ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11, pp.

2343–2354
https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2022-047

Effect of Air Temperature on the Thermal Behavior and

Mechanical Properties of Wire Rod Steel during Stelmor Cooling

Joong-Ki HWANG*

School of Mechatronics Engineering, Korea University of Technology & Education, Cheonan, 31253 Republic of Korea.
(Received on February 8, 2022; accepted on June 28, 2022; J-STAGE Advance published date: August
18, 2022)

The effect of air temperature (Ta) on the thermal behavior and mechanical properties of steel wire rods
is investigated during the Stelmor air cooling process using a numerical model and an offline cooling
simulator. During the Stelmor cooling process, the temperature of the wire rod measured in the summer
(28°C) is higher than that in the winter (4°C). The average temperature difference of the wire rod between
the seasons is approximately 5°C. In addition, the tensile strength (TS) in the summer is lower than that
in the winter: the average TS difference between the seasons is approximately 19 MPa. The different cool-
ing rates of the wire rod depending on Ta are associated with the simple temperature difference between
seasons instead of variations in the thermophysical properties of air with temperature. The variation in the
cooling rate of the wire rod with Ta is affected significantly by forced convection because the absolute
value of the forced convection is approximately 10 times higher than that of natural convection, and the
heat flux by thermal radiation is almost unchanged by Ta. The forced convective heat transfer coefficient
decreases with Ta because the Reynolds number decreases owing to the decrease in density and increase
in kinematic viscosity of air as Ta increases. The deviation in temperature of the wire rod between the
summer and winter seasons increases in a wire rod with a small diameter that is fabricated using high
forced air because the amount of forced convection increases as the wire diameter decreases and the
applied air velocity increases. It is concluded that different working conditions are necessary depending
on the Ta, particularly when the wire diameter is small, the blower power is high, and the laying head
temperature is high during the Stelmor cooling process.

KEY WORDS: air temperature; wire rod steel; cooling rate; Stelmor.

deviation with season causes quality issues in the final

1. Introduction
In the manufacturing of wire rod steels measuring 5–25
mm in diameter in mass-scale operations, the Stelmor type
cooling process is typically adopted owing to its wide cooling
rate spectrum afforded by the use of simple cooling equip-
ment.1–5) For slow cooling, insulator covers are used because
they reduce the thermal radiation from the wire rod to the sur-
rounding. Air-blowing fans are used to cool wire rods rapidly
because they increase the heat transfer mechanism of forced
convection.6) Consequently, most steel wire rod manufactures
adopt the Stelmor type cooling process to achieve their price
competitiveness in the wire rod steel industry.7,8)
However, in spite of its competitiveness in term of pro-
duction cost, the Stelmor type cooling process presents
some disadvantages that must be solved to satisfy the higher
quality demands of customers. One of the issues in Stelmor
cooling is the deviation in the mechanical properties of the
wire rod depending on season. In other words, the tensile
strength (TS) of the wire rod differs between the summer
and winter seasons. For example, the TS of the wire rod
in the summer was lower than that in the winter. This TS
* Corresponding author: E-mail: jkhwang@koreatech.ac.kr
product and operating problems in the downstream wire
drawing process. In addition, this fluctuation of mechanical
properties depending on season necessitated downstream
annealing, normalizing, or patenting heat treatments.
In case of pearlitic steels, which are primarily fabricated
using the Stelmor cooling process with forced air, many
steel making companies have attempted to obtain a fine
pearlite microstructure by controlling the cooling rate, since
the strength of pearlitic steels increases with decreasing
lamellar spacing.2,9–11) Accordingly, the reduced cooling
rate of the wire rod with increasing air temperature (Ta)
decreases the TS of pearlitic steel.12) In addition, the range
of required specification in TS and microstructures of
pearlitic steels becomes narrow as the strength of wire rod
increases. In this harsh situation, the TS deviation of wire
rod depending on Ta or season becomes a more significant
issue in the wire rod manufacturing industry to meet the
stringent customer’s demands.
Although several studies exist regarding TS deviation
in the wire ring owing to the wire ring geometry during
Stelmor cooling, few studies have been reported regarding
the effect of Ta on the cooling behavior in Stelmor cooling.
For example, the TS deviation of the wire ring reduced

© 2022 The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11

by using the different coolants such as molten salt bath,13,14) cooling simulator used in the present study are shown in
hot water,15,16) and mist.17) In these processes, new coolants Fig. 1. The offline simulator primarily comprises a conveyor
are introduced, which increases the cooling rate of the wire roller, an electric reheating furnace, a centrifugal air blower,
rod as well as the uniformity of the mechanical properties a duct, an air nozzle, and a wire ring. The duct has mesh
of the wire ring. However, the application of new coolants wire screens to make the uniform flow from the blower to
is costly and difficult to implement in industrial plants. the air nozzle. The wire rod was heated to 880°C for the
Hence, a practical solution for controlling the cooling rate temperature measurement test and 1 050°C for the mechani-
is to modify the process conditions of the Stelmor cooling cal test under N2 gas to reduce the formation of oxide scale
process. Particularly, tailoring the air velocity with region on the wire surface. After 600 s-soaking at the target heating
of the wire ring might be a practical approach. For example, temperature, the wire rod was drawn to a conveyor roller
some researchers increased the TS uniformity of wire ring with forced air. The wire rod was cooled in the forced air
by modifying the distribution of air velocity during the on the conveyor roller while it was shifted back and forth
Stelmor cooling process.18–20) owing to the limited length of the conveyor roller of the
However, all of them have not considered the variation offline simulator as shown in Fig. 1. The diameter of the
in Ta based on season. To the best of our knowledge, only wire ring was 650 mm and its ring pitch was 45 mm because
one study was reported regarding the thermal behavior of a the width of the cooling simulator used in this study was 850
wire ring depending on Ta. Xue et al.12) reported the effect mm. SWRH82A high carbon steel with a 10 mm-diameters
of Ta and humidity on the thermal behavior of wire rods in a was used (Table 1) because it is generally produced under
Stelmor type air cooling process using SWRH82B pearlitic forced air cooling conditions via Stelmor cooling. The cool-
steel with 12.5 mm in diameter. They showed that the TS
of the wire rod varied with the weather conditions, i.e., the
TS of the wire rod decreased with Ta. Furthermore, they Table 1. Chemical compositions of the SWRH82A wire rod steel
discovered that the cooling rate increased with decreasing used in the present study.
Ta and increasing air humidity. However, the study primar- Element C Mn Si P S Fe
ily focused on the results of the cooling rate of the wire rod
with Ta and the corresponding humidity. Accordingly, some Weight percent 0.82 0.42 0.2 < 0.01 < 0.01 Balance
ambiguities need to be clarified, i.e., the underlying cooling
mechanism and the effects of process conditions on the cool-
ing behavior of the wire rod depending on Ta. Table 2. Working conditions of cooling test using offline Stelmor
Meanwhile, studies pertaining to the water temperature for cooling simulator.
plate and sheet cooling during hot steel slab rolling have been Parameter Value
extensively reported because the thermal properties and cool-
ing mechanism of water vary with water temperature.21–23) Test wire rod
SWRH82A
These results reveal that the cooling rate of the steel plate or steel
sheet increased with decreasing water temperature. Wire rod
10 mm
Therefore, this study investigated the effect of Ta depend- Specimens diameter
ing on season on the cooling rate of wire rods to understand Ring diameter 650 mm
how it affects the mechanical properties of the wire ring.
In addition, the effects of air velocity, wire diameter, and Ring pitch 45 mm
laying head (LH) temperature on the cooling behavior of Temperature in 880°C for temperature measurement
the wire rod with Ta were evaluated to propose the optimal furnace 1 050°C for TS measurement
design options for process designers during Stelmor type
Soaking time in
cooling. The results were primarily derived via both numeri- furnace
600 s
cal simulations using a thermal model and experiments Process
using an offline Stelmor cooling simulator. conditions
Air velocity at
30 m/s
air nozzle

2. Experimental Procedures Conveyor speed 0.3 m/s

2.1. Stelmor Cooling Test Using Offline Simulator Average ambient 4.3°C in winter and 27.7°C in
temperature summer
A schematic diagram and an image of an offline Stelmor

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration and photograph of offline Stelmor cooling simulator used in this study. (Online version in
color.)

© 2022 ISIJ 2344

 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11

ing experiments were conducted at an air velocity of 30 m/s.
The air velocity at the nozzle was measured using a veloc-
ity meter with pitot static tube. The process conditions are
presented in Table 2. The test was conducted in the summer
and winter seasons using the same process conditions and
operators. In other words, same wire ring was used for tem-
perature measurements. Meanwhile, for the measurement of
TS, different two wire rings with the same ring conditions
such as ring diameter, ring pitch, and ring contact point were
used because each wire ring was divided into several pieces
after the cooling test to evaluate the TS.
2.2. Measurements of Temperature and Mechanical
Properties
The temperatures at the center and edge regions of the
wire ring were measured using K-type thermocouples with
1.0 mm-diameter, which were embedded in the wire ring
before the experiment. Figure 2(a) presents a schematic
illustration of the measurement points of temperature in
the wire ring using thermocouples and the embedded posi-
tion of the thermocouple. The hole was drilled to a depth
of 5.0 mm in the wire rod, and then the thermocouple was
embedded in a hole to reduce the thermal disturbance on the
surface of wire rod24) and to avoid the undesired breakage of
thermocouples as it travels the conveyor roller. Temperature
data were gathered using a multi-channel date recorder at a
sampling interval of 0.2 s. The inset in Fig. 2(a) shows that
the measured ambient temperature in the winter and sum-
mer seasons was approximately 4°C and 28°C, respectively.
The uncertainty of the thermal behavior of the wire rod
depending on Ta was primarily achieved based on tempera-
ture measurements using thermocouples. The error in this
thermocouple was approximately 0.75% of the measured
value in the temperature range from 20 to 1 250°C. The
error of the data recorder was approximately ± 0.05%. In
addition, the depth accuracy of the thermocouple in the wire
rod was to ± 0.5 mm. The total error of the measured tem-
perature performed with the thermocouple was determined
to within ± 3.0%.
Tensile tests were performed at a strain rate of 10 − 3 s − 1
using an Instron machine at room temperature. After the
cooling experiments in the winter and summer seasons,
six wire rings were chosen, subsequently each wire ring
was segmented into eight sections as illustrated in Fig.
2(b): 2 in the center region (③⑦), 4 in the middle region
(②④⑥⑧), and 2 in the edge region (①⑤). Subsequently,
tensile tests were carried out to evaluate the TS and standard
deviation of the TS within the wire ring using the same
Instron machine. The yield strength and elongation were not
measured because no standard tensile specimens were used
in this mechanical test. In other words, tensile tests were
performed in the state of the wire rod.
3. Numerical Model
3.1. Physical Problem and Assumptions
Figure 3 shows a schematic illustration of the numerical
modeling under consideration. Heat transfer along the lon-
gitudinal direction of the wire rod was disregarded because
the wire rod was infinitely long and the temperature differ-
ence along the longitudinal direction was much smaller than
that along the radial direction of the wire rod. Therefore,
the conductive heat transfer along the longitudinal direc-
tion of the wire during the cooling process is negligible.
However, the heat transfer along the radial direction of the
wire rod is not negligible because of the mass effect of the
wire. Additionally, the cooling of the wire ring by conduc-
tive heat transfer associated with the contact between the
wire ring and conveyor roller was disregarded in this study.
In this case, the wire was assumed to be axisymmetric,
indicating that one-dimensional (1D) analysis is sufficient
for analyzing the temperature field of the wire rod during
Stelmor cooling.
The total heat flux on the wire surface was used as the
thermal boundary condition. During the Stelmor cooling
process, forced convective heat transfer needs to be con-
sidered because the wire rod is cooled by the forced air
driven by the fan under the conveyor roller.25) In addition,

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of (a) temperature measurement using thermocouple and (b) obtained tensile specimen
within wire ring. Inset in (a) shows measured air temperature in winter and summer seasons. (Online version in
color.)

Fig. 3. (a) Physical domain, (b) associated heat transfer mechanisms, and (c) typical microstructure of SWRH82A wire
rod steel during Stelmor cooling process under forced air. (Online version in color.)

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11
both the radiative and natural convective heat transfers must
be considered because of the high temperature difference
between the wire rod and ambient air.26,27)
Phase transformation occurs during the cooling processes
of plain carbon steels. Austenitic phase is transformed into
pearlitic, ferritic, and/or martensitic phases. During the
phase transformation of steels, latent heat is released28–30)
because each phase has different specific heats. Accord-
ingly, the latent heat caused by the phase transformation in
plain carbon steels needs to be considered during the cooling
process because the phase transformation affects the thermal
behavior of steels. Based on the microstructural evolution
of the SWRH82A wire rod steel after the cooling process
under forced air (Fig. 3), austenite was fully transformed
into pearlite in this steel. In other words, no pro-eutectoid
ferrite, pro-eutectoid cementite, martensite, and bainite were
generated during the cooling process under forced air.
The thermophysical properties of both the wire rod steel
and air were only described as function of temperature
herein.
3.2. Thermophysical Properties of Air Depending on
Temperature
The thermal properties of air depend on temperature,
and the variation in the thermal properties of air changed
the heat transfer coefficient during the cooling process of
the wire rod. Figure 4 shows the density (ρa), specific
heat (cp,a), kinematic viscosity (υ), thermal diffusivity (α),
thermal conductivity (ka), and volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient (β) of air as a function of temperature.31) It is
observed that cp,a, υ, α, and ka increase with Ta, whereas ρa
and β decrease with Ta.
3.3. Thermal Properties of Eutectoid Plain Carbon
Steel
The density, thermal conductivity, and specific heat of
steel are dependent on temperature. Figure 5 presents the
thermal conductivity and specific heat of the eutectoid steel
as a function of temperature based on Ref. 32). In pearlitic
steels, the thermal conductivity (kp) tends to decrease with
increasing temperature, whereas the thermal conductivity of
austenitic steels (kγ) increased gradually with temperature.
The specific heat of both microstructures increased with
temperature. During cooling, the k and cp of the wire rod
Fig. 4. Thermophysical properties of air as a function of temperature: (a) density and specific heat, (b) kinematic vis-
cosity and thermal diffusivity, (c) thermal conductivity, and (d) volumetric thermal expansion coefficient.
(Online version in color.)
© 2022 ISIJ
were obtained using the calculation of each phase fraction
(Xi) as follows:
k (T ) = ∑ ki ( T ) Xi ........................ (1)
i =γ , p
c p ( T ) = ∑ i =γ , p c p,i ( T ) Xi ...................... (2)
Meanwhile, the density of the wire rod was calculated
using the following equation, regardless of the phase.32,33)
ρ ( T ) = 7 840 − 0.367T ( °C ) .................... (3)
3.4. Governing Equation and Boundary Conditions
Since the temperature gradients along the axial and
angular directions of the wire rod were disregarded, the
temperature distribution of the wire rod was governed by
the following 1D transient conduction equation in cylindri-
cal coordinates:
∂T ∂  ∂T  1  ∂T 
ρcp = k + k + qL ............. (4)
∂t ∂r  ∂r  r  ∂r 
where t denotes the time, and r is the radial coordinate of
the domain. qL is the heat source generated by the latent
heat released by the phase transformation of the wire rod
during the cooling process. The amount of heat released
from the phase transformation is typically calculated using
the enthalpy difference (ΔH) and volume fraction change
(ΔX) of each phase in a specified time step (Δt).34,35) In this
study, eutectoid steel was cooled under forced air cooling
conditions; therefore, the austenite was fully transformed
into pearlite (Fig. 3). In this case, the heat generated by the
phase transformation can be calculated as follows:
∆X p
qL = ρ∆H p ............................. (5)
∆t
The Avrami-type equation is typically used to calculate X
during the cooling process.36) In this study, ΔH was used
based on the results of Kramer et al.37) as shown in Fig. 6,
because the chemical composition of the present steel was
similar to that of Kramer et al.’s and several researchers
have well predicted the thermal behavior of plain carbon
steels using this result.25,34,38)
Boundary and initial conditions must be specified to solve
Eq. (4). At the center of the wire rod, it was assumed that
the temperature distribution was symmetrical, and heat was
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 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11

Fig. 5. Variations in (a) thermal conductivity and (b) specific heat of eutectoid plain carbon steel used in this study as a
function of temperature. (Online version in color.)

Table 3. C and n values with Re number for forced convection.

ReD C n
4–40 0.911 0.385
40–4 000 0.683 0.466
4 000–40 000 0.193 0.618
400 000–400 000 0.027 0.805

Table 4. C and n values with Ra number for natural convection.

RaD C n
Fig. 6. Variation in enthalpy of transformation in plain carbon
10 − 10–10 − 2 0.675 0.058
steel during phase transformation with temperature.
(Online version in color.) 10 − 2–102 1.020 0.148
102–104 0.850 0.188
dissipated at the surface of the wire rod as follows: 4
10 –10 7
0.480 0.250
∂T
= 0 at r = 0 ............................. (6)
∂r
∂T where C and n are constants that are empirically determined
−k (T ) = ht ( Ts − T∞ ) at r = R ............... (7) by the Reynolds (Re) number as listed in Table 3. In such
∂r a case, Re is defined as follows:
where R is the radius of the wire rod. ht is the total heat VD
transfer coefficient, which mainly comprises three heat ReD = ................................ (10)
transfer coefficients, as follows: v
ht = h f + hn + hr .............................. (8) The Prantl (Pr) number is defined as the ratio of the kine-
matic viscosity to the thermal diffusivity of air as follows:
where hf, hn, and hr indicate the forced convective, natural v
convective, and radiative heat transfer coefficients, respec- Pr = ................................... (11)
tively. α
It is assumed that the wire rod has a constant temperature Secondly, the heat of wire rod was dissipated through
of 880°C prior to cooling. an air flow driven by the density difference, that is, natural
convection. Although natural convection does not dominant
3.5. Heat Transfer Coefficients the heat dissipation of the wire rod, it cannot be disregarded,
After hot rolling, wire ring on the conveyer roller in and the coefficient of natural convection was calculated
Stelmor cooling process primarily dissipates heat through using the following empirical equation:31)
forced convective, radiative, and natural convective heat k
transfer as illustrated in Fig. 3. The wire rod on the conveyer hn = C RaD n ............................. (12)
roller is assumed to be a circular cylinder. In this case, the D
wire rod can be cooled by a cross-flow. It is noteworthy here both C and n are empirically determined constants
that the assumption mentioned above is only valid in the using the Rayleigh (Ra) number as listed in Table 4. In this
central region of the wire ring owing to the geometric simi- cooling system, Ra is represented as follows:
larity.39) Under the assumption, the heat transfer coefficient g β ( Ts − T∞ ) D 3
can be calculated using well-established simple empirical RaD = ...................... (13)
equations. vα
Firstly, the heat of the wire rod was dissipated by forced where g is the gravitational acceleration.
air under the conveyor roller, that is, forced convection. It Thirdly, the heat of the wire ring was dissipated into the
has been widely reported5,26,34,40–42) that the diameter (D) of ambient via radiation. Although geometric factors includ-
the wire rod and the air velocity (V) are the main parameters ing the ring pitch, the ring shape, and the distance from
governing the cooling behavior of the wire rod. Accord- the ring to surrounding mechanical components affect the
ingly, the forced convective heat transfer coefficient of the radiation,43) the radiative heat transfer coefficient is gener-
circular cylinder under cross-flow is empirically represented ally calculated as follows:
as follows:31) ε sσ ( Ts4 − T∞4 )
hr = ......................... (14)
k
h f = C ReD n Pr 0.33 .......................... (9) (Ts − T∞ )
D where εs is the total emissivity including the shape factor,

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11
and εs was calculated based on the results of experimen-
tal tests performed in this study. Here, σ is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, Ts the surface temperature of the wire
rods, and T∞ the surrounding or ambient temperature. The
dimensionless numbers and thermal properties of air were
obtained based on the film temperature (Tf), which was
calculated as follows:
Ts + T∞
Tf = .............................. (15)
2
3.6. Phase Transformation Model
It is known that the isothermal kinetics of the austenite
decomposition can be described based on the Avrami-type
equation36) as follows:
X = X e 1 − exp ( −bt n )  ...................... (16)
e
here X indicates the thermodynamic equilibrium fraction,
which is determined based on the equilibrium phase diagram
at a specific pressure, chemical composition, and tempera-
ture. The b and n values are important constants to be deter-
mined experimentally for the prediction of the phase trans-
formation of metals.44) The n value is assumed to be constant
regardless of temperature when the mechanism of phase
transformation is fixed, whereas the b value is dependent
on the temperature and phase transformation mechanism.
To describe the non-isothermal kinetics of metals during
the continuous cooling process, Eq. (16) is extended based
on the theory of the additivity rule proposed by Scheil.45,46)
Diffusional phase transformations occur after the incubation
period during the cooling process. According to the additiv-
ity rule, a continuous cooling process or non-isothermal
kinetics are regarded as the summation of the infinitesimal
segments of the isothermal step. In this case, the incubation
time is assumed to be complete and phase transformation
begins when the following equation is satisfied:
∆t
∑ t =0 τ (Ti ) = 1 ............................. (17)
t
where τ is the time required for the transformation start
under isothermal condition at the current isotherm Ti or the
incubation time of time-temperature-transformation dia-
gram. The phase fraction transformed during the i th step
(Xi) is determined as following equation:47,48)
Xi = Xie 1 − exp ( −b(t ′ + ∆t )n )  ................ (18)
1 better understanding of the temperature deviation between
 1  Xi −1   n
t ′ =  − ln  1 − e   ..................... (19)
 b  Xi  
here t′ is the transformation time required to achieve Xi − 1 in
the i th step. The latent heat by phase transformation in Eq.
(5) was calculated using the following incremental fraction
transformed in the i th time step:
∆Xi = Xi − Xi −1 ............................ (20)
The b and n values need to be determined by perform-
ing the isothermal cooling experiments. In this study, no
experiment was conducted to determine the b and n values
because the b and n values for pearlitic reaction have been
reported previously. For example, Campebell et al.25) suc-
cessfully predicted the temperature history of plain carbon
steels during a Stelmor type air cooling process. Therefore,
the b and n values adopted by Campebell et al.49) were used
in the present study. For 0.82 wt.% carbon steel, the n value
was set to 2.15 regardless of temperature, and the b value
was described as a function of temperature as shown in
Fig. 7. For the calculation of n, b, and incubation time, the
effects of plastic deformation prior to the cooling process
and austenite grain size on the transformation kinetics were
not considered in this study.
© 2022 ISIJ
Fig. 7. Variation in ln b in pearlitic steel with temperature during
the cooling process. (Online version in color.)
3.7. Numerical Methods and Grid Independency
The heat transfer equation in Eq. (4) is impossible to be
solved owing to the temperature dependency of the thermal
properties and latent heat by phase transformation; there-
fore, it was discretized in space and time using a central dif-
ference scheme to simulate the heat conduction phenomenon
of the wire rod, as described by Patnakar.50) The discretized
equations were solved iteratively using the tridiagonal
matrix algorithm until the temperature contour within the
wire rod satisfied the convergence criterion as follows:
 Ti − Ti old 
 ≤ 10 ...................... (21)
−6
max 
 Ti 
where Ti and Tiold are the present and previous iteration
values in the time step, respectively.
A grid convergence test was performed using the three
mesh systems for a time step of 0.5 s: the first one had 21
elements; the second 31 elements; and the third 41 elements.
Based on the results of the temperature profiles, the three
mesh systems showed similar results; therefore, the first grid
system was adopted.
4. Results
4.1. Experimental Results
Figure 8(a) shows the measured temperature histories
of the wire ring at the central and edge regions with Ta. In
both regions, the temperatures measured during the summer
season were higher than those in the winter season. For a
the two seasons, the temperature difference (ΔT) of the wire
rod was defined as following equation, and the results are
shown in Fig. 8(b).
∆T = Tsummer − Twinter ......................... (22)
The average temperature difference of the wire rod with
the season was approximately 5°C, and the temperature dif-
ference at the edge region of the wire rod between the two
seasons was somewhat higher than that at the center region.
Furthermore, Fig. 8(b) shows that the temperature difference
between the two seasons did not increase monotonically
with the cooling time owing to the latent heat released by
the phase transformation of the pearlitic steel during the
cooling process.
Figure 9(a) compares the measured TS of the wire ring
manufactured during the summer and winter seasons. The
TS of the wire rod fabricated during the summer season was
lower than that in the winter season. The average TS differ-
ence between the seasons was approximately 19 MPa. The
edge region exhibited a higher TS deviation despite a lower
number of tensile specimens compared with the center and
middle regions. In addition, the standard deviation of the TS
decreased in the winter season compared with the summer
season as shown in Fig. 9(b), which is unexpected and dif-
ficult to explain in this study.
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 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11

Fig. 8. Comparison of measured temperature (a) profiles and (b) differences in wire ring between summer and winter
seasons with the region. (Online version in color.)

Fig. 9. Comparison of (a) tensile strength with ring position and (b) standard deviation of tensile strength with season.
Number in (a) indicates the wire ring number in Fig. 2(b). (Online version in color.)

Fig. 10. Comparison of the measured temperature profiles using offline simulator and predicted temperature profiles
using model at (a) center and (b) edge regions. (Online version in color.)

4.2. Numerical Results
4.2.1. Model Validation
Figure 10(a) compares the temperature profiles at the
central region between the experimental test and numeri-
cal simulation with the cooling time. In this study, εs was
assumed to be 0.65 based on the temperature comparison
between the experiment and simulation. The predicted tem-
peratures of the center region exhibited a reasonable agree-
ment with the measured values although the results of the
model were over-predicted during the phase transformation
of the steel. This indicates that the phase transformation
model used in this study needs to be modified. Especially,
the ΔH by phase transformation used in this study should
be reduced based on the present results.
The edge temperature of the wire ring is difficult to pre-
dict owing to the geometric complexity of the wire ring. In
this study, the correction factor (φ) was used to predict the
temperature in the edge region based on the ht in the center
region as follows:
ht ,e = ϕ ht ,c ................................ (23)
In other words, the value of φ was determined by compar-
ing the predicted temperatures with the measured tempera-
tures of the edge regions as a function of the cooling time.
The obtained φ value was approximately 0.72 as shown in
Fig. 10(b). The model also over-predicted the temperature
in the edge region during the phase transformation.
Overall, the predicted temperature of the wire rod was in
good agreement before the phase transformation using the
correction factor; however, the temperature by the present
model was overpredicted compared with measured tempera-
ture during the phase transformation. These results showed
that the phase transformation model or each coefficient for
prediction used in this study should be modified to obtain
the more accurate result. However, this study was conducted
based on the assumption that the mechanical properties of
the wire ring depend on the cooling rate of wire rod until
just before the phase transformation of the material. Accord-
ingly, additional modifications of phase transformation
model were not conducted in this study.
4.2.2. Influence of Air Temperature
To evaluate the effect of Ta on the thermal behavior of
the wire ring during Stelmor cooling, the proposed model
was executed with different Ta values. Figure 11(a) com-
pares the temperature histories of the wire ring at the center
region for different Ta using the model. Figure 11(b) shows
a comparison of the cooling rate and transformation start-
ing temperature based on Fig. 11(a). The cooling rate was
calculated based on the wire surface temperature at 700°C,
and the transformation starting temperature was defined as
the minimum temperature in the initial stage of the phase
transformation of the steel. The transformation starting
temperature increased and the cooling rate decreased as Ta
increased. Based on the present results in center region of
the wire ring, the relation between cooling rate (CR) and TS

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Fig. 11. (a) Comparison of temperature profiles of wire rod and (b) variations in the cooling rate and transformation
starting temperature at center region with air temperature.

Fig. 12. Comparison of (a) center temperature profiles and (b) temperature differences of wire ring between summer
and winter seasons for the different air velocities.

Fig. 13. Comparison of (a) center temperature profiles and (b) temperature differences of wire rod between summer and
winter seasons for different wire diameters.

of this wire rod can be derived as follows:
TS ( MPa ) = 523.8 + 51.4 ⋅ CR ( °C / s ) ........... (24)
This result showed that TS increased with increasing cool-
ing rate, which is highly related to the grain refinement
effect by the small lamellar spacing of pearlitic steel with
increasing cooling rate because it has been reported that the
lamellar spacing of pearlitic steel decreases as the cooling
rate increases or the transformation starting temperature
decreases.51)
mor cooling process, the thermal behavior was evaluated
using the model. Figure 13(a) compares the temperature
profiles of the wire rod at the central region with D and Ta.
As expected, the cooling rate increased significantly as D
decreased.52) In addition, the temperature difference of the
wire rod with Ta increased with decreasing D as shown in
Fig. 13(b). The results indicate that the mechanical proper-
ties of the wire rods with a small diameter were sensitive to
the Ta or season. Therefore, much attention is necessary for
the wire rod with a small diameter with season or Ta.

4.2.3. Influence of Air Velocity 4.2.5. Influence of LH Temperature

Figure 12(a) compares the temperature histories of the
wire ring at the central region with the air velocity using
the model. Apparently, the cooling rate increased with the
air velocity. The temperature difference in the wire rod
between the seasons increased with increasing the air veloc-
ity as shown in Fig. 12(b), indicating that the deviation in
the mechanical properties of the wire rod manufactured by
forced air increased between the seasons as compared with
the wire rod manufactured without blowing. In particular,
the wire rods fabricated using the insulator cover was not
significantly affected by the Ta or season.
4.2.4. Influence of Wire Rod Diameter
To understand the influence of the wire rod diameter on
the thermal behavior of the steel with Ta during the Stel-
The LH temperature is an important process parameter in
Stelmor cooling because it is the starting temperature for the
cooling of the wire rod.26) To evaluate the effect of the LH
temperature on the thermal behavior of the wire rod with Ta
or season, the temperature profile was predicted using the
model. Figure 14(a) compares the temperature profiles of
the wire rod at the central region for different LH tempera-
tures. Additionally, the temperature difference of the wire
rod with the LH temperature was compared as shown in Fig.
14(b). The influence of the LH temperature on the thermal
behavior of the wire rod with Ta was insignificant. However,
as the LH temperature decreased, the temperature deviation
of the wire rod before the phase transformation decreased,
resulting in a low deviation of the mechanical properties
with Ta. Accordingly, the author believes that the deviation

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11

Fig. 14. Comparison of (a) center temperature profiles and (b) temperature differences in wire rod between summer and
winter seasons for different laying head temperatures. (Online version in color.)

Fig. 15. Comparison of (a) absolute values and (b) percentage of heat flux in each heat transfer mechanism. (c) and (d)
show heat flux values with rescale of (a). (Online version in color.)

in the mechanical properties of the wire rod decreases with
Ta or season by reducing the LH temperature.
5. Discussion
5.1. Comparison of Heat Flux by Air Properties and
Temperature Difference with Season
Based on the experimental and numerical results, the
cooling rate and TS of the wire rod decreased with increas-
ing Ta, which can cause consumer’s dissatisfaction in terms
of the quality. Figure 15 compares the heat flux by forced
convection, natural convection, and radiation with Ta. In this
calculation, Ts and air velocity were assumed to be 700°C
and 30 m/s, respectively. Approximately 70%, 20%, and
10% of the total heat were dissipated by forced convection,
radiation, and natural convection, respectively, as shown
in Fig. 15(b). The natural convection was relatively insig-
nificant in the air blowing cooling conditions, however it
cannot be disregarded in the no blowing cooling conditions.
Meanwhile, radiative heat transfer was dominant during the
cooling process of hot-rolled steels because the temperature
of the specimen is high, in particular no blowing process
conditions. That is, radiation and natural convection were
strongly associated with the process conditions at an air
velocity of 0 m/s. The heat flux by radiation was almost
unaffected by the Ta (Fig. 15(d)) because it is proportional
to the fourth power of each absolute temperature as shown
in Eq. (14), indicating that the thermal behavior of the
wire is insensitive to Ta in the range of conventional Ta.
In contrast, the heat flux by forced convection and natural
convection decreased with increasing Ta (Figs. 15(c) and
15(d)). Accordingly, the total heat flux decreased with
increasing Ta.
The reduced total heat flux with increasing Ta is attrib-
utable to two factors: the variation in the thermophysical
properties of air and the driving force of heat transfer by
the temperature difference between the wire surface and
ambient temperatures. Based on Eq. (7), the thermophysi-
cal properties of air affect the heat transfer coefficient, i.e.,
ht, and the driving force of heat transfer by the temperature
difference affects the temperature gradient, i.e., Ts − T∞.
Figure 16(a) shows the comparison of heat flux with
constant thermophysical properties of air. The air properties
were fixed to the properties at 0°C. The variations in the
each heat flux were similar to the variations in that at Fig.
15. In contrast, the heat flux was not relatively varied with
Ta when the temperature difference was set as 700°C, that
is, the temperature of air was fixed at 0°C and only the air
properties varied with Ta. Figure 16(c) compares the total
heat flux of the two conditions with Ta in more detail. The
contributions of total heat flux variation with Ta by tempera-
ture difference and air properties were approximately 84%
and 16%, respectively (Fig. 16(d)), indicating that the varia-
tion of cooling rate with season was highly dependent on
the temperature difference of Ta with season rather than the
difference in thermophysical properties of air with season.

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 62 (2022), No. 11
Fig. 16. Comparison of heat flux variations as a function of air temperature based on (a) constant thermophysical proper-
ties of air and (b) constant driving force of temperature difference. Comparison of (c) variations in total heat flux
between (a) and (b), and (d) contribution of total heat flux variation with air temperature. (Online version in color.)
Meanwhile, it is noteworthy that the influences of humid-
ity of ambient and emissivity of wire rod with season on
the thermal behavior of the wire rod need to be considered
to reveal the seasonal effects on the mechanical properties
of the wire rod during Stelmor cooling. For example, the
standard deviation of TS increased with Ta as shown in Fig.
9(b). In particular, the TS of the edge region in the wire ring
showed a small deviation in winter season compared with
the summer. What can be obtained from this unexpected
result is that the lack of cooling ability with increasing Ta
has a great effect on the edge region of the wire ring com-
pared with the center region. However, this phenomenon is
difficult to explain only with the approach of Ta with season.
The author believes that this phenomenon is associated with
the humidity of ambient and the emissivity of the wire rod
with season; relevant additional research is currently in
progress.
5.2. Working Conditions for Wire Rod during Stelmor
Cooling with Season
The deviation in the mechanical properties of the wire rod
between the summer and winter seasons needs to be reduced
to produce high quality wire rod products; therefore, the
optimal cooling conditions should be determined with sea-
son. In particular, the wire rod steel manufactured by the
forced air in Stelmor cooling exhibited a high difference of
cooling rate with season.
To understand the thermal behavior and reduce the
deviation of mechanical properties of the wire rod with
season, each heat transfer coefficient, i.e., hf, hn, and hr,
during the Stelmor cooling process should be evaluated
with Ta. The thermophysical properties of air and cooling
conditions simultaneously affect the heat transfer coeffi-
cients with Ta. Although the influence of the variations in
the thermophysical properties of air with Ta on the cooling
behavior of the wire rod was not prominent during Stelmor
cooling compared with the simple temperature difference
between the seasons (section in 5.1), the underlying cooling
mechanism of the wire rod with air properties needs to be
revealed for the better understand the cooling behavior of
the wire rod with season. Figure 17 presents the variations
in Re, Pr, and Ra with Tf. The Pr was almost constant with
Tf. Meanwhile, Re decreased with Tf because ρa decreased
© 2022 ISIJ
(Fig. 4(a)) and υ increased (Fig. 4(b)) with Tf, leading to a
decrease in hf based on Eq. (9). Ra also decreased with Tf
because β increased, and α and υ decreased with Tf, lead-
ing to a decrease in hn based on the Eq. (12). The results
are well described in Fig. 17(d). Note that the increased ka
with Tf (Fig. 4(c)) has a positive effect on the increase of
the hf and hn.
Meanwhile, the reduced cooling rate of the wire rod with
Ta was strongly dependent on forced convection because
the absolute value of hf was approximately 10 times higher
than that of hn (Fig. 17(d)). In other words, the difference
in the cooling rate of the wire rod with Ta increased with
increasing the amount of forced convection because the
thermal radiation was almost unaffected by the Ta, and
the natural convection played a small contribution to the
total cooling rate of the wire rod. It should be noted that
the influence of the variation in Ta on the cooling rate of
the wire rod was small during the slow cooling condition
or no air blowing condition because thermal radiation was
dominant compared with the natural convection in this
cooling condition. That is the main reason why the TS of
the wire rod manufactured under slow cooling conditions
was almost constant with Ta or season. Accordingly, we
need to concentrate on the thermal behavior of the wire rod
by the forced convection to understand the effects of Ta on
the cooling rate and mechanical properties of the wire rod.
Figure 18(a) compares the hf with the air velocity and tem-
perature. As expected, hf increased with the air velocity. In
addition, the difference in hf with Ta increased with the air
velocity, leading to a higher temperature difference between
the summer and winter seasons with increasing air velocity
as shown in Fig. 12. Figure 18(b) shows a comparison of
the hf with D and Ta. As shown, hf increased with decreasing
wire diameter, and the difference in hf with Ta increased with
decreasing D, leading to a higher temperature difference
between the summer and winter seasons with decreasing D
as shown in Fig. 13.
Overall, the deviations in the cooling rate and cor-
responding mechanical properties were closely related to
the amount of forced convection. Therefore, the deviation
in the mechanical properties of the wire rod between the
summer and winter seasons increased in the wire rod with
a small diameter that was fabricated using high forced air.
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Fig. 17. Variations in (a) Re, (b) Pr, (c) Ra, and (d) hf and hn with film temperature of air. (Online version in color.)
Fig. 18. Comparison of variations in forced heat transfer coefficient for different (a) air velocities and (b) wire diameters.
(Online version in color.)
For example, the pearlitic steel with a 5.5 mm-diameter
exhibited a significant deviation in the mechanical proper-
ties between the summer and winter seasons because the
wire diameter was relatively small, and pearlitic steel is
typically manufactured under a strong forced air during
the Stelmor cooling process. By contrast, ferritic steel with
a 13 mm-diameter indicated an insignificant deviation in
the mechanical properties between the summer and winter
seasons because the wire diameter was relatively large, and
ferritic steel is generally manufactured under the no blow
condition in the Stelmor cooling process. Based on the pres-
ent results, the operating conditions of the wire rod need
to be changed depending on Ta to obtain constant material
properties regardless of the season or Ta. In particular, it is
strongly recommended that the different working conditions
are necessary with season as the wire diameter is small, the
blower power is high, and LH temperature is high during
Stelmor cooling. For example, from the point of view of the
mechanical cooling system, it is necessary for the blower
to automatically control the amount of forced air as a func-
tion of wire rod diameter, LH temperature, and designed
blower power by sensing Ta to reduce seasonal variations
in mechanical properties of wire rod. In addition, the speed
of conveyor roller should be increased with Ta because the
deviation in cooling rate within wire ring increased with Ta.
6. Conclusions
Based on a study of the effect Ta on the thermal behavior
of wire rod steel during the Stelmor type cooling process
using a numerical model and an offline simulator, the fol-
2353
lowing conclusions were obtained:
(1) The temperatures of the wire rod measured in the
summer season (28°C) were higher than that in the winter
season (4°C) during Stelmor cooling. The average tem-
perature difference of the wire rod between the seasons was
approximately 5°C. In addition, the TS of the wire ring
fabricated during the summer season was lower than that in
the winter season. The average TS difference between the
seasons was approximately 19 MPa.
(2) The different cooling rates of the wire rod steel at
different Ta were closely associated with simple temperature
difference between the seasons rather than the variations in
the thermophysical properties of air with temperature during
Stelmor cooling.
(3) The reduced cooling rate of the wire rod with Ta
was strongly dependent on the forced convection because
the absolute value of hf was approximately 10 times higher
than that of hn, and hr was almost unaffected by Ta. The hf
decreased with Ta because Re decreased as Ta increased
owing to the decrease in ρa and increase in υ with Ta.
(4) The deviation in the mechanical properties of the
wire rod between the summer and winter seasons increased
in the wire rod with a small diameter that was fabricated
using high forced air because the amount of forced convec-
tion increased with decreasing wire diameter and increasing
applied air velocity.
(5) The operating conditions for the wire rod steel needs
to be changed with Ta to obtain constant material properties
regardless of the season or Ta. In particular, it is strongly
recommended that the different operating conditions are
necessary as the wire diameter is small, the blower power
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