DR.

SHERIF AL HOSARY
LIQUID-LEVEL SYSTEM

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 Manipulated Controlled variable
variable
plant

Reference input

Feedback
Signal
Feedback
Element

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 3

 Definitions
• Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the
system and applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or
limit deviation of the measured value from a desired value.

• Plants.. Plants. A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set

of machine parts functioning together, the purpose of which is to
perform a particular operation.

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• Processes. Defines a process to be a natural, progressively continuing
operation or development marked by a series of gradual changes that
succeed one another in a relatively fixed way and lead toward a
particular result or end

• Systems. A system is a combination of components that act together

and perform a certain objective.

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• Disturbances. A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect
the value of the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within
the system, it is called internal, while an external disturbance is
generated outside the system and is an input.

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• Feedback control feedback control refers to an operation that, in
the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the difference
between the output of a system and some reference input and that
does so on the basis of this difference.

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 CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL VERSUS OPEN-
LOOP CONTROL
• Feedback control systems. A system that maintains a prescribed relationship
between the output and the reference input by comparing them and using the
difference as a means of control is called a feedback control system

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 CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Closed-loop control systems. Feedback control systems are often referred to as
closed-loop control systems.

• In a closed-loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the difference
between the input signal and the feedback signal , is fed to the controller so as to
reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a desired value.

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CLOSED-LOOP SPEED CONTROL OF
ROTATING DISK
 OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Open-loop control systems. Those systems in which the output has no effect on
the control action are called open-loop control systems.

• In other words, in an open-loop control system the output is neither measured nor
fed back for comparison with the input.

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• In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not perform the
desired task.

• Open-loop control can be used, in practice, only if the relationship between the
input and output is known and if there are neither internal nor external
disturbances.

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 WHY LAPLACE TRANSFORM
➢Solving linear differential equations
➢Obtaining transfer functions
➢Converts many functions into algebraic functions of s
➢Converts LDEs into algebraic equations of s
➢ Use graphical techniques for predicting a system performance with out
solving DE

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DEFINITION OF LAPLACE
TRANSFORM

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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
N-th order ordinary differential equation

dny d n −1 y dy
an n + an −1 n −1 + ..... + a1 + a0 = 0
dx dx dx

✓ Often required to describe physical system

✓ Higher order equations are difficult to solve
directly.
✓ However, quite easy to solve through Laplace
transform.
EXAMPLE OF DIFF. EQUATION

di 1
L + Ri +  i dt = ei
dt C
1
C  i dt = eo
EXAMPLE OF DIFF. EQUATION
Newton’s second law:

F = ma
dv
F =m
dt
d  ds  2
d s
F =m  =m 2
dt  dt  dt
 LAPLACE TRANSFORM
• A transformation from time (t) domain to complex frequency (s) domain

➢ Laplace transform is given by


F ( s) = 
0−
f (t )e − st dt =L{ f (t )}

Where, s =  + j is a complex frequency.

LAPLACE TRANSFORM’S TABLE FOR COMMON
FUNCTIONS
Function, f (t ) Laplace Transform

Unit Impulse,  (t ) 1

Unit step, 1
u (t ) s
Unit ramp, t 1
s2

Exponential, e − at 1
s+a

Sine, sin  t

s2 +  2
s
Cosain, cos t
s +2
2


Damped sine, e − at sin  t ( s + a) 2 +  2
s+a
Damped cosain, e −at cos t
( s + a) 2 +  2
1
Damped ramp, t e − at
( s + a) 2
 Need for Mathematical models

• Must have a quantitative mathematical model in order to understand and control

complex systems
• Must have fundamental methods for modeling many physical systems:
• Electrical
• Mechanical
• Hydraulic

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 Steps in Modeling
• Understand the physical systems and its components

• Make appropriate simplifying assumptions

• Use basic principles to formulate the mathematical model

• Write differential and algebraic equations describing the model

• Check the model for validity

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 What will the model be used for
• Solution of the differential and algebraic equations allows system response and performance to
analyzed and designed

• The laplace transform will be applied to the model to allow convenient manipulations and dynamic
analysis

• Input-output relationships for system and components will be obtained

• Controller models will be designed that can be implemented in hardware

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 LINEAR SYSTEMS
❖A system is linear if the principle of superposition applies.

❖The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the

simultaneous application of two different input functions is the sum of the
two individual responses

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 LINEAR TIME-INVARIANT SYSTEMS

• A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or

functions only of the independent variable.

• Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant

lumped-parameter components may be described by linear time-
invariant (constant- coefficient) differential equations, such systems
are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient)
systems.

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 LINEAR TIME-VARYING
SYSTEMS
Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are
functions of time are called linear time-varying systems.

✓An example of a time-varying control system is a spacecraft control system. (The

mass of a spacecraft changes due to fuel consumption.)

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 NONLINEAR SYSTEMS
• A system is nonlinear if the principle of superposition does not apply.

• Thus, for a nonlinear system the response to two inputs cannot be calculated by
treating one input at a time and adding the results.

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EXAMPLES OF NONLINEAR
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

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EXAMPLES OF NONLINEARITIES

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THANK
YOU