommended holding simultaneous
examinations in India and England.
• Suggested that one-third of recruitments be
made in India, increasing annually by 1.5%.
Lee Commission (1924)
• Recommended that the secretary of state
should continue to recruit for the ICS, Irrigation
branch of the Service of Engineers, and the
Indian Forest Service.
• Recruitment for transferred fields like
education and civil medical service should be
made by provincial governments.
• Aimed for 50:50 parity between Europeans
and Indians in direct recruitment to ICS within
15 years.
• Suggested the immediate establishment of a
Public Service Commission.
Government of India Act, 1935
• Recommended the establishment of a Federal
Public Service Commission and Provincial
Public Service Commissions.
• Positions of control and authority remained in
British hands, and Indianisation of the civil
service did not lead to effective political power
for Indians.
Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule
• Indians were mostly kept out of institutions
responsible for policy implementation.
• Entering the civil services was extremely
difficult for Indians due to the examination
being held in London, in English, with
subjects including classical Greek and Latin.
• Key positions of power and authority were
occupied by Europeans.
• Despite some Indianisation after 1918,
senior positions continued to be held by
Europeans, and Indian members of the civil
127 SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
service continued to serve imperialist
interests.
Evolution of Police System
Pre-Colonial India
• Lack of a formal police system; watch guards in
villages and faujdars and amils under Mughal
rule.
• Zamindars had law and order duties during the
dual rule in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa but often
neglected their responsibilities.
• Warren Hastings restored the institution of
faujdars in 1774.
British Developments
• 1791: Cornwallis organized a regular police
force with thanas under a daroga and a
superintendent of police (SP) at the district
level.
• 1808: Mayo appointed an SP for each division
with spies, but this led to issues with local
people.
• 1814: Darogas and subordinates abolished
except in Bengal. Bentinck abolished the office
of SP, making the collector/magistrate the
head of police.
• 1861: The Indian Police Act established a civil
constabulary system with an inspector-general
in a province, deputy inspector-general in a
range, and SP in a district.
• 1902: The Police Commission recommended
establishing the CID in provinces and a Central
Intelligence Bureau at the Centre.
Evaluation
• The police system gradually curbed criminal
acts like dacoity and thugee.
• The attitude of the police towards the public
was unsympathetic, and it was used to
suppress the national movement.
• No All-India Police was created; the Police Act,
1861 provided guidelines for a police setup in
provinces with uniform ranks across the
country.
Military Under the British
• Pre-1857: Two separate military forces: the
Queen's army and the Company's troops
(European regiments and Native regiments
with British officers).
• Post-1857 Reorganisation: Aimed to prevent
another revolt and use the Indian Army for
empire defense and expansion.
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o European domination ensured; strict
European monopoly in key departments.
o Proportion of Europeans to Indians fixed;
Indians excluded from officer ranks until
1914.
o Policy of balance and counterpoise:
"martial races" and "non-martial races"
ideology developed, discriminatory
recruitment policy.
o Caste and communal companies
introduced; efforts to isolate soldiers
from nationalist influences.
• British Indian Army: Remained a costly military
machine, with measures to maintain British
control and prevent nationalist sentiments
among soldiers.
Development of Judiciary in British India
Judicial System in Pre-Colonial India:
• Lack of Proper Organization: No proper
procedures, gradation of law courts, or
distribution of courts according to the area
served.
• Community-Based Justice: Hindus relied on
caste elders or village panchayats, while
Muslims had qazis in provincial capitals, towns,
and large villages.
• Arbitrary Dispensation: Rulers (rajas and
badshahs) were considered the fountainhead
of justice, leading to arbitrary decision-making.
Transition to Common Law System:
• Establishment of Mayor's Courts: In 1726, the
East India Company set up Mayor's Courts in
Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, marking the
beginning of a common law system based on
recorded judicial precedents.
• Transformation of the Company: From a
trading entity to a ruling power, leading to the
replacement of the Mughal legal system with
new elements of the judicial system.
Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
• District Diwani Adalats: Established in districts
for civil disputes, under the collector, with
Hindu law for Hindus and Muslim law for
Muslims. Appeals went to the Sadar Diwani
Adalat in Calcutta.
• District Fauzdari Adalats: Set up for criminal
disputes, under an Indian officer with qazis and
muftis, supervised by the collector. Muslim law
was administered. Capital punishment and
property acquisition approvals went to the
Sadar Nizamat Adalat at Murshidabad.
SARAANSH – History of Modern India for UPSC Prelims 2024
• Supreme Court: Established in Calcutta by the
Regulating Act of 1773, with original and
appellate jurisdictions for all British subjects,
including Indians and Europeans.
Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-1793) –
Separation of Powers
• Circuit Courts: Established in Calcutta, Dacca,
Murshidabad, and Patna, with European
judges, acting as courts of appeal for civil and
criminal cases.
• Sadar Nizamat Adalat: Moved to Calcutta,
under the governor-general and Supreme
Council, assisted by the chief qazi and mufti.
• District, City, or Zila Courts: Replaced District
Diwani Adalats, under district judges, with
collectors focusing on revenue administration.
• Gradation of Civil Courts: Established for
Hindu and Muslim laws, including Munsiff's
Court, Registrar's Court, District Court, Circuit
Courts, Sadar Diwani Adalat, and King-in-
Council for appeals above 5000 pounds.
• Cornwallis Code: Separated revenue and
justice administration, brought European
subjects under jurisdiction, made government
officials answerable to civil courts, and
established the principle of sovereignty of law.
Reforms under William Bentinck (1828-1833)
• Abolition of Circuit Courts: Functions
transferred to collectors under the supervision
of the commissioner of revenue and circuit.
• Sadar Adalats in Allahabad: Set up Sadar
Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat for
the convenience of the people of Upper
Provinces.
• Language in Courts: Suitor could use Persian or
a vernacular language; English replaced
Persian in the Supreme Court.
Later Developments
• 1833: Law Commission under Macaulay for
codification of Indian laws, leading to Civil
Procedure Code (1859), Indian Penal Code
(1860), and Criminal Procedure Code (1861).
• 1860: Europeans could claim no special
privileges except in criminal cases; no judge of
Indian origin could try them.
• 1865: Merge of Supreme Court and Sadar
Adalats into three High Courts at Calcutta,
Bombay, and Madras.
• 1935: Government of India Act provided for a
Federal Court (set up in 1937) for disputes
128
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between governments and limited appeals
from High Courts.
Positive Aspects of Judiciary under the British
Established the rule of law.
Replaced religious and personal laws with
codified laws.
Brought European subjects under jurisdiction.
Made government servants answerable to civil
courts.
Development of Education under British rule in India
Early Efforts in Education by East India Company:
• Lack of Interest: For the first 60 years, the East
India Company focused mainly on trading and
profit-making, showing little interest in
promoting education.
• Exceptions:
o Calcutta Madrasah (1781): Established by
Warren Hastings for the study of Muslim
law and related subjects.
o Sanskrit College (1791): Established by
Jonathan Duncan in Benaras for the study
of Hindu law and philosophy.
o Fort William College (1800): Set up by
Wellesley for training Company's civil
servants in languages and customs of
Indians (closed in 1802).
• Purpose: These institutions aimed to provide a
regular supply of qualified Indians for
administration and correspondence with
Indian states.
• Influence of Enlightened Indians and
Missionaries:
o Pressure for Modern Education:
Enlightened Indians and missionaries
advocated for modern, secular, Western
education to address social, economic, and
political issues.
o Role of Missionaries: Believed that
modern education would undermine the
faith of Indians in their religions, leading to
conversion to Christianity.
o Serampore Missionaries: Particularly
enthusiastic about spreading education.
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Negative Aspects of Judiciary under the British
Judicial system became complicated and expensive.
Ample scope for false evidence and manipulation.
Delayed justice due to dragged out litigation.
Overburdened courts due to increased litigation.
European judges often unfamiliar with Indian usage
and traditions.
Charter Act of 1813 and Early Educational Efforts:
• Charter Act of 1813: Introduced the idea of
promoting modern sciences among Indians,
allocating one lakh rupees annually for
education.
• Delayed Implementation: The allocated funds
were not utilized until 1823 due to debates
over the use of the funds.
• Efforts by Indians: Raja Rammohan Roy and
others led to the establishment of Calcutta
College in 1817, focusing on English education
in Western humanities and sciences.
• Government Initiatives: Establishment of
three Sanskrit colleges in Calcutta, Delhi, and
Agra to promote traditional Indian learning.
• Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy: UPSC (2018)
o Debate on Education Focus: The
controversy revolved around whether
education funding should prioritize
modern studies or traditional Indian
learning.
o Anglicists: Advocated for spending on
modern studies exclusively, with divisions
regarding the medium of instruction—
English versus vernacular languages.
o Orientalists: Supported teaching Western
sciences and literature but emphasized
the expansion of traditional Indian
learning.
• Medium of Instruction Confusion: Unclear
policies on whether English or vernacular
languages should be used for instruction
versus as subjects of study, contributing to
confusion in education policy direction.
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Lord Macaulay's Minute (1835): Development Details

Established in Calcutta,
• Focus on Anglicists: Advocated for teaching Universities
Bombay, and Madras.
Western sciences and literature through Establishment
Departments of education
English. (1857)
set up in all provinces.
• English as Medium of Instruction: English
Bethune School founded in
became the medium in government schools
Calcutta (1849) by J.E.D.
and colleges.
Bethune. Marked the start of
• Neglect of Mass Education: Emphasis on
a movement for women's
educating a small elite section, leading to the Women's
education in the 1840s and
neglect of widespread elementary education. Education
1850s. Girls' schools set up
• Downward Filtration Theory: Aimed to create and brought under
a class of Indians with English tastes and government grants-in-aid
intellect to act as intermediaries. and inspection system.
• Political and Social Impact: Modern ideas Agriculture Institute started
spread through political parties, press, and Technical at Pusa (Bihar). Engineering
public platforms, influencing social analysis Education Institute established at
and nationalism. Roorkee.
Efforts of James Thomson Dominated by the ideals and
methods of Wood's
• Vernacular Village Education: Developed a Despatch for five decades.
scheme for village education in vernacular Led to rapid westernisation
languages, focusing on practical subjects like Westernisation
with institutions run by
agriculture. of Education
European headmasters and
• Training for Revenue and Public Works: Aimed System
principals. Contribution from
to train personnel for government missionary enterprises.
departments. Emergence of private Indian
Wood's Dispatch (1854) UPSC (2018) efforts in the field.

• Comprehensive Education Plan: First detailed
plan for education in India, known as the
"Magna Carta of English Education in India."
• Government Responsibility: Called for
government responsibility in mass education,
challenging the downward filtration theory.
• Educational Hierarchy: Proposed a system
from vernacular primary schools to Anglo-
Vernacular High Schools and colleges, with
universities in presidency towns.
• Medium of Instruction: Recommended English
for higher studies and vernaculars at the school
level.
• Emphasis on Female and Vocational Education:
Stressed the importance of education for
women and vocational training.
• Secular Education: Advocated for secular
education in government institutions.
• Grants-in-Aid System: Suggested a system of
grants-in-aid to support private educational
initiatives.
Education after Crown took over
Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)
• Focus on Primary and Secondary Education:
Addressed the neglect of primary and
secondary education.
• State's Role: Emphasized state's responsibility
in extending and improving primary education,
with a focus on vernacular instruction.
• Local Control: Recommended transferring
control of primary education to district and
municipal boards.
• Secondary Education Division: Suggested
dividing secondary education into literary
(university-oriented) and vocational (career-
oriented) streams.
• Female Education: Highlighted the lack of
facilities for female education outside
presidency towns and recommended its
expansion.

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Indian Universities Act, 1904 • University Structure: Advocated for

centralized, unitary, residential-teaching
• Quality Concerns: Aimed to address the
universities instead of scattered, affiliated
perceived decline in educational quality and
colleges.
prevent educational institutions from
• Expansion of Education: Suggested extending
becoming centers of political agitation.
female education, scientific and technological
• Raleigh Commission: Established to review
education, and teachers' training.
university conditions and suggest
• New Universities: Between 1916 and 1921,
improvements, leading to the Indian
seven new universities were established in
Universities Act.
Mysore, Patna, Benaras, Aligarh, Dacca,
• Increased Government Control: Reduced the
Lucknow, and Osmania.
number of university fellows, most of whom
were to be government-nominated, and gave Education Under Dyarchy (Post-Montagu-
the government veto power over university Chelmsford Reforms):
regulations.
• Shift to Provincial Ministries: Education was
• Stricter Affiliation Conditions: Made affiliation
transferred to provincial ministries, reducing
conditions for private colleges more stringent.
direct government involvement.
• Funding for Higher Education: Allocated five
• Financial Constraints: Government grants
lakh rupees annually for five years for the
were stopped, leading to financial difficulties
improvement of higher education and
that hindered substantial expansion.
universities.
• Growth Despite Challenges: Education still
• Nationalist Criticism: Viewed by nationalists as
grew during this period, mainly through
an attempt to curb nationalist sentiment and
philanthropic efforts.
strengthen imperial control, with Gokhale
criticizing it as a "retrograde measure." Hartog Committee (1929):
Government Resolution on Education Policy • Focus on Primary Education: Emphasized
(1913): primary education without rapid expansion or
compulsion.
• Introduction of Compulsory Education:
• Vocational Training: Suggested diverting
Baroda state introduced compulsory primary
average students to vocational courses after
education in 1906, prompting national leaders
VIII standard.
to advocate for similar measures in British
• University Standards: Recommended
India.
restricting admissions to improve university
• Government's Refusal for Compulsory
education standards.
Education: The 1913 resolution refused to
adopt compulsory education but emphasized Sergeant Plan of Education (1944)
the removal of illiteracy and urged provincial
• Pre-primary Education: For children aged 3-6
governments to provide free elementary
years.
education to poorer sections.
• Compulsory Elementary Education: Free and
• Improvement of Secondary Schools: The
universal for children aged 6-11 years.
resolution called for enhancing the quality of
• High School Education: For selected children
secondary schools and encouraged the
establishment of a university in each province. aged 11-17 years, with academic and
technical/vocational types.
• University Education: Three-year courses after
Saddler University Commission (1917-19): higher secondary education.
• Focus on Secondary Education: • Technical and Arts Education: Adequate
Recommended a 12-year school course with an provisions for technical, commercial, and arts
intermediate stage before university to education.
prepare students better and reduce the • Abolition of Intermediate Course: Removal of
burden on universities. the intermediate course in education.

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• Adult Literacy: Aimed to eradicate adult • Objective: To achieve educational attainment

illiteracy in 20 years. in India comparable to England within 40 years,
• Other Emphases: Included teachers' training, although it lacked implementation
physical education, and education for methodology and may not have been fully
handicapped individuals. suited to Indian conditions.
Year Development of Vernacular Education
Early 19th Vernacular education was mostly dependent on contributions from wealthy zamindars.
Century
1835, 1836, William Adam's reports on vernacular education in Bengal and Bihar highlighted defects in
1838 the system.
1843-53 James Jonathan, as the lieutenant-governor of North-West Provinces (UP), experimented
with opening model schools in each tehsil and a normal school for teacher training.
1853 Lord Dalhousie, in a minute, expressed a strong opinion in favor of vernacular education.
1854 Wood's Despatch made provisions for improving standards, government supervision, and
establishing normal schools for teacher training, giving impetus to vernacular education.
1854-71 The government paid attention to secondary and vernacular education, increasing the
number of vernacular schools more than five-fold.
1882 The Hunter Commission emphasized that the State should make special efforts for the
extension and improvement of vernacular education, viewing mass education as instructing
masses through vernaculars.
1904 The education policy put special emphasis on vernacular education and increased grants for
it.
1929 The Hartog Committee presented a gloomy picture of primary education.
1937 Vernacular schools received encouragement from Congress ministries.

Development of Technical Education Evaluation of British Policy on Education:

Field Year Development
• Motivations: Government measures for
Engineering 1847 Engineering College at promoting education were influenced by:
Roorkee established. o Agitation by enlightened Indians, Christian
1856 Calcutta College of missionaries, and humanitarian officials.
Engineering founded. o Need for a cheap supply of educated
Indians for subordinate administrative
1858 Overseers' School at Poona
posts and British business concerns.
raised to Poona College of
o Expansion of the market for British
Engineering, affiliated to
manufactures in India.
Bombay University.
o Reconciliation of Indians to British rule
Guindy College of Engineering through glorification of British conquerors
affiliated to Madras and administration.
University. • Traditional Learning: Declined due to lack
Medical 1835 Medical college established in of support and the 1844 declaration that
Calcutta. government employment required
Agriculture 1905 Agriculture college at Pusa knowledge of English.
established by Lord Curzon, • Mass Education: Neglected, leading to
acting as a parent institution widespread illiteracy (1911: 84%, 1921:
for similar institutions in 92%) and a linguistic and cultural gulf
other provinces. between the educated few and the
masses.
• Monopoly: Education became a monopoly
of upper and richer classes and city
dwellers due to its cost.

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• Women's Education: Almost totally o First seven years of schooling as

neglected due to government's reluctance
to offend orthodox sections and its
perceived lack of utility for colonial rule.
• Scientific and Technical Education: Largely
neglected, with only a few medical colleges
and one engineering college at Roorkee
open only to Europeans and Eurasians by
1857.
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)
• Organized by the Congress in October 1937,
with a detailed scheme formulated by the
Zakir Hussain committee.
• Based on Gandhi's ideas of 'learning through
activity.'
• Aimed to bridge the gap between the
educated elite and the masses.
• Provisions of the scheme:
o Inclusion of a basic handicraft in
the syllabus.
part of a free and compulsory
nationwide education system,
taught through the mother
tongue.
o Teaching in Hindi from class II to
VII and in English only after class
VIII.
o Establishing contact with the
community around schools
through service.
o Devising a suitable technique to
implement the main idea of
educating the child through
productive activity.
• The scheme was an expression of an idea for
a new life and a new society, aiming for an
independent and non-violent society.
• It was child-centred and cooperative.
• Limited development of the scheme due to
the onset of the Second World War and the
resignation of the Congress ministries in
October 1939.

All Congress Sesssions UPSC (2015)

Year Location President Resolutions and Outcomes

1885 Bombay Womesh Chunder Formation of INC, demand for greater share in government for
Bonnerjee educated Indians, constitutional reform.
1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji Demands for representation, self-governance, assertion of
Indian identity.
1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji Emphasis on legal means for political rights, opposition to
repressive measures, demand for civil rights.
1888 Allahabad George Yule Emphasis on constitutional reform, promotion of political
education, assertion of Indian identity.
1889 Bombay William Wedderburn Support for peasant and worker rights, demand for self-
governance and economic rights, focus on political and
economic issues.
1890 Calcutta Alfred Webb Emphasis on self-governance, civil rights, demand for
representation and equality, focus on social reform.
1891 Nagpur Dadabhai Naoroji Focus on economic issues, support for peasants and workers,
demand for constitutional reform and representation.
1892 Allahabad William Wedderburn Focus on economic issues, support for farmers and peasants,
emphasis on political representation.
1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji Demands for self-governance and representation, focus on
economic reforms and political unity.
1894 Madras Alfred Webb Emphasis on economic issues, support for peasants, demand
for civil rights and representation, focus on social reform.
1895 Poona S. S. Bengalee Focus on economic issues, support for agricultural and
industrial development, emphasis on political representation.

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1896 Calcutta Rahimtulla M. Sayani Demand for civil liberties, self-governance, and
representation, focus on political education.
1897 Amraoti Ananda Mohan Bose Discussion on economic issues, support for cottage industries,
demand for representation and self-governance.
1898 Madras Surendranath Emphasis on representation, self-governance, and civil
Banerjee liberties, support for economic reforms.
1899 Lucknow Romesh Chunder Demand for self-governance, civil rights, and representation,
Bonnerjee focus on economic issues and industrial development.
1901 Calcutta Dinshaw Wacha Emphasis on representation, civil liberties, and self-
governance, support for economic and educational reforms.
1903 Madras Lalmohan Ghose Focus on political education, representation, and self-
governance, emphasis on economic issues and reforms.
1904 Bombay Dinshaw Wacha Demand for political and economic rights, emphasis on
representation, self-governance, and civil liberties.
1905 Banaras G. K. Gokhale Emphasis on political education, self-governance, and civil
rights, discussion on economic issues and reforms.
1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji Demand for political representation, self-governance, and
economic rights, emphasis on unity among Indians.
1907 Surat R. B. Sardar Split between Extremists and Moderates, formation of
separate parties within the Congress.
1908 Madras Rash Behari Ghosh Discussion on self-governance, representation, and political
education, focus on economic and educational reforms.
1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dar Discussion on self-governance, civil rights, and political
representation, support for economic development and
reforms.
1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan Reunion of Moderates and Extremists, Lucknow Pact with
Mazumdar Muslim League for constitutional reforms.
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant Emphasis on self-governance, reforms, and unity, support for
political rights and representation.
1918 Delhi Madan Mohan Discussion on political education, self-determination, and
Malaviya economic issues, focus on representation and civil liberties.
1919 Amritsar Annie Besant Strong opposition to Rowlatt Act and repressive laws, support
for non-cooperation against repressive measures.
1920 Nagpur Lala Lajpat Rai Adoption of Non-Cooperation Movement, emphasis on non-
violent protests and non-cooperation.
1921 Ahmedab Deshbandhu C. R. Support for non-cooperation and civil disobedience, focus on
ad Das economic self-reliance and social reforms.
1922 Gaya C. Support for civil disobedience and non-cooperation, focus on
Vijayaraghavachariar communal harmony and social reforms.
1923 Kakinada Maulana Discussion on non-cooperation and self-reliance, emphasis on
Mohammad Ali communal harmony and national unity.
1924 Belgaum M. R. Jayakar Focus on non-cooperation and self-reliance, support for social
reforms and economic self-sufficiency.
1925 Kanpur S. N. Banerjee Discussion on non-cooperation and self-reliance, emphasis on
social reforms and communal harmony.
1926 Gauhati S. Srinivasa Iyengar Focus on non-cooperation, self-reliance, and unity, support for
economic development and communal harmony.
1927 Madras M. A. Ansari Emphasis on non-cooperation and self-reliance, discussion on
socio-economic issues and communal harmony.
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru Adoption of Nehru Report for constitutional reforms,
discussion on dominion status and self-governance.

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1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru Adoption of Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence)

resolution, call for civil disobedience and non-cooperation.
1930 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Emphasis on civil disobedience and non-cooperation,
discussion on economic self-reliance and social reforms.
1931 Delhi Sardar Vallabhbhai Discussion on civil disobedience and non-cooperation,
Patel emphasis on social and economic reforms.
1932 Calcutta Jawaharlal Nehru Focus on civil rights, fundamental freedoms, and self-
governance, discussion on the political situation and
communal harmony.
1933 Karachi Dr. Rajendra Prasad Emphasis on self-reliance, economic development, and social
justice, discussion on political strategy and constitutional
reforms.
1934 Bombay Dr. Rajendra Prasad Focus on political organization and strategy, discussion on
socio-economic issues and communal harmony.
1935 Lucknow Dr. Rajendra Prasad Emphasis on constitutional reforms and self-governance,
discussion on political strategy and communal harmony.
1936 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru Focus on rural development and agrarian issues, discussion on
political organization and strategy.
1937 Fazilka Jawaharlal Nehru Emphasis on social and economic reforms, including labor
rights, discussion on political strategy and constitutional
issues.
1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra Bose Focus on economic planning, industrialization, and poverty
alleviation, discussion on political organization and strategy.
1939 Tripuri Subhas Chandra Bose Emphasis on national unity and anti-imperialism, discussion on
political strategy and independence.
1940 Ramgarh Maulana Abul Kalam Focus on civil liberties, democratic rights, and minority
Azad representation, discussion on the political situation and anti-
fascism.
1946 Bombay Jawaharlal Nehru Emphasis on the need for a strong and united India post-World
War II, discussion on post-war reconstruction and
constitutional issues.
1947 Meerut J.B. Kripalani Focus on the transfer of power from the British to Indians,
discussion on the political situation during the final stages of
British rule.
1948 Jaipur Pattabhi Sitaramayya Emphasis on the integration of princely states into the Indian
Union, discussion on the challenges of nation-building post-
independence.

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14 List of Governor General and Viceroys

Governor Generals
Governors- Tenures Significant Events
General
Warren 1773-1785 (i) Regulating Act of 1773. (ii) Act of 1781 dividing powers between
Hastings governor-general-in-council and Supreme Court at Calcutta. (iii) Pitt’s India
Act of 1784. (iv) Rohilla War (1774). (v) First Maratha War (1775-82) &
Treaty of Salbai (1782). (vi) Second Mysore War (1780-84). (vii) Strained
relationship with Chait Singh leading to impeachment. (viii) Foundation of
Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784).
Lord 1786-1793 (i) Third Mysore War & Treaty of Seringapatam (1790-92). (ii) Cornwallis
Cornwallis Code (1793) with judicial reforms. (iii) Permanent Settlement of Bengal
(1793). (iv) Europeanization of administrative machinery.
Sir John Shore 1793-1798 (i) Charter Act of 1793. (ii) Battle of Kharda (1795).
Lord Wellesley 1798-1805 (i) Subsidiary Alliance System (1798). (ii) Fourth Mysore War (1799). (iii)
UPSC (2018, Second Maratha War (1803-05). (iv) Administration takeover of Tanjore,
2020) Surat, and Carnatic. (v) Treaty of Bassein (1802).
Sir George 1805-1807 Vellore Mutiny (1806).
Barlow
Lord Minto I 1807-1813 Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).
Lord Hastings 1813-1823 (i) Anglo-Nepal War & Treaty of Sagauli (1814-16). (ii) Third Maratha War &
creation of Bombay Presidency (1817-19). (iii) Strife with Pindaris (1817-
1818). (iv) Treaty with Sindhia (1817). (v) Establishment of Ryotwari System
(1820).
Lord Amherst 1823-1828 (i) First Burmese War (1824-1826). (ii) Capture of Bharatpur (1826).
Lord William 1828-1835 (i) Abolition of sati and other cruel rites (1829). (ii) Suppression of thugi
Bentinck (1830). (iii) Charter Act of 1833. (iv) Educational reforms & English as official
language. (v) Annexation of Mysore, Coorg, and Central Cachar. (vi) Treaty
with Ranjeet Singh. (vii) Abolition of provincial courts and appointment of
revenue commissioners.
Lord Metcalfe 1835-1836 New press law removing press restrictions in India.
Lord Auckland 1836-1842 (i) First Afghan War (1838-42). (ii) Death of Ranjit Singh (1839).
Lord 1842-1844 (i) Annexation of Sindh (1843). (ii) War with Gwalior (1843).
Ellenborough
Lord Hardinge 1844-1848 (i) First Anglo-Sikh War & Treaty of Lahore (1846). (ii) Social reforms
I including abolition of female infanticide and human sacrifice.
Lord 1848-1856 (i) Second Anglo-Sikh War & annexation of Punjab (1849). (ii) Annexation of
Dalhousie Lower Burma or Pegu (1852). (iii) Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse and
annexation of Satara, Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Udaipur, Jhansi, Nagpur, and
Awadh. (iv) Educational reforms & opening of Anglo-vernacular schools and
government colleges. (v) Railway Minute of 1853 and first railway line from
Bombay to Thane. (vi) Telegraph and postal reforms. (vii) Ganges Canal
opening and establishment of separate public works department. (viii)
Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
Lord Canning 1856-1857 (i) Establishment of universities at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay (1857).
(ii) Revolt of 1857.

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Viceroys
Viceroy Period Key Events
Lord Canning 1858- Transfer of control from East India Company to the Crown (Government of India
1862 Act, 1858), 'White Mutiny' by European troops (1859), Indian Councils Act (1861)
Lord Elgin I 1862- Wahabi Movement
1863
Lord John 1864- Bhutan War (1865), Setting up of the High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay, and
Lawrence 1869 Madras (1865)
Lord Mayo 1869- Opening of the Rajkot College and the Mayo College for political training of
1872 Indian princes, Establishment of Statistical Survey of India, Establishment of
Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Introduction of state railways
Lord 1872- Visit of Prince of Wales (1875), Trial of Gaekwar of Baroda, Kuka Movement in
Northbrook 1876 Punjab
Lord Lytton 1876- Famine of 1876-78, Royal Titles Act (1876), Queen Victoria assuming the title of
1880 'Kaiser-i-Hind', The Vernacular Press Act (1878), The Arms Act (1878), The
Second Afghan War (1878-80)
Lord Ripon 1880- Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882), The first Factory Act (1881),
1884 Continuation of financial decentralisation, Government resolution on local self-
government (1882), Appointment of Education Commission under Sir William
Hunter (1882), The Ilbert Bill controversy (1883-84), Rendition of Mysore
Lord Dufferin 1884- The Third Burmese War (1885-86), Establishment of the Indian National
1888 Congress
Lord 1888- Factory Act (1891), Categorisation of civil services, Indian Councils Act (1892),
Lansdowne 1894 Setting up of Durand Commission (1893)
Lord Elgin II 1894- Assassination of two British officials by Chapekar brothers (1897)
1899
Lord Curzon 1899- Appointment of Police Commission (1902), Appointment of Universities
1905 Commission (1902) and Indian Universities Act (1904), Establishment of
Department of Commerce and Industry, Calcutta Corporation Act (1899),
Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904), Partition of Bengal (1905), Curzon-
Kitchener controversy, Younghusband’s Mission to Tibet (1904)
Lord Minto II 1905- Anti-partition and Swadeshi Movements, Split in Congress in Surat (1907),
1910 Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan (1906)
Lord 1910- Creation of Bengal Presidency (1911), Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi
Hardinge II 1916 (1911), Establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha (1915) by Madan Mohan
Malaviya, Coronation durbar of King George V held in Delhi (1911)
Lord 1916- Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant and Tilak (1916), Lucknow
Chelmsford 1921 session of the Congress (1916), Lucknow pact between the Congress and Muslim
League (1916), Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916) after Gandhi’s return;
launch of Champaran Satyagraha (1916), Kheda Satyagraha (1918), and
Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918), Montagu’s August Declaration (1917),
Government of India Act (1919), The Rowlatt Act (1919), Jallianwalla Bagh
massacre (1919), Launch of Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements,
Foundation of Women’s University at Poona (1916) and appointment of
Saddler’s Commission (1917) for reforms in educational policy, Death of Tilak
(August 1, 1920), Appointment of S.P. Sinha as governor of Bihar (the first Indian
to become a governor)
Lord Reading 1921- Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the subsequent withdrawal of
1926 Non-Cooperation Movement, Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921), Repeal of the
Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of 1919, Criminal Law Amendment Act and

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abolition of cotton excise, Communal riots in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, Aligarh,

Arvi and Calcutta, Kakori train robbery (1925), Murder of Swami Shraddhanand
(1926), Establishment of Swaraj Party by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (1922),
Decision to hold simultaneous examinations for the ICS both in Delhi and
London, with effect from 1923
Lord Irwin 1926- Visit of Simon Commission to India (1928) and the boycott of the commission by
1931 the Indians, An All-Parties Conference held at Lucknow (1928) for suggestions
for the (future) Constitution of India, the report of which was called the Nehru
Report or the Nehru Constitution, Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian
States Commission (1927), Murder of Saunders, the assistant superintendent of
police of Lahore; bomb blast in the Assembly Hall of Delhi (1929); the Lahore
Conspiracy Case and death of Jatin Das after prolonged hunger strike (1929), and
bomb accident in train in Delhi (1929), Lahore session of the Congress (1929);
Purna Swaraj Resolution, Dandi March (March 12, 1930) by Gandhi to launch the
Civil Disobedience Movement, ‘Deepavali Declaration’ by Lord Irwin (1929),
Boycott of the First Round Table Conference (1930), Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
and suspension of Civil Disobedience Movement
Lord 1931- Second Round Table Conference (1931) and failure of the conference,
Willingdon 1936 resumption of Civil Disobedience Movement, Announcement of Communal
Award (1932) under which separate communal electorates were set up, ‘Fast
unto death’ by Gandhi in Yeravada prison, broken after the Poona Pact (1932),
Third Round Table Conference (1932), Launch of Individual Civil Disobedience
(1933), The Government of India Act of 1935, Establishment of All India Kisan
Sabha (1936) and Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and
Jayaprakash Narayan (1934), Burma separated from India (1935)
Lord 1936- First general elections (1936-37); Congress attained absolute majority,
Linlithgow 1944 Resignation of the Congress ministries after the outbreak of the Second World
War (1939), Subhash Chandra Bose elected as the president of Congress at the
fifty-first session of the Congress (1938), Resignation of Bose in 1939 and
formation of the Forward Bloc (1939), Lahore Resolution (March 1940) by the
Muslim League, demand for separate state for Muslims, ‘August Offer’ (1940) by
the viceroy; its criticism by the Congress and endorsement by the Muslim
League, Winston Churchill elected prime minister of England (1940), Escape of
Subhash Chandra Bose from India (1941) and organisation of the Indian National
Army, Cripps Mission’s Cripps Plan to offer dominion status to India and setting
up of a Constituent Assembly; its rejection by the Congress, Passing of the ‘Quit
India Resolution’ by the Congress (1942); outbreak of ‘August Revolution’; or
Revolt of 1942 after the arrest of national leaders, ‘Divide and Quit’ slogan at the
Lord Wavell 1944- C. Rajagopalachari’s CR Formula (1944), failure of Gandhi-Jinnah talks (1944),
1947 Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference (1942), End of Second World War (1945),
Proposals of the Cabinet Mission (1946) and its acceptance by the Congress,
Observance of ‘Direct Action Day’ (August 16, 1948) by the Muslim League,
Elections to the Constituent Assembly, formation of Interim Government by the
Congress (September 1946), Announcement of end of British rule in India by
Clement Attlee (prime minister of England) on February 20, 1947
Lord 1947- June Third Plan (June 3, 1947) announced, Introduction of Indian Independence
Mountbatten 1948 Bill in the House of Commons, Appointment of two boundary commissions under
Sir Cyril Radcliff for the partition of Bengal and Punjab

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Important Commitees on Civils Services Reforms during Briush India

Committee / Commission Year Key Suggestions / Outcomes

Macaulay Committee
Aitchison Commission
Islington Commission
Lee Commission
Central Public Services 1926
Commission
Royal Commission on the 1924
Superior Civil Services in
India (Lee Commission)
1854 Recommended the establishment of a competitive examination for the
selection of candidates for the Indian Civil Service (ICS).
1886 Reviewed the Indian Civil Service's structure, suggesting reforms in
recruitment and service conditions. Encouraged simultaneous ICS
examinations in England and India.
1912 Suggested revisions in salaries and classifications within the civil service,
proposing a distinction between imperial, provincial, and subordinate
services.
1924 Recommended the establishment of a Public Service Commission in India
for the recruitment of civil servants, leading to the formation of the
Union Public Service Commission.
Led to the establishment of the Union Public Service Commission under
the Government of India Act, 1935, for recruitment to the civil service
and administrative posts.
Advocated for more Indian representation in the civil services and
emphasized the need for fairness in recruitment and promotion
processes.

Important Commitees on Police Reforms during Briush India

Committee / Year Key Suggestions / Outcomes

Commission
Indian Police 1860 Recommended the establishment of a unified police force under a police
Commission commissioner, emphasizing the need for improved training and discipline.
Fraser Commission 1902 Highlighted the need for the separation of judicial and executive functions of
the police, recommended the professionalization of the police force, and
introduced the concept of modern policing in India.
Aitchison 1888 Although primarily focused on civil services, it touched upon police reforms
Commission on by advocating for better training and conditions for the police.
Police Reforms
Gubbins Commission 1946 Focused on the training aspects of the police force, suggesting improvements
on Police Training in training methodologies and facilities.
Police Commission 1902- Recommended the appointment of an Inspector General of Police in every
1903 province and stressed the importance of the moral and material
advancement of the police.
Police Act 1861 While not a committee, the act laid down the framework for the police
system, which many later committees and commissions sought to reform.

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Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India

Name of the Place People Associated Nature and Objectives
Movement/Organisation
Swaminarayan Gujarat (early Swami Sahajanand Belief in a theistic god, protest
Sampradyaga 19th century) (Gyanashyama) against epicurean practices of
Vaishnavism; prescribed a
moral code.
Brahmo Samaj (earlier Calcutta (late Raja Rammohan Roy, Propagated monotheism,
Atmiya Sabha) 18th-early 19th Debendranath Tagore, opposed incarnation,
century) Keshub Chandra Sen meditation, sacrifices,
existence of priests, idolatry,
superstition, sati; sought
reforms in Hindu society.
Young Bengal Movement (1826-1831) Henry Louis Vivian Opposed vices in society;
Derozio, Rasikkrishna believed in truth, freedom, and
Mullick, Tarachand reason.
Chucker-vati,
Krishanmohan
Banerjee
Dharma Sabha Calcutta (1830) Radhakant Deb Emerged to counter Brahmo
Samaj; aimed at protection of
orthodoxy, condemned radical
and liberal reforms, helped in
the spread of western
education.
Wahabi Movement Rohilkhand, Syed Ahmed of Rai Popularised teachings of
Kabul, NWFP, Bareilly, Vilayat Ali Waliullah; opposed the British
Bengal, Central Shah, Muhammad and fought against the Sikhs;
Provinces (19th Hussain, Farhat stressed role of individual
century) Hussain, Inayat Ali conscience in religion.
Namdhari or Kuka NWF Province, Bhai Balak Singh, Baba Political and social reforms
Movement Bhaini (Ludhiana Ram Singh among the Sikhs.
district, Punjab)
(1841-1871)
Taayuuni Movement Dacca (1839) Karamat Ali Jaunpuri Religious teachings of Shah
Waliullah formed the basis;
opposed Faraizi movement.
Students Literary and (1848) Debated popular science and
Scientific Society social questions.
Paramhans Mandali (1849) Emphasised unity of godhead;
against caste rules.
Rahanumai (1851) S.S. Bengali, Naoroji To improve the social condition
Mazdayasanan Sabha Furdonji, Dadabhai of the Parsis and restore the
Naoroji purity of Zoroastrianism.
Radhaswami Movement Agra (1861) Tulsi Ram (Swamiji Preached belief in one supreme
Maharaj) being, the guru’s supreme
position, simple social life for
believers (the satsang); stress
on achieving spiritual fulfilment
without giving up material life.

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The Deoband School of Deoband, Muhammad Qasim Revivalist movement whose

Islamic Theology Saharanpur, UP Nanaytavi, Rashid religious teachings
(1866) Ahmad Gangohi, encompassed a liberal
Maulana Abul Kalam interpretation of Islam; for
Azad, Mahmud-ul- moral religious upliftment; did
Hasan, Shibli Numani not take to western influences
in education.
Prarthana Samaj Bombay (1867) Atmaram Pandurang, Worship and reform of society
Govind Ranade, R.G. through emphasis on
Bhandarkar monotheism, uplift of women,
abolition of caste
discrimination, and religious
orthodoxy.
Indian Reform Calcutta (1870) Keshub Chandra Sen To create public opinion against
Association child marriages; for uplift of
social status of women; to
legalise Brahmo type of
marriage.
Arya Samaj Bombay (1875) Dayanand Saraswati Asserted Hindu faith over other
(Mula Shankar) religions; denounced rites,
Brahmins’ supremacy, idolatry,
superstitions; established DAV
schools.
Aligarh Movement Aligarh (1875) Syed Ahmed Khan Religious reform through
emphasis on principle of
enquiry in religion; favoured
scientific and rational outlook;
recognised Western education;
aimed at social reform.
The Theosophical Society New York, Adyar Madam H.P. Blavatsky, Drew inspiration from
near Madras Col. H.S. Olcott, Annie Upanishads, philosophy of the
(1875) Besant Vedanta etc to aim at religious
revival and social reform.
Deccan Education Society Pune (1884) M.G. Ranade, V.G. Contributing to education and
Chibdonkar, G.G. culture in western India;
Agarkar established Ferguson College,
Pune.
Seva Sadan Bombay (1885) Behramji M. Malabari Against child marriages, forced
widowhood; to help socially
exploited women.
Indian National Social Bombay (1887) M.G. Ranade, Social reform.
Conference Raghunath Rao
Deva Samaj Lahore (1887) Shiva Narain Agnihotri Religious ideas closer to those
of Brahmo Samaj; favoured a
social code of conduct against
bribe-taking, gambling, alcohol
consumption.
Ahmadiya Movement Qadiani, Punjab Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Defended Islam from attacks by
(1889) Christian missionaries, Hindu
revivalists; belief in a universal
religion; Ghulam Ahmad

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proclaimed himself as a
Messiah and as an incarnation
of Lord Krishna.
Madras Hindu Madras (1892) Viresialingam Pantulu Social purity movement;
Association against devadasi system and
oppression of widows.
Ramakrishna Mission Bengal (1897) Vivekananda Sought to revive Hinduism
(Narendranath Dutta), based on ancient India’s
Ramakrishna religious texts and concepts (of
Paramhansa Vedanta etc); against caste
restrictions, oppression,
superstition in Hinduism; aimed
to uplift women and overhaul
the education system.
Bharat Dharma Mahan- Benaras (1902) Madan Mohan Orthodox Hindus’ (Sanatan-
mandala Malaviya, Deen Dayal dharinis’) organisation that
Sharma, Gopal Krishna opposed the Arya Samaj’s
Gokhale teachings.
The Servants of India Bombay (1905) Gopal Krishna Gokhale Famine relief and improving
Society tribals’ condition in particular.
Poona Seva Sadan (1909) G.K. Devadhar, Economic uplift; employment
Ramabai Ranade for women.
Nishkam Karma Math Pune (1910) Dhondo Keshav Karve Educational progress of
(Monastery of women; improving widows’
Disinterested Work) condition.
Bharat Stri Mandal Calcutta (1910) Saralabala Devi Founded a women’s university
Choudharani in Pune—now in Bombay.
Social Service League (1911) Narayan Malhar Joshi Improving the condition of the
common masses; opened
schools, libraries.
Seva Samiti Allahabad (1914) Hridyanath Kunzru Improving the status of the
suffering classes through social
service, education.
The Indian Women’s Madras (1917) Annie Besant Upliftment of Indian women;
Association annual conferences (All India
Women’s Conferences) were
held.

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Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period

Trial Date Location Charges Verdict
Bahadur Shah Zafar Jan 27 to Red Fort, Treason, conspiracy, Convicted and exiled to Rangoon
Mar 9, Delhi rebellion, and
1858 murder in 1857
revolt
Surendranath May 4-5, Calcutta High Contempt of court Sent to civil jail for two years
Banerjea 1883 Court for remarks in The
Bengalee
Bal Gangadhar Tilak 1897, Provocative articles 18 months' imprisonment
1908, in Kesari (1897); six years' exile to
1916 Mandalay and fine of Rs 1000 for
seditious writings (1908); no jail
sentence was imposed (1916)
Aurobindo Ghosh 1908- Alipore Attempt to murder Spent a year in jail as an
and 37 others 1909 Bombay Case district judge of undertrial prisoner
Trial Muzaffarpur
V.D. Savarkar 1910 Delivering Two consecutive life
and Jan infuriating speeches transportations (50 years); spent
1911 against British and 10 years in Andaman jail (1911-
procuring and 1921)
distributing arms
Gandhi and 1922 Four inflammatory Sentenced to jail for 6 years; set
Shankarlal Banker articles against the free in 1924
British in Young India
31 communists Mar Meerut Conspiracy against Received sentences varying from
1929 Conspiracy the British 3 years to life sentence
Case
Bhagat Singh Jun Throwing a bomb in Sentenced to death
1929, Jul Central Assembly;
1929 killing police head
constable Saunders
M.N. Roy 1931- Conspiracy and Sentenced to 12 years'
1932 sedition imprisonment (later reduced to
6 years)
Shah Nawaz Khan, 1945 Red Fort, INA trials: waging Sentences of transportation for
Prem Kumar Sehgal, Delhi war by murdering or life were remitted; cashiering
and Gurbaksh Singh abetment of murder and forfeiture of arrears of pay
Dhillon and allowances were confirmed

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