4

Lasers and Holography

In this chapter..
Introduction
Laser Applications
Characteristics of Laser
Theory of Laser Action: Einstein's Holography
Coefficients Principle of Holography
Basic Theory of
Threshold Conditions for Laser Action Holography
Relation between Einstein's OCoefficients Basic Requirements for
Holography
Components of a Laser Holography V/S Photography
Main Features About Laser Advantages of Hologram
The Ruby Laser Applications ofHolography
The Helium-Neon Laser Solved Examples
Review Exercise
Semiconductor Laser Numericals
Q-Switching
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic
was
principle involved in laser action is the
phenomenon stimulated emission which
of
predicted by Einstein in 1917. This
Onstruction of Maser, where MASER standsphenomenon was first used by Townes in 1954 in the
for Microwave
of
adiation. The maser principle was later extended Amplification by Stimulated Emission
to the optical frequencies by Schawlaw and
Whes in 1958, which leads to laser, where laser stands for
Lmission of Radiation. Light Amplification by Stimulated
4.2 Engineering Physics-|I
The first successfui of a laser device was demonstrated by Maiman in 1960 usin.
operation
sing
a ruby crystal (three levei system), within a few months of the operation of the first laser devio
Javan and his coworkers constructed the first gas laser, the He-Nelaser (Four level
vice,
Since then, laser action has been obtained in
system
a large variety of materials including liquids, ionized
gases, dyes, semi-conductors and so forth.
Lasers are optical plhenomena which find major application in various fields such as medicine
ine,
engineering, fiber optic communication, industries etc. Lasers are more powerful radiation than
ordinary light radiation.
With the advent of lasers, two branches of physics started gaining a lot of importance, viz.
holography and fiber optics. Holography is three dimensional recordingg of an object. Earlier in
photography, the light reflected from a three dimensional object is focused by a lens onto a
photographic film where a two dimensional image ofthe object is formed. Holography is atechnique
for recording and reproducing a three dimensional image of an object without the use of lenses.

4.2/CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER
The following characteristics which distinguishes a laser beam from an ordinary light, are :

1. Coherence 2. High intensity

3. High directionality 4. High monochromaticity
Laser light is highly powerful and is capable of propagating over long distances and are not

easily absorbed by water or medium.

1. Coherence Thewaves which are identical in phase and direction are called coherent
waves. Since, all the constituent photons of laser beam possess the same energy
momentum and propagate in same direction, the laser beam is said to be highly coherent.
a
2. High Intensity: Due to thecoherent nature of laser, it has the ability to focus over
small area of 10 cm2 i.e., extremely high concentration of its energy over a smal arca
But,
3. High Directionality : An ordinary light source emits light in all possible directions.
since laser travels as a parallel beam it can travel over a long distance without spreading
of e
directionality
The angular spread of a laser beam is Imm/meter. This reveals the
laser beam.

4. High Monochromaticity : The light from a normal monochromatic source spreads ov

a range of wavelength of the order 100nm. But, the spread is of the order of Inm
laser. Hence, laser is highly monochromatic i.e., it can emit light of single waveleng
4.3 THEORY OF LASER ACTION EINSTEIN'S COEFFICIENTS
of
Einstein explained the action of laser beam based on quantum theory of light. Product
laser light is a particular consequence of interaction of radiation with matter.
 Lasers and Holography

under normal state

-43
is incldent on the medium condition*, the three
If a n external radiation
processes like induced absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission occur
simultaneously/Einsteinargued thatwhen anatomisin ground or lower energy state and an external
radiation ofproper frequency incident onitthen an electron absorb this radiation and goes to higher
excited state, i.e., atom isin higher energy state. Since life time of an atom in higher energy state
is very less, the electron, in higher energy level, comes back to lower energy levels through the
emission of eleciromagnetic radiation. This emission can occur in two different ways, i.e.
spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.
All the three processes are described by'considering an atom having only two energy levels
E, and E and for which light is to be obtained.

4.3.1 Stimulated Absorption or Induced Absorption

Let N and N, represent the number of atoms per unit volume (or the population density) in
levelsm'andn respectively. The levels correspond to energies E, and E, respectively. If the atom
of
is initially in the lower state Em it can be raised to higher state E, by absorption of a photon
energy E,- Em = hv. This process is called "induced absorption"**.

Excited state N, (Population density)

-E
E = hv = ho

Normal state N (Population density)

o o o o o d o o o o o oE.
Fig. 4.1 (a) Induced Absorption

absorption depends on the density of

The rate of
radiation at the particular frequency
the two levels. Thus, if
corresponding to the energy separation of
En-En ...(4.1)

where

density u(o) of radiation

h is the Planck's constant. The absorption depends process ontheenergy
density is defined such that u(o) represents the
do radiation energy
at the frequency o. Energy + The probability of absorption not
frequency interval o and (0 do).
per unit volume with in the
of incident photon, ie., the number of photons
only depends upon the energy density (intensity

in the lower energy state than to higher energy state.

Normal state means there are more atoms

** Induced named because this absorption or excitation process can occur only in presence of radiation.
44 Engineering Physics-l
incident on the system)tt the population density, i.e., the number of atoms in normal (lower
mal (lower) state
also. So the transition rate or the number
of atoms going from state m tO state n per second n
unit volume by absorbing the photons will be per

(Tmn)a aN,u(o)
or (7mna = BNu(o)
.4.2)
Where Bn is the Einstein absorption coefficient of proportionality and is a
characteristic of
the energy levels.

43.2 Spontaneous Emission

If an atom isinitially in the excited state or upper state B it drops to a lower state E.
m
by
emission of a photon, of proper energy ho, even in the absence of any incident radiation
Excited state N, (Population density)
-En

E to

Normal state N (Population density)

Fig. 4.1 (b) Spontaneous emission

It is thus not stimulated by any incident radiation but occurs spontaneously, so it is called
spontaneous emission. In spontaneous emission, the number of atoms going down fronm state
tostate per secondperunitvolume is independent of the energydensity(o) orthe intensity
ofincident radiation and depends only on the levels involvedinthe transition and the population
density, i.e., the number of atoms, in that excited state, N,
Thus the number ofatoms going down from state n to state m by spontaneously emitting photons
will be (7nm), a. N,
...(4.3)
(Tm)4nm
where Am is Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission.

4.3.3 Stimulated or Induced Emission: The Principle of Laser

In this case an incident photon of energy E, - E = hv = ho induced a transition from state

E, to state E, hence emitting a photon of ho. It is called induced emission.

The rate oftransition tothe lower energy level is directly proportional to the number of atoni
in the upper energy level as well as to the energy density u(o) of the radiation or the intensiy
of the radiation of the frequency o. Thus the rate of transition probability or the number ofatoi
per unit volume per second going down from state n to state m by emitting induced photon
be
 Lasers and Holography
Excited state
N, (Population density) 4.5

Normal state
N, (Population density)
O

Fig. 4.1 (c) Induced or stimulated emission

(nm)i a N,u(o)

(Tnm=BamN,u(o)D
Where ..(4.4)
B is Einstein coefficient for induced emission.
m

The phase, the

as that of incident
direction and the state of polarisation of this induced
photon. In other words, the induced emitted photon is same
phase, in same direction and in
same incident
photon or light wave is exactly în
wave, so we get an enhanced beam of coherent
light. Due to this process, the
intensity of proper radiation (ho)
amplified. This is basic principle of laser. passing through the atoms, get

The
quantities A, Band B are known as
Einstein coefficients and are determined
the atomic Einstein by
system. coefficients govern these processes
stimulated emissions and give the absorption,
original argument of Einstein which led to a spontaneous
and
these coefticients. Einstein relation between
coefticients are characteristic of the energy levels
upon n and m. because they depend

4.4 THRESHOLD CONDITIONS FOR LASER ACTION RELATION BETWEEN

EINSTEIN'S COEFFICIENTS
At thermal
equilibrium, the number of upward transitions must be equal to number of downward
transitions, i.e. the rate of transition by absorption of the radiation is
y total emission equatto the rate of transition
(spontaneous + stimulated) of radiation. Thus at thermal equilibrium,
(Tmna=(Tam)s +(Tnm)i
USing equations (4.2), (4.3) and (4.4)
NgnBmnu(o) = N, Am + N, B,nu()

u(o) = NApm
NmBn-N,Bm
4.6 Engineering Physics-|I

u(o) =- Aynm
4.5)
N NmB-B,qmt
The population of atoms in any energy level at temperature T (at thermal equilibrim
govemed by Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. Thus accordingto Maxwell-Boltzmann law, populai
n
density in energy level E, at temperature T is

N =NoeE,/kgT where kp is Boltzmann

constant
Similarly N, = NgeEmlkg

No number of atoms at ground state

Nm =E-Em)/kgT =ho/kgT
Nn E-Em =ho =hv
Using the ratio of population density in energy levels m and n in equation (4.5)

u(o) =. Am
Beho/kB-Bnm (4.6)
Now, according to Planck's radiation formula, the energy density of radiation field is given by

u(o)=|ho 1
T23ho/kgT- 4.7)
Where u represents the refractive index of the medium. Comparing equation (4.6) and(4.
we obtain

.(4.8)%a)
Bn= Bm =B

n Aho'u3 ..(4.8X6)
and
B,n B Te3
The constants 4p B and B, are known as Einstein's coefficients.
The units of Einstein coefficients may be written as

A JsXs*_J-s ..4.9)
Bam (ms
Thus the probabilities of stimulated absorption and stimulated emission are the same (Bym
B ) and the ratio of the A and B,m coefficients is given by equation (4.8)(b).
 Lasers and Holography
l eauilibrium, using equation (4.7) and 4.7
(4.8(b), the ratio of the number
of spontaneous
emission (N, Ato stimulated emission |N, B, (w)] is
given by
Anm A
= exp|
ho
Bm(o) Bu(o) " kT
.(4.10)
Here we can consider two cases at thermal equilibrium
Case-I: If o<< *B- <<l
Bu(o) [From equation (4.10)]
Then number of stimulated emission [B
u(o)] is more than number of
spontaneous emission.
A
Case-II: If o>>Bl
Bu(o)h > [From equation (4.10)]
Then number of stimulated emission
[B u(o)] is very less than number of
emissions. spontaneous
For normal optical sources, Ts 10' K and

kgT
h
1.38x104(J/K)x10°(K) _

sec-
1.054x10"(Js)
Since for the optical region ~3
o x
10 sec (corresponding
a 6000A), we find that to
at optical frequencies (0>kpT/h) the stimulated'emissions is very less
emission [as in case-II] and hence the emission
compared to spontaneous
from usual light sources is due to
emission, which is incoherent. spontaneous
The ratio of emission and
absorption rates is given by
Emission rate m(nm) +(nm)
Absorption rate Tmn mn Da

Am +Bmu(o) | N,
Bunu() NN
But Ban Bm
=

Emission rate -||+- Anm_ N

Absorption rate By ( ) Nm 4.11)
he ratio of stimulated and spontaneous emission rates is given by

Stimulated emission rateB,nmN,u()_B0()

Spontaneous emission rate AumN Am 4.12)
4.8 Engineering Physics-ll
Therefore, for Laser action two conditions, given below, must be satisfied, which ar
are
known as threshold conditions for laser action.

(1) The emission rate must be larger than the absoprtion rate i.e.,

B()JN1
An [From equation (4.1)J ..4.13a)
N
(2) The probability for stimulated emission must be larger than the probability for spontaneous
which produces incoherent radiation, i.e,.

Bn [From equation (4.12)] .(4.13(b)

Anm
The higher probability of stimulated emission can be achieved by following methods
The spectral energy density of incident radiation, u(w), must be made very larger, i.e.

u()> (satisfying (4.13)(b)). To increase the energy density, u(®), the emitted
B
radiation is made to reflect again and again between two parallel mirrors in a cavity
containing active medium.

i) The ratio Ant ust be made very small, i.e. u(o)>». Apnm (satisfying (4.13)(b)). To
Bym Bym
minimize the value of um, metastable states of higher energy is chosen for
Bpam
stimulated transition because transitions from metastable state by spontaneous
emission are not allowed.

N.
m.
Using both the conditions (1) and (2) simultaneously it is clear that
Nm
The situation in which the number of atoms in the higher energy state exceeds that in lower
tate is known as population inversion. This is a threshold condition for laser action.
It can be achieved by pumping mechanism.

4.5 COMPONENTs OF A LASER

A basic laser system has three important components as follows
1. The active medium which provides amplification.
The pumping source which provides frequency selection and optical feedback.
3 The optical resonator which supplies power to the active medium to achieve populatio
inversion.
 -
Lasers and Holography 4.9
1. Active Mediumn

The active medium consists ofa collection ofatoms, molecules or ions (in solid, liquid or gaseous
form) which is capable ofamplifying light waves or a medium in which light gets amplified is called
active medium. It is important to note that only a small fraction of a particular medium is responsible
to stimulate emission and consequent amplification. These are called active centres and the
remaining part of the medium merely supports the active centres.
A medium in which' population inversion is achieved fof laser action is called active
medium. The medium can be solid, liquid, gas and plasma
Under normal circumstances, there are always a large number of atoms in the lower energy
state than in the excited energy state. An electromagnetic wave passing through such a collection
of atoms would get attenuated. In order to have optical amplification, medium has to be kept in
a state of population inversion, i.e. in a state in which the number of atoms in the upper energy
level is greater than that in the lower energy level which may be achieved by means of the pump.
Based on the active medium and method of pumping the lasers are classified into-
) Solid state lasers (ii) Liquid lasers
(i) Gaseous lasers (iv) Dye lasers

(v)Semiconductorlasers
2. Pumping Source
Pumping is the mechanism of exciting atoms form the lower energy state to a higher energy
state by supplying energy from an external source.
The pumping mechanism helps for obtaining such a state of population inversion between a
pair of energy levels of atomic system and when we get a state of population inversion, the input
light beam can get amplified by stimulated emission. This is known as optical amplification.
The most commonly used pumping mechanisms are
i. Optical Pumping : In this type of pumping, atoms are excited (i.e., population inversion
in achieved) by means of an external optical source.
This type of pumping technique is adopted in solid state lasers such as ruby laser and Nd
:YAG laser.
ii. Electrical Pumping (Direct Electron Excitation): In this type of pumping, the electrons
are accelerated to a high velocity by a strong electric field. These moving electrons collide
with the neutral gas atoms and ionise the medium. Thus, due to ionisation they get raised
to a higher energy level.
This technique of pumping is adopted in gas lasers such as CO, laser.

ii. Direct Conversion: In this type of pumping, a direct conversion of electric energy into
This technique of pumping is adopted in semiconductor laser.
light takes place.
 4.10 Engineering Physics-I
In addition to the above three, other types
of pumping are, inelastic collision betwe.
atoms and chemical methods which are
respectively adopted in He-Ne gas laser andeen
dye and chemical lasers. in
3. Optical Resonator

A medium with
population inversion is capable of amplification, hence for that, it acts as
oscillator, a part of the output energy must be feedback into the system. Such a an
an
about by placing the active medium in a resonator. The
feedback is brought
resonator could just be a
facing each other. pair of mirrors
Hence, optical resonator consists of a pair of mirrors facing each other in
laser medium is placed, which between active
provides the amplification. The mirrors provide an optical feedback
and the system then acts as an oscillator. In
order to produce a laser, we must collimate
stimulated emission, and this is done by the
properly designing a cavity or optical resonator.
A photon emitted
spontaneously by an atom may cause stimulated emission. In order to sustain
stimulated emission, a positive feed back of the
light is required by two facing mirrors. Also
spontaneous emission of photons take place in various directions and
occurs, again those
consequently incoherence
photons moving at an appreciable angle to the walls of the cavity, or tube, will
escape and be lost. Thus an intense beam of
the system exceeds the
light will be available only when optical gain of
optical losses. Those photons emitted parallel to the axis of the
cavity
will reflect back and forth from end to end. Their
chance of stimulating emission will now depend
pon a high reflectance at the ends mirrors.

Highly reflecting ends Escaping photon

Stimulated photon
Semi-transparent mirror
Fig. 4.2: A Laser cavity resonator with highly reflecting ends
While propagating in the opposite
direction, they de-excite more and more atoms and build
up their strength. The amplified beam will move and
along the same path as the starting Pho
undergoes multiple reflection at the mirror and gains in strength. Photon density in the mco
edium
enhance to satisfy conditions for laser.
 Lasers and Holography (4.11)
Laser beam oscillation begins when the amount of
amount of light lost through the side of the resonator,
amplified light becomes equal to the total
through the mirrors and through the absorption
by medium. As the oscillations build up to enough intensity, it
mirror as a highly collimated intense beam.
emerges through the semi-transparent

According to wave properties of light, the condition for

resonator is that the length of a resonator should be an forming a standing wave within the
integral multiple of half wavelength of laser.
L=mn (
where
2 m =
1, 2, 3,
4.14)
4.6 MAIN FEATURES ABOUT LASER
Main salient features of
laser are as follows
4.6.1 Metastable State
The atoms molecules of an active medium have a
or
number of energy levels with atleast
one intermediate level. The atoms that are
states by absorbing some external
originally in ground state get excited to higher energy
energy. Due to the short life time of an
atoms can not remain in the atom in higher state,
the electron drop back, some of
higher excited state so long and
rapidly decay to lower states. As
them are being trapped in the
states due to a non-radiative intermediate state, called metastable
transition and excess energy is absorbed
vibrational energy of the atoms of the lattice. by the lattice as the
The life time of an atom in
the order of 10 sec which is metastable state is of
very much higher (about 10 times) than the life
of 10 sec) of the atom in the time (of the order
excited state. If the pumping
a
population inversion, i.e., more atoms in light intense enough, we may obtain
is
metastable state than in the
ground state.
4.6.2 Basic
Operation of Laser or Stimulated Emissions
When anelectron in one of the metastable states
it emits a
photon of energy hv. This is called fluorescentspontaneously jumps to the ground state,
photon passes by another
nearby atom in the
or
same metastable
phosphorescent radiation. As the
that atom to radiate a state, it can immediately stimulate
photon of the exact same frequency and return it to its
ground state. Amazingly
enough this stimulated photon has
exactly the same frequency, direction, andpolarisation (spatial
coherence) and exactly the same phase and
speed (temporal coherence) the
Both of these
photons may now be considered as primary waves and upon
as
primary photon.
aoms in metastable passing close to other
states, they stimulate them to emit photons in the same direction
phase. Thus a with the same
laser emits out.

m
Fig. 4.3(a) : Stimulated Emission
 4.12 Engineering Physics-

.AAAA Primary wave

AAA Stimulated wave

Fig. 4.3(b) : Coherent Waves

4.6.3 Population Inversion

Under normal circumstances, there is always a larger number of atoms in the lower energy
state than in the excited energy state because of N, = NoeEnlkl and N, = NoeEm/kT and
hence for E, > Em ( n > m), N > N The life time of an atom in an excited state is very
small (of the order of 10 sec), it makes a spontaneous emission before going to be stimulated.
But the life-time of an atom in the metastable state ( 10 sec) is very much higher than the
life time (- 10 sec) ofthe atom in the excited state. A passing photon produces the lasing transtion
from metastable state to the ground state. The above process in which number of the atoms in
the metastable states is appreciably increased to the number of the atoms in the ground stateis
called Population inversion (N, >
N).
En |wwnd hv www

hv
E M
ww.hv
www>

hv E wwhv ----

w
h |www hv ---.
hv E m

h E m w hy ---- ww

E
w w hy ----
h ww. hv -.
E.
ww

wwd hv ww

E
2 2 2 2' Photons

Fig. 4.4 (a): Multiplication of stimulated photons as a chain reaction

4,8 THE HELIUM- NEON LASER
It was the first gas laser, to be operated successfully and was fabricated by Ali Javan and
his co-workers in 1961. It has four level laser system, In this laser, the electric discharge is used
as an efficient pumping method pf producing population inversion,

4.8.1 Design
The helium-neon laser consists of a long and narrow discharge tube of diameter of about I cm
and of length of about 80 cm. It consists of a mixture of He and Ne gases in the ratio of about

# I t means a thin
object with a sharp point especially a pointed piece of metal
## Threshold pumping rate is the minimum amount of pump power per unit volume per sec. to be spen
to maintain population inversion. Population inversion maintains when the photon number builas up
(due to stimulated emissions) rapidly to a value much higher than the steady state value. Since the
photon number is higher than the steady state value, the rate at which the upper level deplet
(because of stimulated transitions) is much higher than the pump rate. Consequently the inversion
become below threshold and the laser action ceases.
 Lasers and Holography 4.17
10:1 of their weights, The pressure inside thetube is about I mm of Hg. This gas mixture of
He and Ne forms the active lasing medium. This gas system is-enclosed between a pair of plane
mirrors or a pair of concaves mirrors so that an optical resonator system is formed. One ofthem
is highly reflective and another one is partially reflective. The spacing between the two mirrors is
equalto an integral multiple of half wavelengths of laserlight.
An electric discharge is used as a pumping source. The electric discharge is produced in the
gas mixture by means of electrode outside the tube connected to a source of high frequency
alternating current.**

Fully Silvered Partially Silvered

Helium+ Neon Laser Beam

Discharge Electrodes

Cathode Electric field

High Voltage
Anode Electron e S

lon
He-Ne mixture
Cathode Anode

Fig. 4.8 Schematic of a Helium-Neon laser

4.8.2 Theory
Wher adischarge takes place through the gas mixture, electrons are accelerated inthetube.
These acceleratedelectronscollide withtheheliumatoms ingroundstateand excite them tohigher
and due to sufficient
energy levels F, and F. metastable
Both these states are quite states long
life time before getting de-excited ofthesestates, the number of excitedstateatoms of helium
increases. Therefore we have optical pumping into metastable states F and Fz from the ground
that the excited
State. From the energy level diagram (Fig. 4.9) of helium and neon. It is clear
states (E4 & E) of neon correspond approximately to the same energy of the excited states F
and F of helium. Some of these excited helium atoms transfer their energy to the neon atoms
in ground state in collision, with the additional energy being provided by the kinetic energy of the

aroms. This results the excitation of Ne atoms to the level E4 E, and the de-excitation of
and

ie atoms to the ground state F,. Because of the long life time of the metastable states F, and
F of He, this process of energy transfer has a high probability. Thus the discharge through the
gas mixture continuously populates the neon excited energy level E4 and Eg.

must be chosen
The different ratio of the two gases means the different pressure of the two gases
So that the condition of population inversion is not quenched. Thus the condition must be such that
density of He should be very large then
there is an efficient transfer of energy from He to Ne atoms so

of Ne.
means of sealed in electrodes or
obtained from a step up transformer, is supplied by
**
A high voltage
by metal bands around the ends and middle.
forbidden by radiation selection rules.
# Since downward transitions from F, and F to the ground state are
( 4.18 EngineeringPhysics-I

Energy transfer
through atomic collision
Stimulated emission
Ne
20.61eV He 33900A
E
Metastable state
F Metastabe state E ES
(6328A)
11500A
E
18.7eV
Spontaneous emission
(6000A)
Metastable state
E2
Deexcitation by collision
(Radiationless transition)
with walls of discharge tube

Ground State
F1 He Ground State E Ne
Fig. 4.9: Energy levels of helium and neon atoms

This helps to create a state of population inversion between the levels E, and E, than lower-

lying energy levels Ez, E and ground level. Thus the purpose of the He atoms istó help to

achieve a condition of population inversion in the Ne atoms.

When a state ofpopulationinversion is achieved then spontaneouslyemitted photon cantrigger
laser action in any of the three transitions, 1.e.,the transitions from E, to Es, E, to E^ and E, to
E corresponds the emission
to of radiation having wavelengths 33900A, 11500Å and 6328A
respectively. The first two transitions are not in the visible regio while
the last transition.
corresponds to 6328A, give the well known red light of the He- Ne laser.
The photon ofwavelength 6328Å travelling parallel to the axis bouncesback and forth betwen
the end mirrors and will stimulate another excited neon atom to emit another photon of same
and
frequency and phase, travelling parallel to the axis of tube and the radiation gets amplified
emerge a red laser light.*
The excited Ne atom drops down from the level E, to the metastable level E; by spontaneousiy
emitting a photon of wavelength about 6000A. This transition yields only incoherent light. Frout
level E, the Ne atoms are brought back to the ground state through collisions with the walls

The laser action is obtained by a large number of stimulated photons in the visible region by a prop y
ed
design resonator means of employing mirrors at both ends which reflect waves only over the requ

wavelength range.
 Laserssers and Holography
arrow tube.It is
why the tube is taken narrow
(4.19
so that maximum Ne atoms in the
with the walls of the tube and get level E, collide
de-excited to the level E,*.
Tvpical power output of He- Ne laser lie between
1-50 mW of continuous for
of about 5-10W. wave inputs

Brewster window
Brewster window

Gas

Polarised Light
Fully Silvered
Partially Silvered
Fig. 4.10
Brewster windows and
:
polarised He-Ne Laser
One disadvantage of using internal mirrors is that
the mirrors are
discharge and have to be replaced. Having. resonator mirrors usually eroded by the gas
external to the laser
provides for greater flexibility. However when external mirrors are used, the ends cavity also of
tube also cause a loss due to reflection. Thus discharge
usually has two windows at the ends of the
one
discharge tube which are at brewster angle so that light whose electric
vector is parallel to the
plane of incidence, transmit 100% without suffering any reflection
vector perpendicular to
loss while light with electric
plane of incidence suffers reflection losses. When such Brewster windows
are used, the output laser beam is polarized.
4.9 SEMIcONDUCTOR LASER
A semiconductor diode laser is a
specially fabricated PN junction device, which emits coherent
light when it is forward biased. R.N. Hall and his coworkers made the first
in 1962
from Gallium arsenide (GaAs) which operated at low temperatures and emitted laser
semiconductor
the near light in
IR region, Semiconductor lasers working at room temperature and-in
mode are continuous wave
produced by 1970. Now PN-junction lasers are made to emit light almost anywhere
n the
spectrum from infrared to ultraviolet region. Diode lasers are remarkably small in siz (0.1
mmlong). |They have high efficiency of the order of 40%. Modulating the biasing current easily
odulates the laser output. They operate at low poweran spite of their small size and low power
Tequirement, they produce power outputs equivalent to that of He-Ne lasers. The main advantage
0f a
diode laser is that it is portable. Because of the rapid advances in semiconductor
uOde laser are mass
technology,
produced for use in optical fibre communications, in CD players. CD-ROM
Tves, optical reading, high speed laser printing
ete-ide variety of applications.

Otherwise E, has the finite probability of excitation of Ne atoms from E, to E, level because E, is a
metastable state. This transition may lead a quenching of the population inversion.
4.20 Engineering Physics-ll
4.9.1 Semiconductor: Revision
A electrical
semiconductor is a
maerial with
and an insulator. The allowed energy values
properties intermediate
to those of a
conductor
or
ofthe
valence electrons in semiconductors occur
two welldefined energy bands separated by an energy gap known as band
within
gap. A Dire
semiconductor crystal has exactly enough electrons to fill all the states in the lower band, namely
valence band. However. when a covalent bond is just broken, an electron is just set free. Then
we
say that the electron jumped into the upper band, namely conduction band. The electron jumping
to theconduction band leaves behind a vacancy in the valence band. The vacancy is called a
and is assigned a positive charge and a mass equivalent to that of an electron. In a
hole
pure
semiconductor, for each covalent bond broken an electron and a hole are generated. Therefore,
the number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band
are
equal. When a conduction electron falls into the valance band, it recombines with a hole there
The electron rejoins the broken covalent bond and therefore both the electron and hole disappear.
In some crystals it is released in the form of light.
Doping with small amounts of impurities can drastically increase the electrical conductivity of
a pure semiconductor. When the dopant is a pentavalent element, each dopant atom contributes
an electron to the conduction band without creating a hole simultaneously in the valence band. Hene
the addition ofthe pentavalent element increases the number of conduction electrons which become
the majority carriers in the silicon crystal.
As negatively charged electrons are current carriers in this erystal, it is called a n-type
semiconductor. On the other hand, a trivalent dopant atom produces a hole in the valence band
without the simultaneous generation of electron in the conduction band. Hence the addition of the
of holes which become the majority carriers in the silicon
trivalent element inereasesthe number
crystal. As positively charged holes are current carriers in this crystal, it is called a p-type
semiconductor.
There is a reference level in the energy band diagram of each type of semiconductor. The
reference level is called the Fermi level. The Fermi level Eo is nearer to the top ofthe valence
band in the p-type semiconductor and the Fermi level E is nearer to the bottom of the conduction
band the the p-type and n-type semiconductor are
in n-ype semiconductor. When
atomic level to form a PN-junction device, equilibrium is attained oly when equalization of Fermi
joined at the
levels takes place. The energy levels in p-region move up and those in n-region move down till
the Fermi levels (E, and E) in both the regions come to the same level. The mutual displacement
of the energy levels on both sides of the junction causes a bending of the energy bands around
thejunction.
A 2 Semiconductor Laser
We know is passed through
that when current
a a
PNjunction, p-region being positively biased.
holes are injected from p-region into n-region and electrons from n-region into the p-region. I he

electrons and holes recombine and release of energy i.e. the activation energy or energy gap takes
place in or very near the junction region. In case of some semiconductors like Germanium anu
Silicon.most of theenergy is released in the/shape of heat becauseJthe recombination of carriers
 Lasers and Holography
Osite sign takes place through interaction with the atoms of the 4.21
cemiconductors such as alumArsenide (GaAs) and others, the energycrystals. But in case of other
the ato of the crystals are not involved in is released as fight because
the
ioht depends on activation energy of the crystal. release of energy. The wavetengths oemHted
ligh Photons, emitted at the moment of
ofan electron with a hole, will stimulate recombination of other recombination
t will be st/mulated emission of radiation. If these carriers of electric charges. The
made to move back and forth in the radiations, in moving the
plane of the junction
are
plane
junction of the
by reflection
sides and perpendicular to the plane of junction, a at opposite
parallel
can be produced.
very powerful laser beam of stimulated radiation

4.9.3 Population Inversion

Population inversion is required for
inversion is achieved in semiconductorsproducing
is very
stimulated emission. The way in which population
different from the
can not be regarded as two-level way
types of lasers. A it is established
semiconductor in other
elèctrons and holés distributed in the atomic system. It consists of
semiconductors involves energy bands rather respective energy bands. Therefore, laser action in
than discrete
Dopulation inversion is obtained by exciting electrons in levels, Scondly, in other types of lasers,
spatially isolated
In semiconductors,
electrons are not associated with specific atoms butatoms.
conduction band from the external circuit. are
injected into the
level while the valence band plays the Therefore, the conduction
band playsthE role of excited
role of ground level.
of electrons in the conductionPopulation inversion requires
the presence of a large
of holes in the valence
cancentration band and a large
band, A simple way to achieve population inversion concentration
semiconductor in the form of a PN-junction diode formed from
is to use a
semiconductors. heavily doped p- and n-type
4.9.4 Construction
Fig. 4.11 shows the schematic of a
semiconductormaterials, say, GaAs onsemiconductor laser.A simple diode makes use of the same
both sides of the junction.
Hype GaAs material, a p-region is formed on its top by Starting with a heavily doped
diffusing Zinc atoms into it.
Current flow

k - 1 0 0u m .

500 um-
P-type - (100)face

Active region
n-type

Metal
contacts

T Lasser
Output (fan shaped)
Cleaved end Optically flat
face (1)
Fig. 4.11: Schematic of semiconductor diode laser
 Engineering Physics-I
(4.22
A heavily Zine doped layer constitutes the heavily doped p-region, The diode is extremely Smal
and about 100 Jum wide and thick.
in size. Typical diode chips are 500um long
The top and bottonm faces are metallized and metal contacts are provided to pass current ugh
the diode. The front and rear faces are polished parallelto each other and perpendicular to th
plane of the junetion. The polished faces constitute the Fabry-Perot resonator cavity. In practice
there is no necessity to polish the faces. A pair ot parallel planes cleaved at the two ends of the
reflection to form the cavity. The two remaining sides of the
PN-junction provides the required
diode are roughened to eliminate lasing action in that direction. The entire structure is packaged

in small case which looks like the metal case used for discrete transistors.

Ec

Ey
Holes

E E
Ec
********
Ev
n-Type Junction p-Type
(a)

Electrons
Inversion
EF 2 Region

-Ec
hv

E h v

hv Ev
Holes

Ev
o
. O EFp

n-Type p-Type
Junction

(b)
Fig. 4.12Energy band structure of a semiconductor diode
(a) Heavily doped PN-junction without bias.
value
(b) Heavily doped PN-junction forward biased above threshold
 Lasers and Holography
4.9.5 Theory {4.23
The energy band diagram or a
high doping on n-side, the heavily doped PN-junction is shown in Fig.
offverv
v
donor levels are broadened and
ho Fermi level also is pu_hed into
The 4.12(a). Because
the conduction band. extend into the conduction band.
anduction band lying below
the
n the valence band andFerimi level. Similarly, on the Electrons occupy theportion of the
nével. At thermal holes heavily
occupy the portion of the doped p-side the Fermi level
equilibrium,
the
fermi level is uniform valenceband that lies above n
The wavelength of the
emitted across the junction.
centor atoms in Ga As and aiso light radiation depends upon the
on the
concentration of donor and
Calculation of wavelength of emitted energy gap of the particular semiconductor.
Suppose the band gap of GaAs is
radiation
1.44 eV, then
the band gap is
E=hv
hc 6.625x10-S4 x3x10$
= 8628A
Bg 1.44x1.6x10-19
Thus, GaAs laser emits infrared
radiation.
4.9.6 Working
The population inversion is
achieved
to
p-regions by means of a forwardbybiasing
the injectingelectrons across the junction
forward-baised, electrons and holes are voltage applied across it. from the n-region
In other words, carriers injected into the junction region in When the junction is
are
pumped by the DC
electron-hole recombination causes high concentrations.
voltage source. At low forward current
Asthe forward current spontaneous emission of photons and level, the
through
However, when the current
the junction is increased
the intensity of thejunction acts as an LED.
reaches a threshold value (see Fig. 4.13), thelight încreases linearly.
Inthe junction region will rise to a very carrier concentrations
high value. As a result, the
conainsa large concentration of electrons within the junction region (Fig. 4.12(b))
within the valence band. Holes conduction band and simultaneously a large
umber of holes
represent absence of electrons.

LED
Operation
(Spontaneous
emission)
Laser operation
(Stimulated emission)

Laser Current
threshold
94.13: Light output-current characteristic of an ideal diode lat
 Engineering Physics-lI
4.24
Thus. the upper energy levels in the narrow region are having a high electron population wL:
nile
the lower energy levels in the same region are vacant. Theretore, the condition of populati
ation
inversion is attained in thenarrow junction region This narrowzone in which population inversjon
occurs is called an inversion region or active region. Chance recombination acts of electe
ectron
and hole pairs lead to emission of spontaneous photons. The spontaneous photons propagatina
the junction plane stimulate the conduction electrons to jump into the vacant states of valence band
This stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherentradiation.GaAs laser emits light
at a wavelength of $628Å in IR region. In addition to this, if the current density is increased tha
emission becomes more and more coherent and the radiation intensityincreases. Thus, we get
stimulated emission of radiation along the PN junction.
The most interesting characteristic of semiconductor lasers are their high efficiency, high
coefficient of amplification and very small dimension.

4.9.7 Advantages
1. The modulation of the output is possible by controlling the junction current.
2. It is small in dimension but, exhibits high efficiency.

3. The fabrication is easy. It can give a continuous wave output.

4.9.8 Disadvantages
1. The output is usually in the form of a wide beam i.e, it has large beam divergence.
2. Threshold current density is very large.
poorer than in other types of laser.
The monochromaticity and coherence are

4.10 Q-SWITCHING
factor, a
an oscillator, its resonator is characterized by the quality
cavity
Since a laser is of the energy W stO
is done in the case of an electronic oscillator. Q is defined as the ratio
in the sy stem to the energy losses AW per cycle. Thus,
Energy stored in the resonator
Quality factor =
Q= 27-
Energy lost in a cycle
. 4.15)
W
21W of the order of 10.
-factor

In case of lasers, quality factor Q is very high and is

is a measure of the mirror losses in laser. o fa t o m s

be drastically increased, provided a very largenumoe high

The power of a laser beam can
in the active medium participates in stimulated emission. It can happen only wne s t a r t s

he laser
when
is established in the active medium. Normally
s t a t e

population density
inversion l c a d y .

oscillations, the high population inversion drops back to the threshold value of tne
 -
Lasers and Holography (4.25
ndition. It becomes therefore necessary that the onset of oscillations is
co nd
delayed until largest
cihle number of atoms accumulates at the upper lasing level. The laser can be
prevented fromn
llating if, for example, the parallelism of the resonator mirrors is disturbed. If one of the end
nirror is nmisaligned, it can not reflect incident
photons into the active medium and therefore,
stimulated emission can not take place. Consequently, the pumping process can build up the
nanulation
pop inversion to a very high value in the medium. In
effect, Q-factor of resonator is spoiled
and optical losses are increased to a high value. If now the end mirror is aligned suddenly, it reflects
nhotons into the medium. The feed back of photons
triggers a chain of stimulated emissions and
builds up rapidly photon avalanche. Thus, laser oscillations set in
a
suddenly and the Q of
the cavity is increased abrupty. All the energy stored in the
cavify is emitted in a single
giant pulse with peak power much higher than the laser could
produce otherwise. The
Dulse lasts for a short time (microseconds) and
depopulates the upper energy level
quickly and the lasing action stops. This method of controlling the laser output
power
is called Q-switching method. Hence
Q-switching is a technique to obtain a high_poweréd
single pulse of laser for a short time. Q-switching can be done by
from very low to drastically very high value of
Q-switches, which switches
quality factor Q of laser.
4.10.1 Method of Q-Switching
An electro-optic shutter can serve as a
voltage controlled gate which rapidly switches the cavity
from a passive to an active state. The shutter
consists of a crystal that becomes double
when an electric field is refracting
applied across the crystal. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.14.
Vertical
Mirror polarizer
Electro-optic cell Mirror
Laser Medium

- Beam traveling
to right

Polarization Beam traveling to

of the light at
left, when cell is
position shown
switched on

Beam traveling
to left, with the
a cell switched off

Fig. 4.14: Electro-optic cell used as Q-switch

 4.26 EngineeringPhysics-lI
A voltage is applied to the erystal during the pumping of the laser by the light from a flash
lamp. The magnitude of the voltage is chosen such that it trasforms the electro-optic crystal into
a quarterwave plate. Light emitted by the laser becomes linearly polarized on passing throuoh
the polarizer. The linearly polarized light is then incident on the electro-optic crystal and
into two mutually perpendicular components. As the two components travel through the
gets split
electro
optic crystal, a relative phase retardation of 90° is produced between them. On emerging from
m
the electro-optic crystal, the two components combine to produce circularly polarized light. The
light beam reflects from the mirror and returns to the cavity traveling in the opposite direction.
On reflection, the sense of rotation of the circularly polarized light reverses and on repassing through
the crystal, the two components of circularly polarized light experience a further retardation of90°
with respect to each other. Coming out of the crystal at the other end, the components recombine
to produce linearly polarized light. The direction of polarization ofthe light is now at 90° with respect
to its original direction ofpolarization and transmission axis of the polarizer. This light is not allowed
to pass through the polarizer. Therefore, light does not come back to the laser rod and the cavity
is switched off. Thus, the cavity Q is reduced to a low value. When the. voltage applied to the
electro-optic crystal is turned off, double refraction is absent in the crystal and the state of
polarization of the light passing through the crystal is unaffected. Light freely travels in both
directions and returns to the laser rod to be further amplified. Now, the cavity is switched on and
the Q regains its high value. The Q-switching is synchronized with pumping mechanism such that
the voltage applied to the electro-optic crystal drops to zero value at the time when the population
inversion in the laser medium attains its peak value.

4.11 LASER APPLICATIONSs

Laser are employed in a wide range of applications.
( a In Industry

In industries, lasers are applied to a larger extent for the following processes.

) For welding and melting.

(2) For cutting and drilling holes

(3) To test the quality of the materials.

(4) For the heat treatment of metallic and non-metallic materials.

(b) In Medicine
(1) Used for the treatment of detached retinas.

(2) Used in performing micro and bloodless surgery.

(3) Used for the treatment of human and animal cancers and skin tumou
 Lasers and Holography
(c) Military applications 4.27
/1 The laser beam can serve as a
wave
in weapon, i.e. A powerful laser beam be used
to destroy a few
seconds, the big size objects like can

the laser beam on to them. For this aeroplanes, missiles etc., by pointing
reason, it can be even called as death ray.
(2) The laser beam can be used to
determine precisely the distance,
as well the size and form of distant objects by means of
as velocity and direction
as LIDAR. the reflected signal. it is known
dScience and engineering applications
(1) It is used in fiber optic communication.
(2) Communication between planets is possible with laser.
(3) It is used in holography.

(4) It is used in under water

communication between submarines, as they are not easily
absorbed by water.

(5) It is used to accelerate some chemical reactions.

(6) It is used to create new chemical compounds

by destroying atomic bonds between molecules.
(7) It is used to drill minute holes in cell walls without damaging the cell itself.