Climate Prospects Journal, Issue 03 - Information and Decision Support Center IDSC, Egyptian Cabinet

Third Issue
About IDSC
Since its establishment in 1985, IDSC has undergone many facelifts to cope with the
changes the Egyptian society went through. In its first phase (1985-1999), IDSC dedicated its
efforts towards the development of Egypt's information infrastructure. The establishment
of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology in 1999 was a turning point
that marked IDSC's role as a think tank that supports the decision-making process in various
development domains. Later, the Prime Minister’s Decree No. 2085 of 2023 stipulated
restructuring IDSC as a public service agency —with a legal personality— affiliated to the
Prime Minister. Such decision was a culmination of IDSC’s efforts as an outstanding
government think tank supporting decision-makers locally. Since then, IDSC has adopted a
vision implying that it should be distinguished in the field of decision support in various
comprehensive development issues, conduct a constructive social dialogue, and enhance
communication with Egyptian citizens, who are the ultimate goal of development. This
qualifies IDSC to play a bigger role in public policy making process, reinforce the efficiency
and effectiveness of development efforts, and entrench a knowledge-based community.
339 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

In order to support every decision-maker, IDSC is continuously striving to become one of the
best think tanks at the local, regional, and international levels. This was accompanied by a
regional and international acknowledgment of IDSC's critical role as a think tank. The results
of the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program (TTCSP) of the University of Pennsylvania
announced in February 2021 were substantial evidence. They revealed that IDSC came among
the best 20 think tanks in the world responding to COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 (No specific
ranking). It ranked 21st out of 64 think tanks globally as the owner of the best new idea or
model developed in 2020, taking into consideration that no other Egyptian think tank was
classified in this criterion. It also ranked 14th out of 101 think tanks in Africa and the Middle
East for 2020. Moreover, IDSC won one gold award and four bronze awards as part of the
Stevie Awards, announced in April 2022, among over 700 competing teams from 17 countries
in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). It also won the American Special Achievement in
GIS (SAG) Award in June 2022 for the digital publication of “Egypt’s Description by
Information” among nearly 100,000 international institutions around the world.
340
Climate Prospects Journal
Climate Prospects Journal is one of the peer-reviewed scientific and applied publications issued
quarterly by the Egyptian Cabinet’s Information and Decision Support Center (IDSC). It is especially
important due to the urgent priority attached to climate action on the national and international
development agendas to safeguard human existence and safety against the repercussions of
climate change and extreme weather phenomena.
The first issue was launched in November 2022 on the sidelines of Egypt's hosting of the 27th
Conference of the Parties (COP27) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) from November 6 to 18 in Sharm El-Sheikh. It emphasizes the keenness of IDSC -the
government think tank of the Egyptian Cabinet- on adhering to its role of supporting all decision-
makers.
Climate issues are multidimensional and global, imposing their direct and indirect impacts on all
aspects of development. In an attempt to shape the present and future changes and explore their
implications on opportunities and challenges, Climate Prospects is introduced to be a new platform
for analytical insights, ideas, and initiatives. It analyzes experiences to enrich national, regional,
and international climate action.
The Journal addresses every decision-maker, including the public-policy maker and the
executive teams, public and private institutions, and the citizen who wants to
obtain trusted information. Hence, the community’s visions and knowledge will
be promoted along with a change in behaviors for a proper climate action.
The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
official position of IDSC.

Third Issue
342
6-18
"
"
"The Opening Session of the COP27 Climate Pledge Implementation Summit", the official website of
the Presidency of the Republic. November 2022.
344
"
"
From his speech during the conference launching the National Climate Change Strategy for
Egypt 2050, May 19, 2022.
IDSC Chairman
Mr. Osama El-Gohary
Assistant to the Prime Minister
IDSC Chairman
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Rasha Moustafa Awad
Public Policy Advisor to IDSC Chairman
Information and Decision Support Center (IDSC)
Editors
Dr. Ramy Magdy Dr. Dalia M. Ibrahiem

Professor, Political Science Department, Associate Professor, Economics
Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Department, Faculty of Economics and
Cairo University, Egypt Political Science, Cairo University, Egypt
Managing Editor Graphic Designer
Ms. Amal Ali Dawood Mr. Muhammad Adel
Edited & Translated by Quality Department Research Team
Dr. Noura El-Bery Mr. Abdel Hamid Helmy Mr. Omar Wahdan Ms. Dina Helmy
Ms. Norhan Samir Ms. Nada Elmogy Ms. Howaida Mohamed Ms. Eman Ragab
Mr. Ehab Gibreel Ms. Azza Ahmed Ms. Doaa Gabr Ms. Shahd Ahmed
Acknowledgement
The Editor-in-Chief voices her special thanks to all the authors for their valuable contributions, the
experts who refereed the research papers, and the Journal’s work team. She also expresses her gratitude
towards Head of Quality Department at IDSC, Ms. Heba Abo El-Wafa, and Executive Director of Quality
Department, Mr. Hesham Aly.
348
Let’s Create Our Utopia!
"It has never occurred to me that I would read, let alone write about the environment! Ordinary people
have nothing to do with this. Seasons go by normally one after the other, just like they did thousands
of years ago, yet it turns out that everything has dreadfully changed on our small planet,” Samir
Atallah, Lebanese author and journalist, said. He told us all about his thoughts that changed by the
hands of climate change with its raging consequences and accelerating pace day by day. That is an
excerpt from his article published in Asharq Al-Awsat Newspaper on April 20, 2023, titled Salt Lakes.
I can almost imagine this is the case for a plenty of people living on this planet, who celebrated last
April 22 the International Mother Earth Day. That event was marked by the United Nations in 1970 to
raise awareness of the importance of protecting ecosystems that support all aspects of life on our
planet and manifest the need to shift toward a more sustainable economy for the planet and people’s
interests.
However, Mother Earth is groaning every year more than the one before. Nature is unprecedently
storming up due to inadequate human efforts in the face of the unprecedented challenge of global
warming. It suffers from ever-increasing greenhouse gas emissions and insufficient climate action to
adapt to human-induced climate change.
Do you think life will ever bestow upon us a piece of utopia? Farouk Shousha, Egyptian author and
novelist, wishes, and we hope that land would reconcile with nature. Contrarily, do you think humans
will continue to argue while nature takes its course? Voltaire, French author and philosopher, warns us
of this, referring to humans’ nature and their devotion to lengthy talks instead of effective action at a
time when the dynamics of extreme weather events are accelerating.
In fact, it is up to us, especially since the latest report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), issued on March 20, 2023, has underscored that accelerating climate action can ensure
a viable future for all. Later that month, climate justice triumphed with the United Nation’s historic
resolution to resort to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to express its opinion on the countries’
commitments in the fight against global warming.
Mother Earth should be gifted all this and more. There is no doubt that this necessity stems from the
fact that we are not dealing with a theoretical problem but rather a challenge to our present and
future.

Let's create together our utopia, as some
might imagine, to restore all good assets of
our small planet.
350
Africa’s Challenge: Human Rights and Environment
Dr. Moushira Khattab 03
Issue’s Theme: Projects to Transform Sharm El-Sheikh into the
First Green Egyptian City 07
Greenwashing: Concept and Solutions

Dr. Rasha Moustafa Awad 63
Urban Governance and Policy for the Net Zero City
Eng. Farah Naz Mr. Langdon Morris 91
Role of Climate Litigation in Achieving Paris Agreement
Goals (Comparative Study) 117
Mr. Ahmed Saied
The Goal of Carbon Neutrality as a Constitutional Obligation

on the State and Corporations: In the Context of Judiciary 137
Mr. Abdel Hamid Shehata
Cutting-off Carbon Emissions: Are Carbon Markets the

Silver Bullet?
Ms. Dina Ibrahim 159
Urban Climate Change

Dr. Eman Abdel Azim 177
The Right to Clean Environment: Theoretical and Political
Controversies 189
Dr. Ramy Magdy
Creating Effective Role for Central Banks Worldwide to
Combat Climate Change 199
Mr. Ibrahim El-Ghitani
Climate Change and Water Resources in Jordan: Next
Political Crisis 209
Eng. Ayman Al-Ghanamiyin
Carbon Capture and Storage in Egypt:

Potential Solution to Compensate Growing Dependence on Gas 215
Mr. Shady El-Sherif

Youth Against Climate Change and Water Stress:
Hydroponic Agriculture as a Model 227
Mr. Mostafa Benramel
Climate Change and Cardamom Plantation in Idukki,

Kerala 241
Mr. Akmal Ali
Misr Elkheir: A Pioneering Experience in Climate

Change Adaptation 249
Mr. Mohamed Mamdouh
CO2 Emissions in 2022

Dr. Rabab Mahrous 261
Adapting to a New Climate in the MENA Region: An
Assessment of Physical Risk Management and Climate 271
Adaptation Finance
Ms. Howaida Mohamed
Capturing Opportunities: How Can the World Transition to

Green Economy? 281
Ms. Dina Helmy
Circularity Gap Report 2023

Ms. Eman Ragab 293
Top 10 Sustainable Business Trends of 2023
Ms. Doaa Gabr 303
Climate Finance and Poverty Reduction Dilemma in
Developing Countries 315
Ms. Shahd Ahmed
Source: Clark. P, "Why 2023 might just be a turning point for climate action.", Financial Times, February 27, 2023.

Africa’s Challenge: Human
Rights and Environment
Dr. Moushira Khattab

President of Egypt’s National
Council for Human Rights
She previously served as

Secretary of State for
Family and Population,
Assistant Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Vice
Chair and Former
Rapporteur of the
United Nations
Committee on the
Rights of the Child.
States and parties concerned must commit

themselves to take the necessary actions and
measures to confront and mitigate the
effects of climate change to ensure that all
human beings (rights holders) have the
ability required to adapt to the climate crisis.
3 Climate Prospects –Third Issue – May 2023

All human beings depend on the environment. Climate change impacts, directly and
indirectly, an array of internationally guaranteed human rights. A safe, clean, healthy, and
sustainable environment is integral to fully enjoying a wide range of human rights, including
the rights to life, health, food, water, and sanitation 1. Without a healthy, sustainable
environment, access to even the most basic standards of human dignity is compromised.
Millions of people are already suffering from the catastrophic effects of extreme disasters
exacerbated by climate change – from prolonged drought in Sub-Saharan Africa to
devastating tropical storms sweeping across Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific.
In 2021, scorching temperatures caused deadly heatwaves in Canada and Pakistan, setting
off wildfires in Greece and Siberia. There was severe flooding in Germany and China, while in
Madagascar, a particularly prolonged and intense drought drove 1 million people to the
brink of what is being described as the world’s first “climate change-induced famine”.
According to UNICEF2, children worldwide are affected by hazards, shocks, and stresses
associated with environmental harm and the climate change.
States and parties concerned must commit themselves to take the necessary actions and
measures to confront and mitigate the effects of climate change to ensure that all human
beings (rights holders) have the ability required to adapt to the climate crisis. States also
have a similar obligation to international cooperation as a measure to implement their
citizens' human rights without discrimination based on gender, religion, race, or any other
ground.
Over the past few years, the relationship between the environment and human rights has
been emphasized. There have been multiple international and domestic laws, judicial rulings,
academic studies, and a scope of cases that have been dealt with.
4
The UN Mandate on Human Rights and Environment, created in March 2012 and extended in 2018,
studies the human rights obligations related to a safe, clean, healthy, and sustainable environment.
Moreover, it promotes the best ways to activate the role of human rights in environment-related
policies.
On October 8, 2021, the Human Rights Council (HRC) recognized that having a clean, healthy, and
sustainable environment is a human right. In its resolution 48/13, the HRC called on states worldwide
to work with other partners to implement this newly recognized right. The right to a healthy
environment has become integral to many constitutions. Yet, the state's ability to fulfill the human
rights of its citizens is subject to a host of factors about the relationship between human rights and
the environment - questions that remain unanswered and require further examination.
So far, the European Court of Human Rights has judged about 300 cases related to the environment
and based its rulings on some basic rights, such as the right to life, freedom of expression, and the
right to normal family life, applying them to many issues related to pollution, artificial or natural
disasters, and access to environmental information.
Successive presidents of the Council of Europe, and many other organs of the organization, have
called for the further strengthening existing legal tools to help European countries deal with the
significant environmental challenges we all face.
Based on this:
Egypt’s National Council for Human Rights (NCHR), an independent human rights institution
accredited by OHCHR as category “A” under the Paris Principles, organized a side event during Cop-27
held in Sharm El Sheikh in November 2022. This event highlighted the nexus between the state's
responsibility as the duty bearer and its engagement in international cooperation to honor its
obligations under human rights conventions. It depended on a discussion at the Africa Child Policy
Forum (Sept. 6 & 7 2022) on the impact of climate change on the human rights of African children. It
also depended on the outcome of the roundtable discussion on Climate Justice organized by NCHR and
Egypt’s Ministry of Environment.
5 Climate Prospects –Third

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
The event also sought to demonstrate the value of adopting a human rights approach and
specifically applying human rights law to protecting the environment, focusing on the most
vulnerable countries and citizens. Despite its relatively small contribution to climate damage, Africa
has been the hardest hit. As expected, children, the largest population segment, were the hardest hit
among Africans.
According to UNICEF, children worldwide are affected by hazards, shocks, and stresses associated
with environmental harm and climate change. Thirty-five out of the forty-five countries globally
identified in the Children's Climate Risk Index as the worst affected by climate change are found in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Around 490 million children under 18 in these 35 African countries are at the
highest risk of suffering the impact of climate change. Most recently, more than 11 million people,
including children, are experiencing different levels of food insecurity in nine southern African
countries due to deepening drought and climate crisis.
Therefore, adopting a human rights approach is the only way to ensure that children don't fall
through the cracks.
The discussion featured three panelists with local and international human rights expertise. It aimed
to assist African states in fulfilling the human rights of its citizens, with children at the forefront of
national action, and to enable African countries to gear up their commitment to international
cooperation.
In conclusion, there is a dire need for the global community to renew their commitment in the wake
of COVID-19 and the looming danger of Monkeypox, not to mention the global economic crisis and
the war in Ukraine, which negatively affected Africa more than any other part of the world.
1Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment

2UNICEF 2021. The climate crisis is a child rights crisis: Introducing the Children’s Climate Risk Index
6
Sharm El-Sheikh City
The first green Egyptian city
A smart, environmentally
Friendly tourist city
Projects to Transform
Sharm El-Sheikh into
the First Green Egyptian City*
Urbanization and climate change require new solutions to maintain and improve the
quality of life in our cities. Green spaces have a positive impact on biodiversity, climate,
health, and air quality. This impact ensures that cities become better places to live and
work. In this regard comes the Sharm El-Sheikh Green Project, which aims at rationalizing
resource consumption with a focus on water desalination, increasing the rate of recycling
and energy recovery from waste, installing solar panels and charging stations for electric
cars, and setting up a mechanism for green hotel standards to promote sustainable
tourism.
* This file was prepared in cooperation with the Ministry of Environment of the Arab Republic of Egypt, the main responsible
body for the project that was carried out with the participation of a number of relevant authorities. In this context, the
editorial board of the Journal extends its sincere thanks to Major General Issam Khader, Advisor to the Head of the
Information and Decision Support Center, and Dr. Ghada Mohsen, Head of the Data Resources Department at IDSC, for their
efforts in completing the file.
CJ@IDSC.NET.EG
Sharm El-Sheikh:
Starting Point for
Egypt's Integrated
Green Transition
Dr. Yasmine Fouad She holds a PhD in Political Science - Euro-Mediterranean Studies,
Minister of Environment and a Masters in Environmental Sciences. She has more than 20
The Arab Republic of Egypt. years of experience in the fields of environment and international
cooperation. She held many positions in the Egyptian
government, UN organizations, and NGOs.
The charming city of Sharm El-Sheikh is one of Egypt's precious treasures. It won the United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's award as the world's city of peace, and
hosted the most significant international gatherings and conferences. Furthermore, it enjoys a
picturesque nature, unique biodiversity, and numerous reserves, which qualified it to host the
twenty-seventh Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (COP27).
The coastal city's distinctive picturesque nature had to align with the specialized nature of the
COP27 to appear with an environmental view commensurate with this international event, which
the entire world follows. It combines green transition, sustainable development, and natural
resource conservation.
Therefore, President Abdel Fattah El-Sisi directed to declare Sharm El-Sheikh a green city in
coordination with the Ministry of Environment, all relevant ministries, and the Governorate of
South Sinai, under the direct supervision of the Prime Minister. This is a step on the road to Egypt's
green transition, which presents a realistic model to the world that confirms Egypt's ability to
implement measures to counter the effects of climate change.

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
These measures began with raising the efficiency of the city's infrastructure in various sectors,
such as developing the water and sanitation networks to ensure the highest level of water
treatment, increasing reliance on renewable energy by establishing solar energy plants, raising the
efficiency of the waste management system, and implementing an integrated system that adopts
modern technologies and promotes the principle of recycling. The private sector provides the
services of collection, transportation, recycling, and eliminating solid municipal waste from the
city's streets and public utilities. The measures also include mass electric transportation and
bicycle sharing via phone applications, which presents a true model for the Egyptian government's
new thinking based on encouraging transformation into sustainable transportation.
To complete the efforts to declare Sharm El-Sheikh a green city, it was necessary to extend this
transformation to the tourism sector by raising the efficiency of the city's hotels, where 80 % of
them obtained Green Star certificates, qualifying diving centers for the GREEN FINS mark, the
world's first mark in the field of diving, launching the "ECO EGYPT" campaign from Ras Mohammed
Reserve as the first campaign to promote ecotourism in Egypt, raising environmental awareness
among citizens about the importance of natural reserves, and learning about the different cultures
of the local population, making them a primary focus for protecting the environment and
biodiversity in reserves.
10
It was necessary to complete transforming Sharm El-Sheikh into a green city by making intensive
efforts to reduce using the single-use plastic bags. Plastic pollution has become a threat to the
environment and humans, requiring urgent intervention and global collaboration to accelerate the
transition to a circular economy. This led to celebrating this year's World Environment Day under
the theme "Beat Plastic Pollution", one of the most serious challenges facing the environmental
balance and directly affecting human safety, health, and well-being socially and economically. It
also threatens many other living organisms, jeopardizing the sustainability of human quality of life
worldwide.
A few days before hosting COP27, the city of Sharm El-Sheikh was declared free of using single-use
plastic bags. An initiative was launched to clean Sharm El-Sheikh on land and sea from plastic
materials by carrying out campaigns with the participation of a large turnout of youth, women, and
the local and civil community. Furthermore, campaigns have been launched to raise awareness of
people, retailers, suppliers, and distributors about the risks of using these bags, in addition to
several awareness initiatives in schools and colleges in Sharm El-Sheikh.
What was achieved during the COP27 climate conference was a result of the efforts of previous
years by the Ministry of Environment, which took measures to help reduce plastic pollution
nationally to preserve the health of Egyptian citizens and the ecosystem, especially in the marine
environment, which is greatly affected by plastic waste.

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
In response to the presidential directives, the Ministry developed a national strategy to reduce
using single-use plastic bags, which includes several fundamental axes: developing the relevant laws
and legislation, supporting the private sector and entrepreneurship with technical assistance and
capacity building in collaboration with many international institutions, launching several campaigns
to raise awareness about the negative effects of plastic, and issuing specifications for single-use
plastic bags by the Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality. A study is underway to
issue specifications for entirely biodegradable plastic bags according to what is applied in many
countries.
Finally, the city of Sharm El-Sheikh's participation in international events over the past few
decades, which propelled it to global status, makes it necessary to continue efforts to transform it
into a sustainable green city. This contributes to a comprehensive national green transition and the
transformation of other Egyptian cities to be green.
12
Sharm El-Sheikh: Green
Sustainable City
Eng. Mohammad Shaker Being a consultant engineer for electromechanical works, he

Minister of Electricity and contributed to designing and supervising the implementation of
Renewable Energy, about 1,500 projects in the Arab Republic of Egypt and many Arab
The Arab Republic of Egypt. and African countries over the past 40 years.
In recent years, cities worldwide have encountered an alarming loss of green spaces, declining
levels of biodiversity, and increasing isolation of populations (including children) from daily
experiences with nature. All have implications for health and the quality of a livable environment
in the next 20 years.
Egypt has strived to create green urban areas based on sustainable circular sub-systems; thus, it
opted for Sharm El-Sheikh, also known as the city of peace. It is considered one of the most
important and best tourist cities in Egypt and the entire world: Tourists from all over the world
visit it to enjoy its beautiful weather and picturesque nature. Sharm El-Sheikh's location is highly
strategic, connecting Africa and Asia.
The project to make Sharm El-Sheikh a green city by 2028 aims at rationalizing resource
consumption, focusing on seawater desalination, increasing recycling rates, retrieving energy
from waste, installing solar panels, establishing EV charging stations, and developing a system
for green hotel standards to promote sustainable tourism.

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
Based on natural solutions, this project will make Sharm El-Sheikh one of the Arab world's first
green cities. The political leadership's directions and the Egyptian State's efforts were aligned to
utilize COP27 to kick off Sharm El-Sheikh's transformation into a sustainable green metropolis.
Efforts were made during COP27 to completely transform Sharm El-Sheikh into a green city as part
of the Egyptian electrical and renewable energy sector's attempts to expand clean energy usage.
Most hotels got a new sustainable energy system, and public means of transport and buses were
converted to run on electricity or natural gas.
Harmonizing housing, transport, green urban areas, livable environments, and other elements has
always been the key to any plan's success. In other words, a state-driven transitional force and
progressive reform throughout South Sinai Governorate are required. As a result, solar power
plants have been built to sustainably supply clean green energy to the city. Three 5-MW solar power
stations have been constructed under Build-Own-Operate (BOO) contracts, in addition to a station
at Sharm El-Sheikh Airport and another at the Congress Center, with a total capacity of 1.27 MW.
14
Additional panels were installed on hotel roofs, and a bus charging station was constructed in
Ruwaisat with a capacity of 12 MVA, equipped to charge 180 buses. Ten EV charging stations were
also established across Sharm El-Sheikh. Three solar power plants' connection lines to the
distribution network have been laid, and the bus charging station and EV charging stations have
been fed.
Such green strategies call for full utilization of potential. In the case of Sharm El-Sheikh, the only
option was to harness all of the prospects of a sustainable green transport system by installing the
electric cables required for parking lots. The aspired strategies required providing sufficient
electric power loads to charge buses in parking lots and main stations, electric charging points for
buses in central stations, and emergency electrical support units for charging buses at the airport
and other stations. Efforts were also coordinated with the Governorate and producing companies
regarding parking lots and stations. They equipped electric bus charging stations with adequate
electrical outlets.
On the path to a better future, what should we focus on in a multi-level system? A solution could be
to focus on the sub-systems that contribute to developing an integrated green model embodied in
the green transport infrastructure. As a result, we planned to provide a mobile vehicle powered by
solar energy and equipped with cutting-edge computers with all electrical services and charge
meters for citizens (a mobile service center). An EV charging station will also be imbedded in
Sharm El-Sheikh’s infrastructure to charge private cars. To cut greenhouse gas emissions, the first
gas unit of Sharm El-Sheikh power plant will be prepared and tested to run on a 5% of hydrogen
and natural gas mix.

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
The Egyptian Government has set ambitious environmental and climatic targets such as carbon
neutrality, a circular economy, cleaner air, and cleaner transport. Its ambition stems from the
need for cities inhabited by millions of citizens to play a decisive role in achieving sustainability
goals.
Lastly, true change occurs when visions and attitudes concerning the logic of work and means to
carry out tasks and actions adjust. All cities worldwide must take steps to prepare for the effects
of climate change. Subsequently, climate neutrality will be achieved; the circular economy will be
revitalized; biodiversity will be protected; a cleaner and healthier environment will be provided; and
better social and economic opportunities will be offered to citizens.
16
Climate Change
Resilience and
Adaptation in
Agricultural Sector
Mr. El-Sayed El-Quseir He has more than 35 years of experience in most banking
Minister of Agriculture and Land businesses and fields. Business Class magazine placed him among
Reclamation, The Arab Republic of the fifty best economic figures in the past two years.
Egypt.
Food security has emerged as one of the most pressing issues for both industrial and
developing countries. The food gap is no longer only an economic and agricultural concern;
it has evolved into a strategic political issue related to national and regional security.
Furthermore, the food security issue has been growing in light of the global crises and challenges,
beginning with the "Covid-19" pandemic, the Russian-Ukrainian crisis, and climate change
challenges. All these crises have significantly impacted countries' economies, restricting
international trade movement and affecting supply and supply chains, causing low productivity in
the agricultural sector, high prices of agricultural commodities and products and their shortage in
some countries, and high shipping and insurance rates. This led to reducing the ability of some
countries, perhaps developed ones, to provide sufficient food for their people.
However, one of the most significant concerns to food security is climate change, which has
dramatically impacted human awareness, particularly with the melting of the polar ice caps, rising
sea levels, and the increasing fury of uncontrollable weather phenomena. Climate change has
affected every country in the world; the rate of environmental disasters has tripled, and future
generations will suffer even more.

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
There is an urgent need to strengthen agricultural
systems and natural resource management to
ensure that farming communities and practices
are resilient and sustainable enough to adapt to
the effects of climate change.
As a result, climate change is seen as the pivotal issue of our day. Its global repercussions are wide-
ranging and unprecedented, with changing weather patterns in many regions. The world has
suffered many fires, floods, severe storms, and droughts. These changes increased the intensity of
drought, soil degradation, desertification, and a lack of rain. They also severely impacted marginal
areas, leading to significant change in the agricultural and food systems. Therefore, there was an
urgent need to redouble efforts to achieve food security for our great people by building
sustainable farming and food systems, enhancing the ability to develop agricultural production, and
improving storage, distribution, and sustainability capabilities.
Although agricultural food systems are affected by climate change, they are still able to provide a
unique opportunity to address its impact by building these systems to ensure their adaptation to
that change. They can also offer many opportunities to reduce carbon emissions, providing pools
for absorbing carbon (carbon sink). However, to implement systems that can withstand climate
change, major countries and development partners must commit to making sufficient financial
resources available to support producers and actors to conduct sustainable and equitable
transformation through generating and exchanging knowledge and applying the best innovative
practices. This includes updating and developing early warning programs to increase response
measures for farmers to quickly deal with climate change threats using accurate and climate-
smart farming systems, artificial intelligence, and ICT technology, and expanding the circle of
agricultural extension and digital transformation. The goal is to ensure access to these innovations
by farmers to increase the range of solutions that give them flexibility in facing climate change.
18
The technology of creating smart plant varieties is one of the
innovations that countries affected by climate change must
adopt. It is no longer acceptable for the productivity of a unit
of crops grown in some parts of the world to remain at about
50% lower than that of countries that adopt agricultural
innovation methods.
In this respect, I'd like to draw attention to the fact that the
Egyptian State has adopted programs of technological
innovation in the agricultural sector. It enhanced the role of
applied research in creating short-lived cultivars that are
tolerant of climatic stressors and benefiting from artificial
intelligence and climate-smart agriculture programs. This also
includes the expansion of modern agricultural mechanization,
digital applications, and early warning systems, increasing the
flexibility and strength of the agricultural sector in marginal
and climatically vulnerable areas, launching initiatives to
encourage the transition to modern irrigation systems,
especially given limited water resources, which is one of the
challenges confronting Egypt's agriculture sector.
Therefore, the Climate Conference (COP27) allowed all parties

to exchange perspectives on the role of agriculture in
combating climate change by addressing issues of soil,
nutrient use, water, livestock, adaptation assessment methods,
social, economic, and food security dimensions of climate
change across agricultural sectors.
In this regard, it should be highlighted that the Egyptian State

took many actions to make Sharm El-Sheikh a green, eco-
friendly city as soon as it was announced that Sharm El-Sheikh
would host the World Climate Summit COP27. It sought to
portray Sharm El-Sheikh as a practical example of how to
protect the environment, lower carbon emissions, and combat
climate change. The green areas have been expanded,
thousands of fruit and palm trees were planted, and the
central park was constructed in the Green Triangle region.

I would also like to emphasize the significance of the COP27 results.
The issue of losses and damages was acknowledged for the first
time in the history of climate conferences. It was decided to
establish a fund for losses and damages to address climate
challenges, particularly in developing nations and emerging
economies. This necessitates developing a mechanism to organize
financing and evaluation processes, which we hope to be achieved
during COP28, which will be hosted in the sister United Arab
Emirates at the end of 2023.
The Conference of the Parties also stood out for allocating an entire
day for agriculture and adaptation, in which numerous ministers of
agriculture and environment from around the globe participated.
The Food and Agriculture for Sustainable Transformation (FAST)
initiative has been launched. It aims at boosting fund mobilization
for agricultural adaptation and innovation programs given the fact
that developing countries and emerging economies are unable to
fund these programs from their budgets.
The FAST initiative also aimed at implementing concrete measures

that would improve climate action, as well as the quantity and
quality of climate contributions to finance agricultural and food
systems by 2030 to support adaptation programs, agricultural
innovation, and technology application and accelerate financing
agricultural food systems to achieve triple gains for people, climate,
and nature for the good of sustainable development goals.
Finally, it should be emphasized that providing concessional and

stimulating financing for the agricultural sector strengthens
countries' capacities to implement investments, increases their
capacity to implement all adaptation and mitigation programs, and
supports them in implementing a just transition. The countries that
are largely responsible for the emissions have to make ambitious
commitments to carbon neutrality and support developing
countries with financing to enable them to increase their
capabilities to implement fair and appropriate transformation
programs to provide food security for their people.
20
Green Tourism for
Sustainable Urban
Future
Mr. Ahmed Issa He is the first head of the Strategic Planning Department at the
Minister of Tourism and Antiquities, Commercial International Bank (CIB). He restructured and raised
The Arab Republic of Egypt. the efficiency of the branches and retail banking sectors for
individuals and companies from 2016 to 2022. He has long
experience in banking work.
Tourism is one of the economic sectors most affected by climate change due to its close
interaction with natural and human factors that represent tourist attractions and are
severely affected by the negative effects of climate change.
Given the increase in visitors to Egyptian tourist cities in recent years, effective and sustainable
measures are required to ensure the sustainability of tourism and its natural components to serve
future generations. Thus, we are working on the issue of climate change per the National Climate
Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050, which includes five major goals. Each goal involves several targets
that will help us realize our aspirations.
NCCS’ first goal is concerned with achieving low-emission economic growth across various sectors.
Its second goal targets resilience and ability to adapt with climate change along with mitigating the
negative effects of climate change. Both goals necessitate the majority of interventions across
sectors. They also have the greatest impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to
aspects of climate change.

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
In light of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities' role as a watchdog and regulator of Egypt's
tourism industry, the Ministry implements some activities and initiatives in collaboration with
business partners from the relevant public and private sectors to contribute to reducing or
adapting to greenhouse gas emissions and increasing energy efficiency in tourism and hotel
facilities to ensure the sustainability of natural resources for future generations.
Here are a few examples of the projects and activities adopted in Egyptian hotels and tourist
attractions:
▪ Hotel and tourist facilities must acquire a certificate from an accredited international or local
authority proving that they have followed all of the standards of eco-friendly green practices
following the concept of sustainable tourism.
▪ Solar cells are used to generate electricity in some hotels and tourist establishments as an
alternative to traditional fuel to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance the tourism
sector's ability to keep pace with the global interest in sustainable tourism.
▪ In several hotels and tourist attractions in Egypt, LED lights are used instead of conventional
bulbs, and motion sensor systems are installed to control lighting.
▪ Water rationalization systems are used, and outdoor AC units are covered in some
establishments.
In a nutshell, it is critical to address climate change and the tourism industry's contribution to
strengthening the economy and generating both direct and indirect employment possibilities. It
is indeed essential to preserve natural resources, tourism, and archaeological components for
future generations to ensure the sustainability of Egyptian tourist sites.
22
Transforming Sharm El-
Sheikh into Smart and
Resilient Green City:
An Example
Major General. Khaled Fouda He held several positions, including: Commander of the Armored
Governor of South Sinai, Corps Battalion, Commander of the Armored Division, Director of
The Arab Republic of Egypt. the Armored Vehicles Institute, Commander of the Popular and
Military Defense Forces, and Governor of Luxor.
It is normal for climate change to occur due to changes in the solar cycle. However, since the
nineteenth century, human activities have become the main cause of climate change, mainly due
to the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas, which results in emissions of gases that work
like a cover that wraps the globe, largely contributing to global climate change.
Over time, rising temperatures lead to changes in weather patterns and disruptions to nature's
normal balance, which poses many dangers to humans and all other life forms on earth.
Examples of emissions of gases causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane from
using gasoline to drive cars. Clearing land of weeds and shrubs can also lead to the release of
carbon dioxide.
Landfills are a major source of methane emissions, along with energy production and consumption,
industry, transportation, buildings, and agriculture, which are the main sources of emissions
causing climate change.

– ThirdIssue
Issue ––May
May2023
2023
The climate change repercussions on the world:
Climate change greatly affects our health and ability to grow food, housing, safety, and work.
Switching energy systems from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind
power, will reduce climate-altering emissions. By 2050, forecasts indicate that fires will destroy
50% of fertile lands, and by the year 2100, sea levels are expected to rise by more than 60 m. This
will lead to the sinking of about 10 cities, while greenhouse gases will destroy the fisheries.
In this context, governments, businesses, and members of civil society are collaborating on climate
initiatives aimed at accelerating climate action. Such initiatives, launched at the 2019 UN Climate
Action Summit, aim at reducing emissions and address important concerns such as mobilizing
financing, building sustainable infrastructure, using nature-based solutions, and enhancing the
climate change adaptation.
The initiatives also encourage everyone to cooperate, set ambitious goals, and take the necessary
measures to prevent the global temperature from exceeding 1.5°C. The United Nations also
supports a transition to a sustainable, low-carbon economy that is equitable and beneficial for all.
24
Sharm El-Sheikh and climate change
The city of Sharm El-Sheikh was not immune to global climate

change. The governorate of South Sinai is distinguished by its
abundance of natural reserves with diverse and rich ecosystems,
which tell a geological heritage dating back thousands of years.
They are also natural habitats for many wild species and
creatures, including birds, mammals, fishes, and marine animals.
They also include many endangered animals and rare coral
reefs. Therefore, climate change will affect these reserves in the
long term due to the movement of some species outside the
scope of the reserve, and the high temperature affects the
growth of coral reefs. In turn, this negatively affects the tourism
sector in the governorate, given that these areas are
fundamental tourist attractions in the governorate,
consequently affecting the economic and social fields.
The governorate also includes some cities overlooking the Red

Sea coast: Ras Sidr - Abu Zenima - Abu Redis - Mount Sinai -
Nuweiba - Taba. It also contains 5 seaports, such as: Abu Zenima
– Mount Sinai (2) - Sharm El Sheikh – Nuweiba. Therefore, rising
temperatures will lead to rising sea level, threatening those
areas by drowning and coastal erosion.
In light of the governorate's dependence on preserving the

tourism sector largely as a source of foreign currency, the
impact on the infrastructure of the tourist facades as a result of
climate change will directly affect the tourism activity and the
investment sector. As a result, tourism revenues will decrease,
casting a black shadow on many workers in this sector.
Agriculture is also considered one of the main pillars of

development in the governorate, with a cultivated area of
farmers of about 32,981 feddans. Agriculture in the governorate
of South Sinai depends on groundwater, so climate change and
rising temperatures will lead to less rainfall and the threat of
drought.

The governorate also enjoys a diversified fishery throughout the year due to the extension of the
governorate in the Gulf of Suez and Aqaba. Fish production is concentrated in Ras Sudr and Ras
Matamer. Therefore, climate change and high temperatures lead to heat stress harmful to the
fishery, leading to fish migration to the north.
In this context, coordination and cooperation took place between the South Sinai Governorate and
the Crisis Sector at the Cabinet's Information and Decision Support Center (the national point of
contact in the field of disaster risk reduction) to declare Sharm El-Sheikh a resilience hub, the first in
Africa.
It should be noted that the choice of the city of Sharm El-Sheikh to host the 27th session of the
Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) on November 7-18, 2022 reflects its importance as the core of Egyptian tourism and a
destination for international conferences. Therefore, all parties joined forces in transforming Sharm
El-Sheikh into a green and eco-friendly city that preserves natural resources and ecosystems. This, in
turn, will reflect Egypt's Vision 2030 and its goals in seeking to accelerate climate action and
appreciate the value of multilateral, collective, and concerted action as the only way to confront this
real global threat by reducing emissions.
26
National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050:
Egypt signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1994, thus entering
the ranks of countries that are striving to confront the climate change challenges resulting from
doubling greenhouse gas emissions. Egypt has pursued the principle of equality in rights and
duties towards the planet and the difference in relative responsibilities towards preserving
emissions rates and helping to reduce them.
In this regard, the Egyptian government established the National Council for Climate Change
under the Cabinet's presidency by a decision of the Egyptian Prime Minister. Then, it launched the
National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050 during the Glasgow Summit (COP26), which aligns
with the country's sustainable development strategy, "Egypt's Vision 2030".
The strategy aims at reducing harmful emissions and equipping the country to withstand the
effects of global warming. Egypt identified the five main objectives of the strategy at the time of
its launching, namely: achieving sustainable economic growth and reducing emissions in various
sectors; building resilience and the ability to adapt to climate change and mitigate its negative
effects; improving the governance and management of climate change action; improving the
infrastructure for financing climate activities; and promoting scientific research, technology
transfer, knowledge management, and awareness raising to combat climate change.
Declaring Sharm El-Sheikh a flexible, resilient, smart green city in

the face of disasters and crises:
During the preparation of nominating the city of Sharm El-Sheikh to be declared a smart, resilient
green city able to face crises and disasters, a training program (exchange of experiences between
cities) was held in Incheon, South Korea, organized by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UNDRR), with the participation of representatives of the Crisis/Disaster Management
and DRR Sector at the Cabinet's Information and Decision Support Center and representatives of
South Sinai governorate.

During the training program, South Sinai governorate's efforts were presented through the
directions and vision of the State to transform Sharm El-Sheikh into a green, eco-friendly, smart,
and a secure city for the projects that have been or are being implemented in the city, including:
▪ A sustainable urban transport system project for Sharm El-Sheikh (a bus charging station with
electricity/bus supply station with natural gas), where charging stations for electric cars were
established, and fuel stations in the city were converted to operate with natural gas.
▪ Electric car charging stations and converting the city's fuel stations to operate with natural gas
(locations for charging stations for electric cars have been identified via GPS, containing a car
charging point, and all cables have been connected to all required chargers).
▪ Supporting the use of clean and renewable energy (solar power plants) with a focus on
sustainable tourism that uses eco-friendly energy and motivating the city's hotel facilities to
shift to using this energy as part of transforming the city into green. This leads to reducing Co 2
emissions. Thus, the city is Pure and healthy, exploiting the constant sunshine and reducing
reliance on electricity to save expenses.
▪ A tourist walkway with a length of 6 km in both directions (a new international destination in the
City of Peace). It includes an external sidewalk, a bicycle path, planting basins, a pedestrian path,
aesthetics and lighting works, green spaces, plastic recycling machines, a recreational area, an
open Roman theater with a capacity of 350 people, a circular panorama restaurant of two floors,
and parking spaces for 600 cars.
▪ A project to decorate the general site of the streets and squares of

Sharm El-Sheikh, with green spaces on the main and transverse
axes. The main squares in Sharm El-Sheikh have been developed,
including green spaces, flower basins, and night lighting works. An
irrigation network has also been extended for crops and green
spaces to increase green spaces, paying attention to cleanliness and
luminous and indicative signs, in addition to interlocking, lighting,
and developing internal roads in
Sharm El-Sheikh.
28
▪ Smart digital solutions and online payment system, including smart taxi, smart parking, secure
online payment and collection system, and smart tourist card.
▪ The central park and banks complex: The park has many vital activities that serve people and
visitors of the city, including green plantings, a commercial mall, banks, a nursery, distinguished
restaurants, a food court that contains several diverse restaurants with an international
reputation, an international shopping center, open theatre, open spaces, seating areas for all
visitors, and artificial lakes.
▪ The smart and eco-friendly Sharm El-Sheikh City Council and its transformer station: The new
city council building is considered a model of an advanced, smart, digital, sustainable,
environmentally friendly governmental building and a breakthrough in digital information
technology. It was technically and practically designed to match what the city of Sharm El-
Sheikh has achieved.
▪ Raising the efficiency of the existing desalination plants and oxidation ponds: This area is
witnessing unprecedented development. The lake has been transformed from a place for
sewage purification and recycling into an area of attraction for tourists to be one of the main
environmental tourist attractions in the city. It sheds light on Egypt's efforts to protect
migratory birds during their annual global journey in line with the principles of sustainable
environmental, social, and economic development and the fulfillment of Egypt's international
obligations. With its unique geographical location, Egypt represents a bridge between three
continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa), making it the second most important path for migratory
birds globally.
▪ Developing the cleaning system to implement collection and transportation services and
cleaning the streets and public facilities in Sharm El-Sheikh. A smart and integrated waste
management and safe disposal system has been developed.
▪ Some Sharm El-Sheikh hotels obtained the GREEN STAR, and some diving centers obtained the
green mark (Green Fins): The standards of obtaining the green star include 11 items, such as:
using new and renewable energy sources, increasing greenery, reducing waste and water
consumption, rationalizing food and other specialized characteristics of protecting the
environment.
▪ Security systems in South Sinai governorate, including the unified control center of the national
network in Sharm El-Sheikh, the unified security monitoring center, and raising the efficiency of
the security system in Sharm El-Sheikh with the latest panoramic and security cameras.

▪ The visual identity of Sharm El-Sheikh: A new project that promotes the city of Sharm El-Sheikh
in the field of tourism aims at consolidating the concepts of identity and tourism promotion for
Egypt
In addition, it was agreed to organize a side event during the Conference of the Parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Sharm El-Sheikh on November
7 -18, 2022, to announce the city of Sharm El-Sheikh as a resilience hub. During the side event,
Sharm El-Sheikh was declared a resilience hub in the face of disasters on November 12, 2022.
The Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction, Mami Mitzutoi,
handed over the certificate declaring Sharm El-Sheikh as the first resilience hub to the governor.
On the other hand, the 8th Arab Partnership Meeting for Disaster Risk Reduction was held on
December 6-8, 2022, with the participation of national focal points for disaster reduction at the
level of Arab countries, representatives of civil society, and relevant international and regional
organizations. One of its objectives was to act as a starting point from COP27 to COP28 and to
develop an initial action plan as part of the preparations for the COP28 conference scheduled to be
held in Dubai in 2023. This forum was organized by the United Nations Office for Risk Reduction and
the Regional Office for the Arab States in cooperation with the Resilience Center in Sharm
El-Sheikh. During the forum, the governor of South Sinai confirmed that the governorate adopts
several serious and effective programs and policies to face disaster risks, all of which led to
declaring the city as a center of flexibility and resilience on the margins of the Climate Summit
COP27 held last November.
On the margins of the 8th Arab Partnership Meeting for Disaster Risk Reduction, Sharm El-Sheikh
also hosted the Pivotal Resilience Forum MCR2030, which brought together more than 25 resilience
centers and representatives of resilient cities recognized as global leaders in various resilience
measures related to disasters and climate.
Thus, the sustainable development goals aligned with Egypt's Vision 2030 by transforming Sharm
El-Sheikh into a green city. Among the Vision's goals: Improving the quality of life of the Egyptian
citizen, improving his standard of living through social justice, participating in a competitive and
diversified economy, knowledge and innovation, an integrated and sustainable environmental
system, governance of state and society institutions, Egyptian peace and security, and
strengthening Egyptian leadership.
30
24
These projects and initiatives have contributed to
transforming Sharm El-Sheikh into a sustainable
green city to create a platform that encourages
the greening of public spaces.

32
1
South Sinai
Governorate
Transforming Sharm El-Sheikh International
Hospital into an Eco-Friendly Hospital
About the project

Transforming Sharm El-Sheikh International Hospital to be a model for Egypt's first green
hospital through a cooperation protocol between the Ministry of Health, the General Health Care
Authority, and South Sinai Governorate. This aims at moving towards green and sustainable
facilities, which contributes to improving the quality of healthy life for South Sinai people under
the Sustainable Health Development Goals of Vision 2030.
Objectives:
▪ The project aims at transforming to green health facilities, encouraging increased investments
in sustainable green health care in Egypt, and placing health care among the priorities of the
climate change issues discussed at the Climate Conference due to the close link between health
and the environment. The green transformation of healthcare has become an urgent necessity
to ensure safer and more sustainable healthcare.
Executive Steps:
▪ An autonomous solar energy plant was established to generate clean and renewable energy in
Sharm El-Sheikh International Hospital and a water desalination and purification plant was
installed. In addition, a reservoir was constructed to collect wasted water from the surplus of
the desalination plant and an integrated irrigation and collection system for implantation
purposes, using effective technologies to rationalize water consumption.
▪ A medical waste treatment unit operating through shredding and sterilization instead of
incineration was installed, in addition to providing units for separating regular waste and a
machine for disposing plastic and metal bottles in the hospital. Moreover, a telemedicine
diagnosis and communication unit was established, supported by telemedicine devices inside the
hospital and electronically connected to all Health Care Authority hospitals in the governorates
with comprehensive health insurance and the Health Care Authority mini-field hospital.
Outcomes:
▪ Sharm El-Sheikh International Hospital was transformed into a smart hospital based on digital technology
in all procedures and services provided to patients. It obtained international recognition from the Global
Green Healthy Hospitals network (GGHH), as Sharm El-Sheikh International Hospital is Egypt's first and
only hospital to get international recognition. It also applies the green transformation concepts for
health services in accordance with international standards. Moreover, the hospital obtained quality
accreditation from the General Authority for Healthcare Accreditation and Regulation.

2
South Sinai
Governorate
Initiative to Implement Street and Facilities
Cleaning Services in Sharm El-Sheikh
About the Initiative
The initiative seeks to provide services for collecting, transporting and cleaning streets and
public facilities from solid municipal waste in Sharm El-Sheikh neighborhoods.
Objectives:
▪ The initiative sheds light on the Egyptian State's efforts in a way that befits its position in the
international community during Sharm El-Sheikh's hosting of the 27th Conference of the Parties
to the Climate Change Convention (COP27). It also aims at supporting the governorate of South
Sinai through cooperation between the governorate and the relevant ministries.
▪ The initiative seeks to take advantage of the governmental institutions’ collaborative efforts
that contribute to preparing and implementing environmental projects, which support national
efforts to protect the environment and natural resources and dispose of solid municipal waste.
The goal is to take the necessary procedures to adapt to climate change in order to achieve
sustainable development goals. Promoting the municipal solid waste system in Egypt's
governorates, especially in South Sinai. So that there is an integrated, sustainable, and regular
waste system at the highest level of efficiency and quality that is no less than that provided in
international cities that similar to Sharm el-Sheikh, for the city to appear as the first eco-friendly
green city.
Executive Steps:
▪ The initiative resulted from a quadruple cooperation protocol between the Ministries of Environment,
Finance, and Local Development and the Governorate of South Sinai, in addition to the signing of a
tripartite agreement contract between the Governorate of South Sinai, the Egyptian Company for
Integrated Waste Management, and the Green Planet Sustainable Environmental Solutions. Gradual
implementation of collecting, transporting, and cleaning streets and public facilities from municipal
solid waste in Sharm El-Sheikh.
Outcomes:
▪ The Ministry of Finance will provide Financial appropriations for the Protocol throughout the
contract period with the consortium of companies under the initiative protocol. The consortium
of companies will provide services for collecting and transporting municipal waste from
residential and commercial areas, as well as industrial complexes, government buildings and
markets, while cleaning and washing streets and public facilities in the South Sinai governorate.
Moreover, the governorate will provide the required capabilities to ensure the complete success
of the city's waste management system.
34
3
South Sinai
Governorate
Digital Solutions and
Electronic Payment System
About the Project

Smart Digital Solutions System applications project includes smart taxis and parking, a secure
online payment system, and a smart tourist card. This project resulted from a memorandum of
understanding between the Governorate of South Sinai and the "E-Finance" for Digital and
Financial Investments.
Objectives:
▪ Operating smart cards by providing the latest advanced technical solutions in the management
of smart city services and specialized projects according to the latest globally recognized
operating systems and applying them for the first time in the city of Sharm El-Sheikh in a way
that befits the city's visitors and drivers and guarantees a high level of services. The company
will make all its capabilities and services fully available for the governorate.
Executive Steps:
▪ The smart taxi system includes online payment and a smart camera system, through which the
fare value can be paid through POS devices. The smart taxi includes a security system with
cameras, which the National Service Projects Authority implements. It is being linked
electronically to the unified national network for emergency and public safety by the Armed
Forces' Signal Department. There is also the secure online payment system, through which all
financial transactions are collected from smart projects, which are currently implemented and
could be linked to any online system with digital payments. The dashboard of all collections can
be seen, in addition to displaying a summary of the collections of all systems at any time. The
smart tourist card allows users to book all tourist activities. Moreover, there is a card that
carries all tourist's data and is charged with a sum of money so that the tourist can use it in can
use it in purchases and online payments available on the application. At the same time, all
tourist transactions are displayed on performance indicators and monitoring of procurement
actions. The card is also linked to the secure online collection system.
Outcomes:
▪ The digital solutions system includes smart parking. The number of parking lots planned to be operated is
set to reach 24, including a temporary one. The first phase of the smart parking system includes 4 parks
that were completed before the conference. The second phase of the smart parking system includes 9
other parks, while the third phase includes 10 parks.

4
South Sinai
Governorate
Development of Al-Salam Square, City Squares, Traffic
Island, and Roadsides
About the Project

Al-Salam Square in Sharm El Sheikh is one of the most important tourist attractions in the city,
as it contains The Peace Icon Memorial, one of the city's most important landmarks that adds
beauty and elegance to it. Al-Salam Square is considered one of the largest international
squares, covering an area of 70 thousand square meters. Accordingly, the South Sinai
Governorate was keen to develop and increase the surrounding green areas.
Objectives:
▪ The project seeks to achieve environmental balance and prevent desertification by increasing
green spaces, as trees act as wind bumper, and transforming Al-Salam Square into a tourist
attraction.
▪ Concerning the development of the squares, this will improve the visual image of the squares
and roads, facilitate traffic and walking from the ring road to the city center and from there to
Al-Salam Road, passing by the bridge of King Salman International University and the Youth City,
as well as the appearance of the city's landmarks in a civilized way.
Executive Steps:
▪ A place has been allocated to set up an open theater in Al-Salam Square, surrounded by a green
area extending to about 30.000 square meters, to hold international concerts. About 1,500 LED
bulbs have been installed in the square, and a 250-meter orchestra amphitheater has been
established. The square has been decorated with Garonia, Patonia, and Lantana flowers to be a
flower-filled arena that gives joy to city visitors. These species had been chosen precisely due to
their ability to withstand fluctuating temperatures.
▪ Al-Salam Road was provided by eco-friendly lighting that saves about 75% of the energy, in
addition to developing the main and subsidiary squares in Sharm El-Sheikh and Nabq region. The
development works include establishing green spaces, flower basins, night lighting, and water
fountains. Moreover, an irrigation network was extended to crops and green spaces, placing
luminous guiding signs on the roads, and finally installing interlocks on the internal roads of
Sharm El-Sheikh.
Outcomes:
▪ The South Sinai Governorate is developing the main squares in Sharm El-Sheikh, totaling 15 main
and subsidiary squares, and Al-Salam Road leading to Sharm El-Sheikh International Airport and
the conference hall.
36
5
South Sinai
Governorate
Establishing the Al-Salam International
Tourist Walkway in the City of Peace
About the Project

Al-Salam Tourist Walkway highlights the distinctive visual identity of the city of Sharm El Sheikh.
It is considered one of the most important aesthetic elements on Al-Salam Road. Al-Salam
Walkway is 6 kilometers long in both directions and up to 12 meters wide. The walkway has
several tourist bazaars and shops on both sides, paths for pedestrians and bicycles, a children's
play area, entertainment venues, and cafes.
Objectives:
▪ Establishing a new tourist destination for the city's visitors, which will increase the tourist area
so that it is not limited to Naama Bay Walkaway.
▪ Promoting the shops and bazaars in the Old Market Area, as the walkway is linked with the
walkway that extends to the old market, which would provide more job opportunities for these
tourist establishments.
Executive Steps:
▪ Constructing an iconic gate at the beginning of the walkway, with 7 meters height and 12 meters
length, so that the walkway includes an external sidewalk.
▪ Constructing a bicycle path of 2 meters in width, a pedestrian path of 7 meters in width, in

addition to implementing aesthetics and lighting works, planting basins and plastic recycling
machines.
▪ Establishing 83 wooden pergolas and 57 concrete pergolas, in addition to 2000 decorative shafts
with a height of 3 meters and about 1400 various seats. Moreover, 83 shops of different sizes
and 66 sales booths with an area of 6 meters were established.
▪ Constructing the recreational area, which includes a 7-meter-high waterfall, an open Roman
theater with a capacity of 350 persons, a circular panoramic restaurant of two floors, a
children's play area, several service shops, and parking spaces for about 600 cars.
▪ Extending fiber cables with a length of 4.5 km to connect high-speed internet to the walkway.
Outcomes:
▪ Having a bicycle path has led to developing a cycling culture that promotes heart and muscle
health. It is also considered an investment of time as a fast and safe mode of transportation.

6
South Sinai
Governorate.
"Sharm El-Sheikh, a Flexible and Resilient
City" Initiative "Resilience Hub"

The initiative aims at improving local resilience to disasters and climate change as part of the
global program of Making Cities Resilient 2030, which was launched in 2020 for 10 years, in
collaboration with the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, the Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the United Nations Human Settlements Program, the
World Bank Group, World Council on City Data, and the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction.
Objectives:
▪ Abiding by the City Resilience Program's worldwide standards.

▪ Ensuring the market is ready to implement the policy banning single-use plastic bags.
Executive Steps:
▪ Creating a plan and strategy for disaster risk reduction in accordance with the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030).
▪ Establishing the National Network for Emergency and Public Safety in Sharm El-Sheikh as a
primary risk and crisis management center.
▪ Establishing a command-and-control center and an alarm system to secure the city, tourist
buses, and internal routes.
▪ Improving the visual identity of Sharm El-Sheikh to encourage tourism, starting with Sharm
El-Sheikh Airport, taxis, freight cars, streets, and squares, in addition to standardizing and
generalizing Sharm El-Sheikh's visual identity in all key and touristic sites.
▪ Establishing an electric bus charging station can accommodate 140 electric buses.
Outcomes:
▪ Projects to safeguard Sharm El-Sheikh from flooding have been finished.
▪ Cooperating with the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation to build dams and barriers to
safeguard the city from the threats of excessive rain.
38
7
South Sinai
Governorate
Bicycle Sharing System
Project in Sharm El-Sheikh
About the Project:

The Bicycle Sharing System Project aims at reducing climate change and carbon emissions by
implementing a system of digital solutions and smart transport.
Objectives:
▪ It is part of Sharm El-Sheikh's smart systems and digital transformation in the field of
sustainable transportation.
▪ This project is part of the plan to transform the city into a smart green city.
▪ Facilitating the movement of citizens and tourists.
▪ The project is a part of the eco-friendly bike-sharing system "Go-Bike".
Executive Steps:
▪ Releasing the "Badel" and "Rabbit" mobile phone applications to enable residents to utilize
shared bicycles by scanning the bicycle's barcode and paying online.
▪ Establishing 10 shared bike stations using the (QR Code) system. Two stations have been
implemented: one in front of the commercial market gate in Naama Bay and the other on Al-
Salam Street near Mobil station.
▪ The number of bikes involved in the project ranges between 100 and 150.
▪ There are 24 parking lots planned to be operated, including a temporary one.
▪ Four parking lots are part of the smart parking system's first phase.
▪ The smart parking system's second phase contains 9 parking lots, while the third phase includes
10 parking lots.
Outcomes:
▪ Facilitating mobility and cutting carbon dioxide emissions.
▪ Raising citizens' awareness of the importance of using eco-friendly means of transportation.

8
Ministry of
Environment Green Sharm El-Sheikh project
About the project:

This project came within a cooperation protocol between the Ministry of Environment and the
Governorate of South Sinai. It is implemented by the Environmental Affairs Agency in
cooperation between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the “United Nations Development
Program” (UNDP), funded by the “Global Environment Facility” to accelerate transforming
Sharm El-Sheikh into a green city.
Objectives:
▪ The project aims at transforming Sharm El-Sheikh into an integrated and environmentally
sustainable tourist city for USD 7 million, to be of national and international importance. This
would be achieved through adopting more low-carbon technologies, good waste management
practices, and enhanced protection of its natural capital.
▪ The State's efforts to support the transition towards green projects aim at protecting
biodiversity and reducing waste and greenhouse gas emissions, given the growing global
momentum around the importance of climate action and the trend towards strengthening
financing for green and environmentally friendly projects to confront climate change.
Executive Steps:
▪ Implementing many procedures, including converting means of transportation to work with

electricity, declaring several hotels as green and sustainable hotels, and converting to the use of
renewable energy.
▪ Training the workers of tourist hotels, restaurants, and cafeterias on sustainability standards,
based on the State’s belief that preparing workers in the tourism sector for green
transformation is one of the most important issues it is working on. Therefore, it sought to
intensify training and awareness-raising programs, which contributed to supporting the green
transition. It has also established various tourist facilities, such as hotels, restaurants, diving
centers, etc.
▪ Sharm El-Sheikh Integrated Sustainable Development Strategy and an action plan were
developed, focusing on technical assistance. Furthermore, The State sought to build capacities,
demonstrate good practices to mitigate the effects of climate change, manage chemicals and
waste through experimental investments, promote behavioral change, and organize the
integrated strategy for sustainable development and its implementation plans.
40
9
Ministry of
Environment
Establishing Sharm El-Sheikh's Smart City Council and
Transformer Station of the New Council Building
About the Project

The smart building of Sharm El-Sheikh city council is a leading example of sustainable digital
governmental building and a breakthrough in digital information technology. It was designed
technically and practically to match the great progress achieved by the city of Sharm El-Sheikh.
Objectives:
The main objective of the project is to ensure sustainable operational excellence of Egypt's Vision
2030 through:
▪ Improving the appearance and capabilities of the project buildings regarding shape, lighting, air
quality, and acoustics.
▪ Achieving sustainable digital operational excellence for government institutions.
▪ Promoting the welfare and health of workers and citizens.
▪ Supporting monitoring systems and controlling the performance of buildings.
▪ Improving energy efficiency.
Executive Steps:
▪ The project covers an area of about 25 thousand meters.
▪ Establishing a sustainable smart city council building with an area of about 10 thousand meters.
▪ Establishing an administrative residential building on an area of 2000 meters.
▪ It includes a new power station and a major conference hall.
▪ the project also includes a visual monitoring center, as well as the headquarter of the Unified
National Network for Emergency and Public Safety.
▪ Establishing an advanced department for the governorate’s general office, and a number of
administrative and technical offices.
Outcomes:
▪ Implementing the new council building will improve the services provided to citizens, enhancing
service performance for both the recipient and the performer.

10Ministry of
Environment
Constructing Central Park,
Mall Complex, and Banks
About the Project

Located in Al-Noor district in front of the new Sharm El Sheikh City Council building and Banks
Complex, the central park covers an area of about 40 acres or about 110 thousand square
meters. This project is part of developing the city of Sharm El Sheikh and transforming it into an
eco-friendly green city.
Objectives:
▪ The project seeks to make the park one of the vital outlets that reflects the civilized city of
Sharm El-Sheikh.
▪ It helps transform the city into a global environmentally green city and a cultural and
recreational destination for all visitors of all races.
▪ The project creates an environmental balance and prevents desertification, given that trees act
as a major wind bumper, give splendor and beauty to the surrounding area, and protect the land
from any environmental damage, thereby achieving a good environmental impact.
Executive Steps:
The park has many vital service activities that serve the people and visitors of the city, including:
▪ Green plantings on an area of 18 acres, with 500 palms and 550 trees.
▪ A commercial mall, several banks, a nursery, and a food court with several diverse restaurants
with an international reputation.
▪ An international shopping center on an area of 2400 meters.
▪ An open theater, open spaces, and seating areas for all visitors, supported by a complete sound
system in the garden.
▪ Artificial lakes, modern fountains, marble, and granite surfaces.
▪ Schneider Electric Sustainability Center.
▪ Mobile vans powered by solar energy and Wi-Fi.
▪ The park is equipped with modern night lights to reflect its beauty for its visitors.
42
11
Ministry of
Environment
Some Sharm El-Sheikh Hotels
Obtained Green Star Certificate
About the Project:

The "Eco Egypt" project is working to grant the “Green Star” Certificate accredited by the Global
Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) to eco-friendly hotels that adhere to standards of
environmental responsibility and sustainable operation. The project resulted from the
cooperation between the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, and
the United Nations Development Program.
Objectives:
▪ The project aims at transforming the Egyptian tourism sector into an eco-friendly sector, in line
with the sustainable development goals and Egypt's Vision 2030 to maintain environmental
balance and the sustainability of tourism and archaeological activity.
▪ Transforming hotels and tourist facilities into eco-friendly enterprises that take the necessary
measures to conserve natural resources and protect plants and wildlife.
▪ Contributing effectively to increasing the welfare of the local community.
▪ Encouraging ecotourism and greatly reducing risks and scarcity of environmental resources.
Executive Steps:
▪ More than 700 hotel workers in Sharm El-Sheikh were trained as a first phase of an awareness
training program to familiarize workers with the principles of preserving the environment,
sustainability and green tourism, and ways of applying them in the tourism and hotel business.
Outcomes:
▪ The project is part of the initiative “Towards a Green Development of the Tourism Sector”,
launched in Sharm El-Sheikh in cooperation with the Egyptian Tourism Federation and the
United Nations Development Program in Egypt.
▪ The Ministry of Tourism has set special criteria for hotels to obtain the Green Star Certificate,
extending to 11 criteria, including the use of renewable energy sources, increasing green spaces,
reducing waste, reducing water consumption, rationalizing food, providing high-speed internet,
and installing solar power stations in hotels.
▪ About 86 hotel establishments with a capacity of approximately 20 thousand hotel rooms in

Sharm El-Sheikh were able to obtain the Green Star Certificate.

12Ministry of
Environment
Raising Efficiency of Existing Desalination Plants
and Oxidation Ponds
About the Project

The project aims at overcoming the water problem in Sharm El-Sheikh through water
desalination and re-treatment. The problem mainly lies in the need to raise the efficiency of the
two desalination plants that supply the city with water through maintenance, replacement, and
renewal works, as both plants have been operating for over 20 years and need maintenance.
Objectives:
▪ Improving water desalination plants in Sharm El-Sheikh to ensure that there is no water
shortage in the city to improve the quality of its services and citizens' lives.
▪ Absorbing and treating the excess wastewater, then using it to irrigate the green spaces.
Executive Steps:
▪ Supporting the establishment of two seawater desalination plants, one of which operates with a
capacity of 30,000 m3 per day, and the other with 12,000 m3 per day, with a total capacity of
42,000 m3 per day, in cooperation with the Kuwaiti Fund for Arab Economic Development. This
would contribute to ending the water crisis in Sharm El-Sheikh and improving the sewage
networks. A total of 8 water tanks have been developed, with a capacity of 80,000 m3, costing
EGP 230 million to serve 40,000 people, with an implementation rate of 90%. The project
includes 6 tanks with a capacity of 10,000 m3 per tank, two other tanks that have been
completed, and a water line with a diameter of 450 mm and about 16 km in length.
▪ Raising the efficiency of the Nabq desalination plant, which includes 18 feeding wells with a
depth of 120 lin. m, and drainage wells with a depth of 70 lin. m, with a total cost exceeding EGP
70 million. Moreover, a new water line with a length of 17 km was constructed on the ring road
to deliver water to the King Salman University branch, which is being implemented, the new
Rowaysat area, Al-Nour neighborhood, and the workers' housing area. In addition, the oxidation
lake was upgraded: oxidation is a safe disposal of wastewater utilizing sun temperature and air
to produce water suitable for irrigating woody plants after being treated. The Ministry of
Environment has developed and equipped the general location with many guiding boards in
addition, sites have been developed to watch migratory birds during their annual journey.
Outcomes:
▪ Raising the efficiency of the treatment plant with a system of natural oxidation ponds in the Safari area in
Sharm El-Sheikh, for EGP 11 million. The Ministry of Environment also tended to rehabilitate and raise the
efficiency of existing oxidation lakes by improving the characteristics and quality of water in the lakes.
44
13Ministry of
Environment
Initiative of Converting Vehicles
into Gas-Fueled (Go Green)

The initiative focuses on solving the problem of air pollution resulting from the exhaust gas of
old cars, by replacing cars powered by traditional fuel (gasoline and diesel) with other ones
fueled with natural gas, to make them green, clean, and eco-friendly cars. The Egyptian Ministry
of Environment launched the initiative in cooperation with the Ministry of Petroleum and
Mineral Resources, the Ministry of Finance, the Central Bank, and several banks and concerned
authorities.
Objectives:
▪ Environmental and health: The initiative aims at reducing air pollution and harmful carbon
emissions, and increasing the security and safety of roads due to discontinuation of old cars,
which are largely responsible for accidents.
▪ Financial: By raising the income of taxi and new passenger car drivers due to applying a new ride
fare. Additionally, new cars have been used, making them less subject to frequent breakdowns,
contrary to the old cars. This has contributed to operating them for long periods, increasing the
returns for their owners, as well as the expansion of using local fuel (natural gas) instead of
imported fuel (gasoline).
▪ Economic: Reducing fuel subsidies by updating old cars that consume a lot of fuel with other
cars that consume less fuel.
▪ Social: Providing job opportunities for young people in the various agencies executing the
project, such as banks and car assembly companies, which in turn expanded production lines, as
well as companies supplying the car industry, maintenance centers, and owners and drivers of
new taxis.
▪ Tourist and civil: The initiative aims at achieving a smooth traffic flow by replacing old cars with
new ones that are less exposed to breakdowns, upgrading the level of passenger transport
services, and improving the means of transportation for individuals in the city. It also gives the
appearance of urbanization on the streets of cities, and encourages an increase in the number
of tourists coming to Egypt.
▪ Industrial: encouraging the activity of recycling vehicles and increasing the operation rates in
the factories producing cars and the companies supplying the car industry.

Executive Steps:
▪ Executing a project to replace taxis and private cars -if their owner desires to own a new car,
provided that it is locally manufactured and runs on natural gas- which has been manufactured
for twenty years with new ones that are locally manufactured and powered with natural gas.
▪ Approving a financial incentive from the government to the project participants called "the
green incentive" and accordingly included some implementation procedures:
o The Ministry of Finance grants the green incentive at specific rates: private cars: 10% of the
new car value, up to a maximum of EGP 22,000. Taxis: 20% of the new car value, up to a
maximum of EGP 45,000, and microbuses: 25% of the new car value, up to a maximum of EGP
65,000.
o The Central Bank provided credit facilities to the participants in the initiative (through
31 banks) with an interest rate of 3% (annual flat yield) for a period of (7 and 10 years).
o Misr Insurance Company provides a discount of up to 50% (of the market price) on the
comprehensive car insurance policy. It also provided insurance coverage (for free) to all
participants in the initiative, which is personal accident insurance for the car driver at an
amount of EGP 100,000 in case of death in a car accident or total disability due to a car
accident.
o Establishing many stations to convert a certain number of cars to be gas fueled and many
stations that supply cars with natural gas fuel, which helped to promote the replacement
process.
Outcomes:
▪ Citizens who own old cars in Sharm El-Sheikh can replace them with new ones, by applying for
the initiative through a website dedicated to the city's residents.
▪ Cars that are more than 20 years old are now being replaced with other cars, provided that
their value is paid with soft loans to be paid over 10 years.
▪ The initiative also contributed to replacing used cars with new ones in Sharm El-Sheikh.
46
14Ministry of
Environment
Developing Cleaning System to Implement
Transportation Services and Clean Streets
and Public Facilities in Sharm El-Sheikh
About the Project

The project aims at developing a smart and integrated waste management system
commensurate with the city's global status and to safely get rid of such waste to raise the
efficiency of the municipal waste system. The project was launched through a partnership
between the Ministries of Environment, Finance, and Local Development, the South Sinai
Governorate, several cleaning companies, specifically “Green Planet” company, and the
concerned authorities.
Objectives:
▪ Reducing pollution: This includes pollution from industrial waste, including metal cans and
chemicals, and recycling these materials. This allows to reuse them instead of being thrown
away incorrectly.
▪ Combatting climate change: Through the rational management of waste and its effective role in
reducing the effects of climate change.
▪ Sustainable use of resources: The recycling process ensures the sustainable use of existing
resources, protecting the environment and reducing global warming, as huge amounts of waste
are burned to eliminate them, resulting in many greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
sulfur, and nitrogen. This leads to global warming and climate change. On the contrary, the
recycling process involves the emission of a very small amount of greenhouse gases.
▪ Providing job opportunities: The recycling process creates many job opportunities, as this
process requires the establishment of many recycling plants, which means a long series of waste
collection and delivery operations, which need manpower.
▪ Raising awareness: Highlighting the importance of waste as an essential resource that can be
used to achieve sustainable development and promoting segregation at source for all groups,
starting, from school children and city residents to the participants in the COP27 climate
conference in the green and blue regions.
Executive Steps:
▪ Developing a suitable action plan upgrade the municipal waste system in the city, to make it an
“environmentally friendly system”; as all the equipment used in the system is powered by
electricity and solar energy, including cars. The system also relies on the city's local Bedouins for
most of the labor responsible for system management.

▪ Reliance on a unified assembly system with regular cleaning, by locating assembly sites in a way
that reduces visual impact and unpleasant odors.
▪ Providing fast customer service and immediate response to ensure the level of services, receiving
feedback and making it available to all customers through multiple communication channels, and
ensuring timely responses to inquiries and requests using the best digital platforms designed for
information management purposes, in order to become the best in providing sustainable
environmental services and solutions.
▪ Signing cooperation protocols between the parties involved in implementing the project to
improve the services of waste collection, transporting, and street and public facilities cleaning in
Sharm El-Sheikh, to transform it into a sustainable green city through:
o Raising the efficiency of collecting, transporting, treating, and recycling waste, and carefully
cleaning the streets in 7 neighborhoods in Sharm El-Sheikh, given that the city is sustainable
and has to provide distinguished services.
o Spraying and washing streets, cleaning traffic and guidance signs, and lighting poles, as each
company developed its action plan for collecting and transporting waste from neighborhoods,
residences, and hotels, in addition to cleaning streets, beaches, and city parks.
o Preparing the infrastructure that the State will provide to the company in Sharm El-Sheikh
(a sanitary waste landfill at the highest level).
o Establishing a waste treatment and recycling plant that receives about 140 tons daily.
o Rehabilitating and constructing new lines to absorb all the waste generated in the city.
o Developing a strategy to increase the waste recycling rate, based on applying all distinct means
to improve separation processes at the source, awareness, training, and community
participation.
48
o Providing a safe, sanitary landfill in Sharm El-Sheikh, with a total cost of EGP 35 million, and
operating the petroleum waste treatment unit in Sharm El-Sheikh port, in cooperation with
the "Petrotrade" company. The unit works on recycling and treating hydrocarbon waste in
producing alternative fuels and optimal economic utilization of all other waste, in addition to
safe disposal of waste that cannot be recycled.
o This cooperation comes within implementing the State's environmental role in preserving
the marine environment from pollution, in light of the State's vision for 2030 and
transforming Egyptian ports into green ports.
o Discussing the establishment of an eco-friendly bags factory in Sharm El-Sheikh with the
support of Japan International Cooperation Agency “JICA” and the Environmental Affairs
Agency.
o Recycling and using plastic waste in the governorate, by providing 10,000 eco-friendly bags,
to prevent single-use plastic bags in Sharm El-Sheikh.
Outcomes:
▪ Improving the quality of cleaning services and waste recycling in the city in line with its
importance and status, serving the citizen and preserving the city's bright face.
▪ Preserving the environment and marine organisms by preventing the use of single-use plastic
bags. The investments provided to the South Sinai Governorate amounted to about EGP
103 million concerning several infrastructure projects to develop the integrated waste
management system.
▪ Promoting conference tourism and enhancing the city's cleaning system's sustainability
through various services, including waste collection, container distribution, and community
awareness programs.

15Ministry of
Environment
Campaign to Prevent Using
Single-Use Plastic Bags

The initiative is part of the campaign to reduce the consumption of single-use plastic bags in
Sharm El-Sheikh. It is being carried out in cooperation with the Ministry of Environment, South
Sinai Governorate, and the UN Development Program (UNDP) and funded by the European Union
and the Swiss Government.
Objectives:
▪ Focusing on raising public awareness of plastic harm.

▪ Reducing the negative impacts of single-use plastic bags and avoiding their severe impacts on
biodiversity in the Red Sea.
▪ Ensuring the market is prepared to implement the policy of preventing single-use plastic bags.
Executive Steps:
▪ This initiative was carried out in National Marina and the Ras Mohammed Reserve.
▪ About 10,000 eco-friendly bags were freely distributed to people at three stands, as part of
efforts to popularize the experience of environmentally friendly bags. One of these stands is
located in the Naama Bay district, the other is in the old commercial market area, and the third
is in Al-Noor Neighborhood.
▪ Within the campaign, a mobile car was prepared to traverse the entire city to reach the hard-to-
reach areas, distribute alternatives, and raise awareness of locals and businesses.
▪ Holding several workshops for store owners, vendors, and distributors and starting a social
media campaign to raise awareness of the negative effects of single-use plastic bag
consumption.
▪ Visiting all stores to raise awareness of this issue among merchants and customers. Making
visits to all Sharm El-Sheikh schools and universities.
Outcomes:
▪ A total of 350,000 paper bags out of one million have been distributed, in addition to providing
three mobile stands in Sharm El-Sheikh's most important areas. They scour the entire city to
reach hard-to-reach areas and take the responsibility of offering alternatives.
50
16
Ministry of
Environment
A Campaign to Promote Eco-Tourism
and South Sinai Reserves
About the Campaign

The campaign promotes sustainable and responsible tourism for travelers seeking one-of-a-kind
experiences. It also includes the sustainable use of natural reserves while conserving the cultural,
heritage, and environmental identity of the reserves, in collaboration with youth and the local
community, through training, developing methods of promoting cultural products and
handicrafts, and promoting investment opportunities in reserves.
Objectives:
▪ The campaign is a part of the Ministry of Environment's strategy to develop reserves. It aims at
promoting nature reserves as one of the most significant ecotourism destinations in the world,
maximizing the sustainable use of natural reserves, and raising awareness of their significance
and the importance of participating in protecting them.
▪ Re-attracting adventurous tourists with Egypt's ecological landmarks and reserves.
▪ Promoting natural reserves and assisting in developing a new and significant inter-tourism
product that deals with numerous ecotourism experiences, involving local populations and the
most important ecotourism locations and activities in South Sinai reserves.
Executive Steps:
▪ Focusing the experiences and traditions of the Bedouins and the local tribes to support the
environmental tourism.
▪ Providing a platform for the practices, customs, and unique crafts of local communities, such as
stargazing, diving, birdwatching, and camping, to support local livelihoods.
Outcomes:
▪ Establishing a visitor center at the Ras Mohammed Reserve.
▪ Integrating the local community into the reserves activities for economic and social
development, by providing them with sustainable job opportunities.
▪ Promoting eco-tourism in Egypt through developing a website and several social media
platforms.
▪ Preparing publications highlighting Egypt's natural reserve resources, including breathtaking

landscapes, animals, birds, and distinctive vegetation cover.

17
Ministry of
Tourism and
Antiquities
"Green Fins" Initiative
About the Project

“Green Fins” is an internationally recognized environmental certification that provides a
sustainable management approach to diving operators. The United Nations Environment
Program launched the initiative in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, the
Ministry of the Environment, and Reef-World Foundation. The initiative is managed locally by the
Chamber of Diving and Water Sports (CDWS), as Egypt is the 11th country to adopt it.
Objectives:
▪ Protecting marine life, especially coral reefs by applying environmentally-friendly guidelines.

▪ Enhancing Egypt's position as a tourist destination that achieves the UN Sustainable
Development Goals 2030.
▪ Encouraging sustainable marine tourism and spreading environmental awareness and correct
practices in the tourism sector.
▪ The goal of implementing this initiative is to make the concept of green tourism one of the
country's most important priorities, in line with the global goals of sustainable development.
Executive Steps:
▪ Training new members wishing to join the "Green Fins" initiative. They can register their wishes
by communicating with the city's Chamber of Diving and Water Sports team.
▪ The CDWS team has obtained the necessary certificates that qualify them to train workers in
the field of diving, in addition to providing individual consultations for workers in this field to
apply best practices that ensure marine tourism sustainability.
Outcomes:
▪ 40 diving centers obtained the "Green Fins" certificate. This achieves the goals of preserving
marine life and natural resources, in light of Egypt's hosting the United Nations Climate Change
Conference (COP27) in November 2022.
▪ Accrediting the first three trainers in the Middle East and Africa qualified to train checkers for
the "Green Fins" program to preserve marine life and coral reefs.
▪ Qualifying new checkers for the "Green Fins" program, bringing the total number to 12 checkers
nationwide. This positive step contributes to enhancing and facilitating the program procedures
for enrollment of tourist facilities, diving centers, and marine activities.
52
18 Ministry of
Electricity and
Renewable Energy
A Project to Establish Solar Energy Station at Sharm
El-Sheikh International Airport (Information Markets)
About the project

Transition to clean energy at Sharm El-Sheikh International Airport to make it an eco-friendly
airport within the Ministry of Aviation's integrated strategy to change the entire aviation sector
into an eco-friendly sector, through a cooperation protocol among the Industry Modernization
Center, the Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy, and the Egyptian Airports Company.
Objectives:
▪ Transforming Sharm El-Sheikh Airport into a green airport powered by solar energy units, under
Egypt's Vision 2030 to achieve sustainable development.
▪ Completing the successful experience, implemented by the Industry Modernization Center in the
Small Solar Cell Systems (Egypt-PV) project, to provide technical support in order to extend
small solar energy systems throughout the country.
Executive Steps:
▪ This project comes in parallel with the launch of the “Green Sharm project”, which aims to
transform Sharm El-Sheikh into a green city, thus becoming the first green city in Egypt, the
Arab world, the Middle East, and Africa.
▪ Providing technical and financial support for supplying, implementing, and operating small solar
cells at Sharm El-Sheikh Airport, during August 2021.
▪ Signing a new cooperation protocol to complete the experience of Cairo Airport at Sharm El-
Sheikh Airport.
Outcomes:
▪ The project contributes to developing and supporting the proliferation of solar cell systems in
many sectors, including industrial, commercial, tourism and educational sector and in public
buildings.
▪ The project will contribute to reducing climate change and implementing Egypt's Vision 2030
and its strategy to achieve sustainable development goals.

19 Ministry of
Electricity and
Renewable Energy
A Project to Establish Solar Power Plants in
Sharm El-Sheikh with a Capacity of 40 Megawatts
About the Project

The project reflects the concerted efforts of four ministries and the United Nations
Development Program, in cooperation with the Governorate of South Sinai and the hotel sector
represented by the Egyptian Tourism Federation, in using clean energy in tourist cities such as
Sharm El-Sheikh.
Objectives:
▪ Encouraging the city's hotels to switch to using eco-friendly energy and installing small solar
plants on their roofs to transform the city into a green city, especially with the interest in
sustainable tourism that uses eco-friendly energy.
▪ Reducing carbon dioxide emissions, so the city is pure and healthy.
▪ Exploiting the constant sun rays in the city.
▪ Reducing dependence on electricity to save expenses (saving EGP 3 million pounds).
▪ Improving the capabilities and efficiency of the city's facilities to reach the highest level of eco-
friendly services, including: airports, roads, transportation, hotels, and tourist facilities.
Executive Steps:
▪ Allocating 3 plots of land to establish 3 solar energy stations, including a station currently being
built by Global Energy Company in the Nabq tourist sector and the existing station for Schneider
Electric Company, bringing the total number of solar energy stations in the city to 4 stations.
▪ The Nabq station is the first solar energy station in Sharm El-Sheikh, feeding the Nabq Touristic
Center and 120 hotels with a capacity of 6,000 hotel rooms.
▪ The solar power stations cover an area of 5,200 square meters, and each station produces two
million kilowatt-hours, saving 1,400 tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually.
▪ The implementation period for each station is 5 months. Each station also includes 2,500 solar
energy panels, representing 75% of the station.
▪ The stations provide 80% of hotel electricity loads during the day. The glass panels used in
manufacturing solar power plants are distinguished by their strength and ability to convert
solar energy into electricity.
54
20 Ministry of
Petroleum and
Mineral Resources
A Project to Establish Electric Car Charging Stations
and Convert the City's Fuel Stations to Operate with
Natural Gas
About the Project

Infinity Power, a subsidiary of the Infinity Group, in partnership with the Emirati company
(Masdar), has developed, managed, and operated an integrated solar power generation plant
with an installed power capacity of 6 megawatts to supply the COP27 Summit with sustainable
energy. Moreover, 18 charging stations for electric cars are being developed.
Objectives:
▪ Reducing carbon emissions, thus, the city is pure and healthy under Egypt's vision to achieve
sustainable development 2030.
▪ Eliminating pollution throughout the city.
▪ Transforming Sharm El-Sheikh to be the first green Egyptian city powered by clean energy.
▪ Increasing the workforce.
Executive Steps:
▪ Inauguration of 18 sites for charging stations for electric cars, containing 116 charging points,
and all cables have been connected to all required chargers.
▪ The new Infinity charging stations for electric cars are located in major gas stations and car
parking in the famous shopping malls and several of the most important Sharm El-Sheikh sites.
▪ The new stations include 116 charging points with 58 chargers, of which 49 are AC chargers, and
9 are DC chargers.
▪ Converting car fueling stations in the city to operate with natural gas for several 10 stations.
Outcomes:
▪ The electric car, used during and after the 27th session of the Climate Change Conference
(COP27), saves more than 30% of the cost compared to gasoline-powered cars.
▪ This car is assembled inside Egypt, and it is widely accepted by Egyptian citizens, especially
young people. It is considered one of the recognized brands for its efficiency in the market. The
local manufacture of this car will allow its spread further.

21Ministry of
Petroleum and
Mineral Resources
Converting Sharm El-Sheikh Cars into
Gas-Fueled Instead of Gasoline
About the Project

Converting cars in Sharm El-Sheikh city into natural gas-fueled, establishing three other
comprehensive stations in the city, and supporting companies with 5 million pounds for the
implementation. The Natural Gas Holding Company, through "GasTech" and "Cargas", will convert
the city's cars to operate on the gas/gasoline bi-fuel cycle to support the governorate of South
Sinai to go green.
Objectives:
▪ Contributing to the ease of supplying natural gas as a fuel.

▪ The project was part of the efforts to host the Climate Change Conference in Sharm El-Sheikh on
November 27, 2022, and in light of the directives of President Abdel Fattah El-Sisi to transform
Sharm El-Sheikh into a green eco- friendly city.
Executive Steps:
▪ The governorate provides the companies with the data on the cars to be converted.
▪ Providing all aspects of cooperation to facilitate transferring the necessary equipment and
labor for the green transition. The two companies mentioned above will conduct the required
technical examination of the cars and determine the systems for their conversion.
▪ The conversion will occur at the GasTech Center in Al-Ruwaisat city and the designated places
the governorate will determine.
Outcomes:
▪ During 2022, about 97% of Sharm El-Sheikh's cars of all kinds, whether governmental, taxi, or
tourist, were converted free of charge to use natural gas, within a cooperation protocol signed
between the Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources and the Governorate of South Sinai.
They were granted a one-year warranty for free post-transfer service.
▪ Establishing 3 new fueling stations, bringing the total number of natural gas fueling stations and
electric charging to 8 comprehensive and integrated stations using natural gas, electricity, and
gasoline, which allows these stations to supply cars and buses in the governorate.
▪ Providing a mobile gas station to easily supply natural gas as fuel during the conference period.
56
22
Ministry of
Trade and
An Initiative to Install Solar Power
Industry
Stations in Sharm El-Sheikh Hotels

Signing cooperation agreements with a group of hotels and tourism companies in Sharm El-
Sheikh, namely: (Regency Plaza Sharm Hotel, Monte Carlo Sharm El-Sheikh Hotel, Continental
Plaza Hotel, Sanafir Hotel, Novotel Sharm El-Sheikh Hotel, Dolphin Park Hotel, Dreams Vacation
Hotel, Dreams Beach Hotel, Hotel-Raga Company for Tourism and Hotels, and Pyramisa Hotels
and Resorts Company), with a total capacity of 3.5 megawatts.
Objectives:
▪ Enhancing the State's efforts to support the transition to a green economy, particularly heading
towards sustainable tourism.
▪ Implementing the State's directives aimed at deepening local manufacturing of industries with
high added value and a high technological component, such as producing solar power plant
components, particularly in light of the Egyptian government's tendency to diversify energy
sources and increase reliance on new and renewable energy.
▪ The project aimed at encouraging the use of eco-friendly and renewable energy and raising
awareness about the best way to utilize Sharm El-Sheikh's natural resources.
Executive Steps:
▪ Establishing a solar power plant with a capacity of 126 kilowatts at "The Regency Plaza" hotel and
a 374-kilowatt solar power plant at the "Monte Carlo" hotel.
▪ Establishing a 1000-kilowatt solar power plant at the "Continental Plaza" hotel and a solar power
plant with a capacity of 108 kilowatts for the "Sanafir Hotel".
▪ Establishing a solar power plant with a capacity of 100 kilowatts at the "Novotel" hotel and a
solar power plant with a capacity of 102 kilowatts at the "Dolphin Park" hotel.
▪ Establishing a 493-kilowatt solar power system at "Dream Vacation" hotel and a 157-kilowatt
solar energy system for the "Dream Beach" hotel.
▪ Constructing a 1000-kilowatt solar energy system at the "Pyramisa Sharm Resort" hotel.
Outcomes:
▪ Hotel and tourist facilities received an accredited certificate declaring they have met all the
requirements for eco-friendly green practices and are awarded the green mark.

23
Ministry of Civil
Aviation
Converting Sharm El Sheikh Airport
into Green and Eco-Friendly
About the Project

The project results from cooperation between the Ministries of Civil Aviation, Environment,
Trade and Industry, Tourism and Antiquities, Electricity and Renewable Energy and the South
Sinai Governorate. The Industry Modernization Center implements the project in cooperation
with the UN Development Program, to transform Sharm El-Sheikh Airport into a green, eco-
friendly airport relying on clean energy.
Objectives:
▪ Converting Sharm El-Sheikh airport into a green airport powered by solar energy units, in line
with the global trend for airports to rely on renewable energies and Egypt's Vision 2030.
▪ Using natural renewable energy sources within the relying on clean energy.
▪ Activating the airport's visual identity to encourage tourism and promoting the use of
environmentally friendly energy and the optimal use of natural resources, which characterizes
the city of Sharm El-Sheikh.
Executive Steps:
▪ A cooperation agreement was signed between the Industrial Modernization Center and several
ministries, including the Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy, to implement a grid-
connected solar power plant at Sharm El-Sheikh International Airport, in addition to relying on
drip irrigation and using sensors in water taps to save water consumption. The insulated glass
panels were used in the walls and ceilings of buildings to achieve thermal insulation and internal
lighting from natural sources, as well as installing solar panels along the airport wall and the
parking lots, relying on clean energy and the use of cars and electric buses.
Outcomes:
▪ The development of Sharm El-Sheikh Airport to become the first green airport in Egypt and the
Middle East was almost completed. It was expanded to accommodate 10 million tourists instead
of 7 million. The airport obtained the renewal of the ISO certificate after applying all
international standards for travel, arrival, and insurance systems. It was provided with 2 solar
energy stations, one of which is in the arrival hall with a capacity of 300 kilowatts, and the other
with a capacity of 5 megawatts, in addition to applying an integrated security system. The
airport became a five-star airport and one of the best airports in the world in terms of
equipment and aircraft waiting places, as well as capacity. In addition, visual identity signs have
been installed throughout the airport. Upgrading the airport included expanding the travel and
arrival halls, providing it with modern equipment to increase security operations, as well as
expanding the aircraft parking to accommodate 46 aircrafts.
58
24Ministry of
Transportation
A Sustainable Urban Transport System Project
in Sharm El-Sheikh (Electric Bus Charging
Station / Natural Gas Bus Fueling Station).
About the project

As part of transforming the city of Sharm El-Sheikh to be the first green Egyptian city that
operates with clean energy, several electric charging stations have been established to serve the
electric bus network. They were provided during and after the 27th Conference of the Parties to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP27).
Objectives:
▪ Reducing carbon emissions so that the city is pure and healthy under Egypt's vision to achieve
sustainable development 2030 and provide quality of life, in addition to transforming Sharm El-
Sheikh to be the first green Egyptian city powered by clean energy.
▪ Using buses as a means of transportation for the delegations participating in the Climate
Summit (COP27).
Executive Steps:
▪ A station for charging electric buses in the city was established on an area of 55 thousand
square meters with a transformer capacity of 12 megawatts, with a total of 70 electric chargers
/ 2 buses, which can charge 140 electric buses. It is the first station in Africa and the largest
station in the Arab world to charge buses with electricity. In addition, a station to supply gas
buses in the Nabq region was constructed on an area of 3000 square meters and can
accommodate 150 buses.
▪ The bus charging area consists of 70 chargers, divided into 28 chargers with a capacity of
120 kilowatts and 42 chargers with a capacity of 60 kilowatts. In contrast, the medium voltage
transformers area includes a transformer of 2 megawatts with 6 locally made transformers and
a distributor of 22 kilovolts.
▪ A total of 140 natural gas (MAN 100) buses were procured by the Public Transport Authority (20
through Acta Company).
▪ Acta Company contracted 30 (Higer) electric buses, and coordination was made on procuring
150 electric cars through Chevrolet Group.
▪ Establishing a central control room for all buses in coordination with the Ministry of
Communications to develop mobile applications.

▪ Booking electric cars is now possible via an electronic application that organizes the
management and operation of the fleet of cars efficiently and orderly.
▪ Providing a technique for decrypting the encrypted code within the buses.
▪ Achieving integration with Google Maps, as well as the Ministries of Communications and
Transport with regard to reading passengers’ encrypted code.
▪ Establishing 171 intermediate stations along the routes to strengthen the integration of the bus
route network with the smart means available and equipping car parking in Sharm El-Sheikh
hotels with units for charging electric cars.
Outcomes:
▪ The electric bus is characterized by a distinctive design that is comfortable for passengers. It
takes into consideration the easy riding for people of determination, so that they can ride it
easily. Moreover, using the electric bus enhances clean energy. The passengers prefer this
feature in the vehicle, especially in areas with high temperatures.
▪ Converting traditional transport to electric vehicles through a public-private partnership to

facilitate transformation and inspire entrepreneurs and start-ups by providing them with
incentives encouraging investment in this field.
▪ Restructuring of transport infrastructure and encouraging innovative green business models.
▪ Achieving the environmental and economic benefits to provide the necessary transition funding.
▪ Announcing the local manufacture of electric vehicles, which will begin with automobile
assembly before moving on to manufacturing and localizing that industry in the country.
▪ The project fits in with Egypt's objectives for hosting COP 27, which include declaring the
governance by the end of 2023 and inviting partners to come to an understanding on a roadmap
and pilot initiatives to assist green transport projects to achieve sustainability.
▪ The project's overall local component proportion has reached 85%, and it is anticipated to get
100% by the end of 2023.
60
Source: Jayawardena. A, "Humans, Science and Nature: 12 quotes for 12 months for 2023 on climate change.",
tire dearth, February 07, 2023.

Greenwashing:
Concept and Solutions
Greenwashing is an approach some businesses

and organizations —and even governments—
adopt to distract and delude their customers
regarding the nature of their work model and
activities that harm the environment and
negatively impact the climate.
Dr. Rasha Moustafa Awad Dr. Rasha Awad is former Executive Director of the Egyptian
Public Policy Advisor to IDSC Cabinet’s Information and Decision Support Center with more
Chairman- Information and Decision than 25-year experience in public policy making, covering many
Support Center (IDSC) development issues in Egypt and the Arab region. She holds a
Ph.D. in Economics from the Faculty of Economics and Political
Abstract Science at Cairo University.
The world abounds with an infinite number of examples and models for organizations, institutions,
and governments striving to sustain and climatize their identities and catch up with the green track
effectively and effortlessly. Such a phenomenon has various kinds, collaborating and feeding the
false hope of meeting the commitments of the Paris Climate Agreement 2015. This phenomenon is
called greenwashing; it has at least six techniques: green crowding, green lighting, green shifting,
green labeling, and green hushing.
What makes this phenomenon even more serious is that it does not only affect the reputation of
the entities practicing it, but it also leads to losing trust in climate action and fading the hope of
saving humanity from global warming. That being said, this research paper attempted to introduce
the term greenwashing and its six kinds. It also sheds light on real-life examples proving it with a
special focus on the Alliance To End Plastic Waste (AEPW) and the Fédération Internationale De
Football Association (FIFA). Then, the researcher proposed a plethora of mechanisms to combat it,
which require adopting a comprehensive national approach with the participation of all
stakeholders, as well as meeting integral, honest, and responsible climate commitments.

Hence, the paper focused on three main
pillars to face greenwashing along with the
Expert Group Report, issued by the UN, as a
guide to ensure trustworthy, accountable
net zero commitments. These pillars
entailed localization of climate-related and
compliance rules and integrating them into
institutions' work systems, a smooth,
effective response by employment activities
and capacity building for such requirements,
and promotion of the role of governmental
and non-governmental monitoring bodies.
Keywords: Greenwashing – Sustainability

– Environmental, Social, and Governance
(ESG) – FIFA – Alliance To End Plastic
Waste (AEPW).
64
I'm worried about greenwashing. I think we
should come down on it very, very hard, whether
it's with criminal intent or actively deceptive.
John Elkington
British entrepreneur and author. He coined the terms
environmental excellence, green growth, and green consumer.
Introduction
In its issue on March 22, 2023, London-based Financial Times published an interesting article by
Alice Hancock, a specialist in climate and energy, titled Weakened EU greenwashing rules under
attack: Environmental guidelines watered down from draft proposals after heavy business
lobbying.1 This article tackles the shocking fact that the EU's recent greenwashing rules were to be
handled complacently compared to the recently published draft. To illustrate, the final principles
were more lenient and general, lessening its aspired impact and effectiveness.
The attack, launched by some consumers and environmentalist groups, unveiled the role played by
the industrial institutions and relevant advocacy groups to curb the aforementioned guiding
principles. Although the European Commission (EC) mentioned that it would later present a draft
bill to "complete requirements to prove certain types of green claims", Lead on Global Carbon
Markets at Carbon Market Watch, Mr. Gill Dufrasne, expressed his concern over the status quo.
Since the announced rules are not robust enough, such status may backfire and legitimize green
claims amounting to greenwashing practices.
Interestingly, greenwashing became an entrenched phenomenon that needs deterrence. Notably,

three-quarters of participants in a survey conducted in January 2023 with nearly 1,500 executives in
17 countries confirmed that greenwashing practices had spread among most of the businesses
working in the industry pertaining to it. Such practices could be spotted if these businesses'
method of dealing with the environment was investigated. This was mentioned in Rochelle
Toplensky's article published in the Wall Street Journal on April 13, 2023. Furthermore, the survey
showed a modest percentage of companies that could accurately measure their climate impact,
thus, control their sustainability programs.2 As shown in Figure (1), the percentage of the
companies that could accurately measure their climate impact amounted to only 36%, 14% of
which could rely on these measures to achieve perfection for their program. 17% of the companies
work on developing their sustainability plans. Only 9% of executives plan to launch sustainability
programs in their companies, 6% of which have not started developing such plans yet.

Figure 1
The current state of corporate sustainability programmes (January 2023) - (%)*
*Survey of nearly 1,500 executives in 17 countries conducted in January 2023.
Source: The Harris Poll on behalf of Google Cloud. In Rochelle Toplensky, Global Executives Say Greenwashing Remains
Rife, Wall Street Journal, April 13, 2023, bit.ly/41mslmU
In other words, one can say that only 14% of the companies had the knowledge qualifying them
not to launch greenwashing claims if they really opted for this. As a result, their practices will
increase due to a lack of evidence supporting these companies.3 Undoubtedly, such information
and analyses are worrying; they make us look up the concept of greenwashing, its main kinds, and
methods of facing it. The researcher shall tackle these points in the following sections.
Greenwashing: Emergence and Kinds
Recently, the wide-scale use of the term greenwashing, even though it is not novel. Jay Westerveld,
a prominent environmentalist, coined the term in the 1980s, specifically in 1986. He mentioned it in
an article on the hospitality industry and policies on encouraging guests to reuse cotton towels
several times to protect the environment. He concluded that the industry tried to make guests
sympathize with the environment and falsely encourage them to adopt this approach. Their real
hidden goal is to lower operational costs and limit the pattern of wasting towels.
Similar to whitewashing —also known as green sheen, greenwashing is a complex word referring to
the use of advertisements, public messages, and some practices to become more climate-friendly
and environmentally sustainable compared to its actual status. This is according to the definition
of Client Earth.4 In other words, greenwashing is an approach some businesses and organizations —
and even governments— adopt to distract and delude their customers regarding the nature of their
work model and activities that harm the environment and negatively impact the climate.
66
Worthy of mentioning, Figure 2
greenwashing became Main Kinds of Greenwashing
more complicated over

time. It entails at least six
We're living in the golden age of greenwash; And companies
methods, as illustrated by
Planet Tracker, a non-
Hf. are finding ever newer ways to pull the wool over buyers' eyes,
creating distinct types of greenwashing to look out for such as
profit think tank in Figure

(2). On top of such Greenwashing Green
When companies make misleading
methods comes green
claims about their environmental Crowding
crowding; it is based on credentials to get people interested.
Involves hiding in a group and
moving at the speed of the slowest
the belief of a company or Greenshifting adopter of sustainability policies.
a body that it can hide
Is when companies
among a group of other imply that consumers Green
are at fault and shift
bodies as set forth by the the blame onto them. Lighting
Safety in Numbers In a greenwashing context, is when
a company spotlights a particularly
Strategy. Hence, such green feature of its operations or
companies or bodies can products. This tactic aims to draw
attention away from
slow down their efforts to Green Rinsing environmentally damaging
activities being conducted
promote sustainability Refers to a company regularly elsewhere.
unnoticed, as they take the changing its ESG targets before they
are achieved. Short for Environmental,
herd they belong to as a Social and Governance, ESG is a set of
shelter to detract
standards measuring a business's
impact on society, the environment,
Green
attention from their and its transparency and
accountability.
Labelling
practices in order to Is a practice where marketers
call something green or
delude their customers. sustainable, but closer
examination reveals this to
One example is what be misleading.
members of AEPW did; it
will be explained later in And now there is also Greenhushing
this article. It's when organizations choose to under-report or hide their
green or ESG credentials from public view; for fear of being
accused of greenwashing!
Source: Sally Ho, Greenwashing: A Guide to Spotting All Kinds of Green Sheen From Greencrowding to Greenhushing,
Green Queen, Mar 13, 2023, bit.ly/3nV6u8m

Greenlighting is another kind of green sheen. This concept refers to the practice of some
companies or bodies to focus their promotional and marketing campaigns —and outreach to the
public in general— partially on their operational processes, products, and services, as it is the only
green part of their work system. This means that they draw attention to a unique illuminating
green privilege since it detracts attention from their other activities that harm the environment
and negatively impact the climate.
For instance, concerns have been on the rise recently against US President Joe Biden since he broke
his pledges in relation to climate action due to his practices of greenlighting several projects and
initiatives curbing harmful carbon emissions. On April 7, an opinion article published by CNN
mentioned that the US President's approval of the Willow Project in Alaska angered so many
American youths, raising questions over his commitment to dealing with the climate crisis before it
was too late.5
On May 11, 2023, the Export-Import Bank of the United States announced the approval of its board
of directors —appointed by the US President— to
provide a loan worth USD 99.7 million for the
Balikpapan refinery managed by an Indonesian state-
owned oil company. Commenting on this decision, Oil
Change International's U.S. program manager, Collin
Rees, said, "This approval shows the United States is
committed to doing the fossil fuel industry's bidding
in all corners of the world. This refinery would
threaten the air, land, and water of communities in
Indonesia, making a mockery of Biden's purported
commitment to environmental justice".6
Source: Smoke rises due to a fire at a Pertamina refinery in Cilacap, Indonesia on November 14, 2021. (Photo: El
Darmawan/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images). In Jake Johnson, Biden Accused of Breaking Key Climate Pledge After Ex-Im
Bank Backs Indonesia Oil Refinery, Common Dreams, May 12, 2023, bit.ly/3O6QACE
68
The third kind of greenwashing is green shifting. It occurs when a company or a body transforms or
transfers its liabilities towards climate to another party as if this party is to blame. One of the most
common examples of green shifting is what British Shell Global, which works in oil and gas when
launched in November 2022 a survey on Twitter asking its users the things they are willing to
change to help reduce emissions.
Figure 3
What are you willing to change to help reduce emissions?
Offset emissions 23.1%
Stop flying 6.5% votes

Buy electric vehicle 25.6%
Renewable electricity 44.7%
Source: https://twitter.com/Shell/status/1323184318735360001?lang=en
This question caused a wide-scale momentum among Twitter users. Some public figures expressed
their upset because of Shell's practices that put the burden of climate action on the citizens of the
planet. The company received a lot of bitter comments, such as:7
▪ "I'm willing to hold you accountable for lying about climate change for 30 years when you
secretly knew the entire time that fossil fuels emissions would destroy our planet," tweeted the
US politician Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, in response to Shell's question.
▪ The Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg also posted a response: "I don't know about
you, but I sure am willing to call out the fossil fuel companies for knowingly destroying future
living conditions for countless generations for profit and then trying to distract people and
prevent real systemic change through endless greenwash campaigns."
Notably, one study conducted by the Carbon Disclosure Project in 2018 showed that only
100 companies are responsible for over 70% of greenhouse emissions all over the globe over the
past three decades. According to Mr. Harry Cockburn in his article published in the London-based
Independent on November 30, 20208, ExxonMobil, Shell, BP, and Chevron came at the forefront of
the most polluting companies.

In addition to the kinds above, greenlabelling is wide-scale. It refers to the deliberate use of
marketing and public relations managers and others of misleading labels, slogans, and sentences.
For example, they may announce that a project is 100% organic, while it really is not. What FIFA did
in the World Cup 2022 as evidence of greenlabelling will be tackled later.
The fifth kind of greenwashing is greenrinsing. It occurs when a company or a body consistently
changes its ESG and/or its standards or pre-determined pledges in order to escape audits that
would reveal its complacent environmental performance. To clarify, one can look back when, in
2018, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) cooperated with Ellen MacArthur
Foundation to launch an initiative to encourage companies to move forwards towards limiting
plastic pollution and promoting a circular economy.
70
Several major companies participated in the initiative, including big producers of plastic packaging
in the beverage industry. Major players like Nestlé (NSRGY) - Get Free Report, PepsiCo (PEP) - Get
Free Report, Coca-Cola (KO) - Get Free Report, Mars Inc. (MNBP), L’Oréal (LRLCY), and SC Johnson
set goals for the future of plastic sustainability. The companies committed to using significantly
less new “virgin” plastic and increasing their use of recycled plastics. The pledges also included
making strides toward using 100% recyclable, reusable, or compostable packaging. According to the
most recent report published by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, these companies have made
some progress. But they are unlikely to meet sustainability goals set for the end of 2025.9
▪ Pepsi used more non-recycled plastic last year than it did the previous year. Pepsi pledged to use
5% less plastic in 2021 than it did in 2020, but instead, the company used 5% more plastic.
▪ Coca-Cola performed similarly, committing to a 20% decrease in unrecycled plastic use from
2019. However, in 2021 it actually used 3% more. Between 2020 and 2022, the company dropped
its target for using recycled packaging materials from 50 per cent by 2030 to 25 per cent.10
Source: Angela Symons, What is greenhushing? How to spot the sophisticated greenwashing tactics being used in 2023,
euronews.green, February 1, 2023, bit.ly/3nP5OBC
Last but not least, Greenhushing takes place when the management team of a company or a body
does not report their sustainability status or deliberately conceals relevant papers and reports
from public opinion. One example is when HSBC was warned by the UK's Advertising Standards
Authority (ASA) after its series of posts under the slogan "Climate Change Doesn’t Do Borders".

Source: Rebecca Stewart, HSBC Put on Notice for Greenwashing Following 'Misleading' Sustainability Claims, ADWEEK,
October 18, 2022, bit.ly/42QDWvr
The regulator said the bank's promotional claims were at odds with its continued investments in oil,
gas, and other industries that emitted "notable levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases".11 Bloomberg commented once, "HSBC Misled Consumers With Its Green Posters".12
AEPW and FIFA as Models
Greenwashing has worsened and become transcontinental, practiced deliberately or

unintentionally by several companies. What is worse, this phenomenon includes a large percentage
of the largest companies all over the globe. In fact, such practices do not only pertain to dishonest,
unprofessional work ethics but also lead to catastrophic repercussions on societies, business
communities, and the planet. It may lead to a lack of trust among several parties and hinder
progress toward sustainability.
One example can be the greencrowding practiced by members of AEPW, including some of the
world's top single-use plastic: Procter & Gamble, Veolia, Shell, ExxonMobil, PepsiCo, Mitsubishi
Chemical Holdings, and Total. Worthy of mentioning, these companies are among the top
20 companies producing waste of single-use plastic. As shown in Figure (4), their pattern of
producing single-use plastic did not change between 2019 and 2021.
72
Figure 4
The Top 20 List of Petrochemical Companies Producing Virgin Polymers Bound for Sing-use Plastic Remains
Effectively Unchanged Since 2021 (Megatonnes)
ExxonMobil
Sinopec
Dow
Indorama Ventures
Saudi Aramco
LyondellBasell
PetroChina
Reliance Industries
INEOS
Alpek SAB de CV
Braskem
Boreals
TotalEnergies
Lotte Chemical
Formosa Plastics Corp
SIBUR
Rongsheng Group
Jiangsu Hailun Petrochemical
China Resources Chemical
China Energy Investment Group
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Source: Conor McGlone, Track down the plastic greenwashers, Engineering and Technology, March 10, 2023,
bit.ly/3IhS74O
Members of AEPW pledged to end plastic waste to protect the environment and the planet,
disposing or recycling 99.9% of their plastic waste within five years. However, the reality is totally
different. Upon evaluating the status of all 65 AEPW members, Planet Tracker, an independent non-
profit think tank, stated that only 0.04% of targeted plastic waste was recycled within the first
three years of the five-year goal.
Moreover, Planet Tracker also highlighted as more members have joined the AEPW, its plastic waste
target has remained unchanged, meaning the average waste target per member has declined 56%
between 2019 and 2021 – from 107Kt to 47Kt annually.13 The report also noticed that 19 out of the
28 founding members at the AEPW (68 per cent) were also members of the American Chemistry
Council (ACC), an association promoting ‘the business of chemistry’. The ACC has more than
190 members engaged in the chemistry business.14

In a press release published on its website on March 23, 2021 titled Industry Leaders Push Back On
Break Free From Plastic Pollution Act, ACC stated that the soon-to-be-introduced Break Free From
Plastic Pollution Act would stall efforts to address plastic waste in the environment and limit the
essential role plastic plays in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.15
ACC resists the formulation of a negotiation framework outlining an international legally binding
instrument to beat plastic pollution.16 All 193 member states which participated in the 5th session
of UNEP —held in March 2022— approved the start of negotiations to establish this instrumental
instrument on plastic pollution, including the marine environment, by virtue of a comprehensive
approach dealing with the full life cycle of plastics.17
This is highly important. UN Secretary-General, António Guterres, tweeted on December 2, 2022,

"Plastics are fossil fuels in another form & pose a serious threat to human rights, the climate &
biodiversity".
74
Thus, an international intergovernmental negotiation committee to formulate the agreement was
formed with the participation of over 2,000 delegates representing 160 countries in order to set a
global legally binding agreement to overcome the harms of plastic waste. This agreement is to be
ratified by the end of 2024; however, the first round of negotiations, held between November 28 to
December 2, 2022, faced a divide on whether the goals should be global and legally binding or
country and voluntary.18
▪ On the one hand, the Climate Ambition Alliance —with over 40 member states, including
members of the EU and Switzerland— calls for the agreement, as it falls under an international
framework with global binding measures, including restrictions on production.
▪ On the other hand, other parties, such as the USA and Saudi Arabia —which own the world's
largest companies for plastics and petrochemicals— call for marking the pledges voluntary and
determined by each country according to their national status. However, observers state that
this approach will curb the agreement, lessening its impact.
Therefore, some members of the Alliance hid behind it to practice greencrowding. They believe in
the principles of the Alliance and —in the meantime— seek to promote ACC's role. Worthy of
mention, ACC serves as a pressure group on the UN public policy. Remarkably, greencrowding
practices go beyond national borders, as it negatively impacts entrenched stances on existential
issues affecting the entire planet. In fact, the USA's stance during the negotiation process targeted
establishing a vital global agreement.
The second model in

question is a case of
greenlabelling. FIFA
previously announced that
the World Cup 2022, held in
Qatar from 20 November
to 18 December 2022,
would be a fully carbon-
neutral event, i.e., its net
impact on the climate
equals zero. To achieve
this, the host country
should have:19

▪ Implemented carbon-neutral projects in order to limit carbon emissions during planning and
implementation phases and assessed resulting emissions —according to the case— despite all
efforts made to prevent them from being compensated through purchasing carbon offsets
from other projects, as every carbon offset allow only a ton of CO2.
▪ Compensated carbon emissions resulting from the championship through funding other
projects that would capture and store carbon emissions in the atmosphere and/or projects
reducing carbon emissions, such as projects of generating renewable energy.
The 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar is being advertised as a "carbon neutral" event. This means that
its net impact on the climate is zero or negligible. However, our investigation of the available
evidence casts serious doubts on this claim, which likely underestimates the tournament's true
emissions levels and climate impact. This is not a harmless exercise, as it misleads players, fans,
sponsors, and the public into believing that their (potential) involvement in the event will come at
no cost to the climate. This was mentioned in a report by Carbon Market Watch, a non-profit
organization working on environmental protection, titled Poor tackling: Yellow card for 2022 FIFA
World Cup’s carbon neutrality claim published on October 31, 2022. 20
Source: Jules Boykoff, The World Cup In Qatar Is a Climate Catastrophe, Scientific American, November 23, 2022,
bit.ly/3pymkWO
76
The organization concluded that FIFA opted for creative accounting when measuring the carbon
footprint associated with constructing seven new stadiums built specifically for this global sports
event. Those stadiums include one permanent stadium and one existing stadium. This was a
sarcastic comment on FIFA's ignorance towards the implementation and operation of such
stadiums. The total footprint of the permanent stadiums constructed for the World Cup might be
underestimated by a factor of eight, amounting to 1.6MtCO2e rather than the reported 0.2MtCO2e.
Worthy of mentioning, constructions included 7 air-conditioned stadiums, around 100 hotels, new
roads, a new metro system, and a new airport.21 As shown in Table (1), FIFA estimated the emissions
of the 2022 World Cup by nearly 893.34 MtCO2e instead of the total 3.63 MtCO2e to contribute to
less than 25% of the total footprint of the entire tournament.22
Table 1
FIFA WORLD CUP 2022 Greenhouse Gas Footprint
Volume (thousand tons

Total (100%) relative weight
clause of carbon dioxide
3631.03 )%(
equivalent)
Other
58.87 1.6
Accommodation
Scope 1 )%98( 728.40 20.1
3558.72 Infrastructure construction &
893.34 24.6
operation
1878.11 51.7
Travel
Scope 2 )%1( Other 2.29 0.1

37.21 Electricity 34.92 1.0
Scope 3 )%1( Other 1.86 0.1

35.10 Stationary combustion 33.24 0.9
Total 3631.03 100.0
Source: SouthPole & ASTAD (2021),” Greenhouse Gas Accounting Report - FIFA World Cup 2022”. In Carbon Market Watch,
Poor tackling: Yellow card for 2022 FIFA World Cup’s carbon neutrality claim – Updated, October 31, 2022, accessed May
15, 2023, bit.ly/3pLH6Tc, p. 8,

In addition, professor Mike Berners-Lee, an author and researcher in the climate at Lancaster
University, mentioned that FIFA measures the carbon footprint of Qatar 2022 World Cup fully
within 3.6 MtCO2e. Nonetheless, the actual carbon footprint of the tournament may exceed at
least 10 MtCO2e, which is three times higher than what FIFA claimed.23
78
This report does not assess the full extent of the impact of implemented climate mitigation
measures. However, some of the proposed actions also lack integrity. For example, the World Cup
organizers have created a large-scale tree and turf nursery – the largest turf farm in the world – in
the middle of the desert. While irrigation uses treated sewage water, the claim that this will absorb
CO2 emissions from the atmosphere and contribute to reducing the impact of the event is not
credible as this carbon storage is unlikely to be permanent in these artificial and vulnerable green
spaces, while carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia. In 2020, an
agreement was reached with GCC for the delivery of 1.8 million tons of offsets, with several
projects approved. The report continues discussions with national stakeholders, commercial
affiliates, and specialized service providers in relation to additional carbon credits. A list of
approved carbon reduction projects can be found on the GCC website. To compensate for the
remaining emissions associated with the World Cup, organizers have contributed to establishing a
new carbon credit standard, the Global Carbon Council.24 While it is supposed to deliver at least
1.8 million credits to offset World Cup emissions, it currently, just months away from the
tournament, only has two registered projects and has issued just over 130,000 credits.25
That being said, this conundrum does not only pertain to 64 football Is FIFA World Cup
matches held within one month of the World Cup finals, as their
Qatar 2020 truly
climate cost seems relatively insignificant compared to the huge
climate challenge the entire world faces. In fact, this climate cost
Carbon Neutral?
does not only include the tournament held in Qatar, but it involves
several football-loving countries, such as Russia, Brazil, and South
Africa. Evidence shows that large sports events such as World Cups
and the Olympics are environmentally unsustainable, leaving behind a
plethora of white-elephant stadiums. This term refers to the
construction of high-cost —both financially and climatically— within a
short period to become untapped after the event.
What is worse is the misleading practices adopted to give the

characteristic of carbon neutrality to what is not. This may
necessitate closer monitoring by organizations, governments, and
institutions when it comes to climatic terms, such as carbon
neutrality, in order not to be complacent about such practices. These
entities should also conduct a fair measurement of the carbon
footprint of any economic or social events and practices because
complacency about such events may lead —even if unintentionally — to
greenwashing.

Solutions to Combat Greenwashing
During the 27th session of the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (COP27), held in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, from November
6 to 18, 2022, Secretary-General of the United Nations, António Guterres, declared "zero tolerance
for greenwashing". Greenwashing is argued to mislead communities: It helps them to believe that a
specific company or entity spares no effort in protecting the environment, although it conversely
makes less effort.
In COP27, the Expert Group Report was released to be a guide ensuring credible and accountable
net-zero pledges. The report is a product of intensive negotiations and efforts among 17 experts
assigned by the Secretary-General to address what he described in COP26 in Glasgow in 2021 as "a
surplus of confusion and lack of credibility" concerning net-zero pledges of non-governmental
entities. It has put forward 10 practical recommendations listed under four key fields as follows26:
Environmental Integrity: The net-zero pledges of the non-governmental entities must align with
the scenarios of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They aim at preventing
the increase of Earth's temperature to over 1.5°C by 2030 according to the goals of the Paris
Agreement 2015. Therefore, emissions should be reduced by at least 45% by 2030 to reach net-zero
emissions by 2050. The goals should be outlined every 5 consecutive years.
Credibility: The entities must bear their responsibility regarding fulfilling their pledges, requiring
detailed disclosure. Businessmen, financial institutions, and local authorities have to formulate
transitional plans for a graduation transformation to carbon neutrality and announce the
implementation mechanisms.
Accountability: Reinforcing the accountability scheme on outcomes with absolute transparency is

urgently required. Thus, the Global Climate Action Portal has already been made available to
register all non-governmental climate pledges, voluntary initiatives, carbon neutrality plans, and
annual reports to follow up on implementation steps.
Governments' Role: Governments have to properly intervene to render the voluntary climate
initiatives the new normal, enabling them to transition to a fair net-zero future.
80
It is a good sign to have such guidelines and pinpoint IPCC's net-zero pledges as a beacon for all
governmental and non-governmental entities. Major companies, international organizations, and
national, regional, and global alliances have to establish clear and fixed goals for climate action and
aim at the sole goal guided by Paris Agreement. Consequently, the greenwashing practices will
inevitably be limited thanks to credibility and accountability prevailing in this societal effort.
Despite the significance of these critical and governing guidelines, they remain insufficient for
actual implementation. The entire work system has to be restructured per a holistic approach
encompassing all stakeholders. Two aspects of this approach will be discussed in the following
lines.
The first aspect is the importance of localizing disclosures related to climate, compliance rules, and
their integration into the work scheme of institutions —whatever their nature is. Thus,
greenwashing practices will be limited. Numerous attempts have been identified in this regard, on
top of which is determining over 2000 frameworks to put an outline for reports and disclosure
requirements concerning environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors, including over
1,424 potential ESG performance indicators.27 This outcome was concluded by TSC following its
world tour conducted between April 2020 and March 2021 across 25 countries. The company got
acquainted with 75 companies and 98 ESG professionals, sustainability experts, risk executives, and
sustainability executives28.
TSC has issued a guideline for the ESG

frameworks and indicators attached to key
messages shared by participants. They
alluded to the importance of ESG literacy in
every institution and the involvement of
personnel who do not belong to
sustainability management teams.
Subsequently, the trend will shift into a
common goal.29
Moreover, the International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB) adopts the final measures to
issue the requirements of disclosing information on climate risks and opportunities, referred to as
sustainability-related disclosures. They are planned to be issued around the end of Q2 2023 to be
effective as of January 1, 2024. This effort responds to the demands of the financial markets and
G20 to identify a common language among investors on sustainability-related disclosures.

These disclosures were formulated as two new standards: 30
▪ The international standard for formulating sustainability-related financial reports (S1)

concerned with general requirements: It requests companies to study the sustainability-related
financial information in order to identify the sustainability topics and measures to be disclosed,
given the lack of specific standards for international sustainability standards.
▪ The international standard for formulating sustainability-related financial reports (S2)

concerned with climate: They involve the disclosures mentioned in the sustainability accounting
standards as guidelines.
Said standards are the global baseline for sustainability-based disclosures among investors,
allowing for comparability among existing companies. They enable issuing better related reports
based on a reference approach that curbs greenwashing practices. These reports can also be relied
upon when allocating investments, especially those that seek environmentally and socially clean
investment opportunities based on a clear framework for performance governance.
Undoubtedly, novel compliance standards and disclosure rules have become abundant, combining
environmental sustainability and ESG factors. They also need to be urgently localized, complied
with, and periodically reported. In other words, they are key factors for the growth of green jobs —
also known as sustainability jobs— and the restructuring of the current skills system. Therefore, an
agile, effective response is needed in regard to employment and skill-building to bridge the current
and anticipated gap between the status quo and the labor market's needs. This is the second
aspect.
According to the Future of Jobs report issued by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in May 2023,
green transition and climate change adaptation contribute to positively affecting job growth in the
future (54% and 48%, respectively), as shown in Figure 5. These results were produced from an
independent survey conducted by WEF to scan the opinion of 803 companies working in
27 industries across 45 economies worldwide, which have over 11.3 million workers, to predict the
future of jobs in 2023-2027.
82
Figure 5
Future of Jobs: Green transition drives job growth
Expected impact of trends on jobs (%):
Green transition 2 44 54
Climate change
5 47 48
adaptation
Negative Neutral Positive
Including jobs such as:
Sustainability Solar energy installation Renewable energy

specialist and system engineers. engineers.
Source: : World Economic Forum, Future of Jobs, April 30, 2023, accessed May 17, 2023, bit.ly/41Mo10e
Placing the position of the Chief Sustainability Officer (CSO) under the microscope, Korn Ferry
alludes to its rapid evolution over the last 20 years. By 2014, 90 of the S&P 500 companies had a
CSO, and numbers have grown steadily with the rising awareness of ESG.31
Furthermore, S&P Global states that the job has become critical in companies. The CSO has to work
in tandem with the CEO and CFO to integrate the concept of sustainability into the company's
strategy across all departments.32 To envision the position's significance to companies, including all
governmental and non-governmental entities, the 8 responsibilities of chief sustainability officers
must be considered. They were listed in Harvard Business Review (HBR) in an article issued on
March 2, 2023, as shown in Box 133 .

Box 1
CSO's Key Tasks
1- Ensuring regulatory compliance: Anticipate sustainability-related regulatory trends and their

implications. Establish adherence to the sustainability laws and regulations that apply to each
industry, process, and type of business. Assess risk management. Enact internal policies.
2- ESG monitoring and reporting: Collect data and metrics following the reporting standards.
Benchmark with industry peers. Prepare an ESG report on the implementation status along with
communicating on such with beneficiaries and stakeholders.
3- Overseeing the portfolio of sustainability projects: Act as a project management office by

planning, coordinating, reviewing progress, and tracking results to coordinate various
operational efforts.
4- Managing stakeholders’ relationships: Promote ongoing dialogue with internal and external
stakeholders to develop constructive and transparent relationships.
5- Building organizational capabilities: Identify gaps and adopt appropriate educational

initiatives for upskilling and/or sourcing the missing capabilities. Identify innovative ways to
scale the new capabilities. Share and disseminate knowledge and best practices.
6- Fostering cultural change: Help define and communicate purpose to drive the transformation.
Champion cultural change across the entire organization also through education. Promote
mindset shifts based on concrete behaviors. Establish routines to reinforce the change.
7- Scouting and experimenting: Promote openness toward the external innovation ecosystem.
Explore emerging sustainability technologies, solutions, and practices. Test the applicability and
learn from experiments.
8- Embedding sustainability into processes and decision-making: Revise key processes and
related criteria/metrics/tools for decisions. Coach decision-makers to manage complex
trade-offs.
Source: Elisa Farri, Paolo Cervini, and Gabriele Rosani, The 8 Responsibilities of Chief Sustainability Officers, Harvard
Business Review, March 02, 2023, bit.ly/3BfjsRA
84
Chief Operating Officer at Goldman Sachs, Lissette Jorgensen, states that new jobs, such as Head of
ESG and Head of Climate Alignment, will emerge to lead the net-zero future pledges in the next
few years amid the growing trend to reinforce ESG and harmonize with climate change.
Additionally, some jobs' main functions will develop for the ESG to be an integral part of business
functions, the top of which are accounting, financial audit, and financial regulation. 34
Perhaps, the above-mentioned factors require reconsidering the climate issues to be included in
the education process, especially ESG. Notably, faculties of business in some prestigious
universities have already included climate issues in their specializations and curricula. For instance,
the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania has recently adopted the Environmental,
Social, and Governance (ESG) Initiative. It has announced introducing new specializations linking
business management, the natural environment, and society as of the academic year 2023/2024.
They are35:
▪ Environmental, Social, and Governance Factors for Business, ESGB (MBA Major)
▪ Social and Governance Factors for Business, SOGO (MBA Major)
▪ Environmental, Social, and Governance Factors for Business, ESGB (Undergraduate

Concentration)
ESGB: Environmental, Social SOGO: Social and ESGB: Environmental, Social

and Governance Factors for Governance Factors for and Governance Factors for
Business Business Business
Wharton MBA Major Wharton MBA Major Wharton Undergraduate Concentration
Source: Wharton – University of Pennsylvania, https://esg.wharton.upenn.edu/

In addition, CFA Society Egypt, a member of the CFA Institute, issued an investment certificate in
environmental, social, and corporate governance in May 2023. It targets establishing a solid
knowledge base to ensure the integration of said factors into the investment-related decision-
making process. The certificate, issued under the auspices of the Financial Regulatory Authority
(FRA) and the Egyptian Exchange
(EGX), is deemed vital as it meets actual needs. Amendments have been made in the executive
regulations to oblige all Egyptian banks to introduce an independent department concerned with
sustainability and sustainable finance. Companies listed on EGX are obliged to report the
performance of environmental and social sustainability and governance. Indeed, interest is
growing among asset owners and managers in adhering to environmental, social, and governance
practices.
The third aspect is the need to strengthen the role of formal and informal regulatory bodies under
an effective legislative and procedural system, following the integration of the concept of
greenwashing into the policymakers' agenda. This task relies on the key role of legislators so that
greenwashing and overall sustainability issues can be included in the existing legislative system,
ensuring a prosperous, sustainable business environment. Examples include36:
▪ The Unfair Commercial Practices Directive (UCPD) is a common tool issued by the European
Commission, used to tackle misleading environmental claims and regulate unfair commercial
practices that might occur before, during, and after any business-to-consumer transaction.
▪ The Green Claims Code, which was published by the UK Competition and Markets Authority
(CMA) in September 2021, aims at protecting consumers from misleading environmental claims
helping businesses understand and comply with their existing obligations under consumer
protection law. The institutions responsible for combating greenwashing in the UK are CMA and
the Advertising Standards Agency (ASA).
Last January, UK's CMA announced that it was going to investigate green claims in household
essentials after discovering that 91% of all dishwashing items and 100% of toilet products are
marketed as green.37
86
Additionally, think tanks, capable of monitoring, following up on, and assessing climate
performance, are of paramount importance. Their extensive reports and analysis can show the
truth, representing an impartial force of pressure for the common good. They also play a role in
supporting public policy to promote sustainability and climate action and can propose actions and
initiatives to curb greenwashing. It also raises the awareness of society and introduces the best
local and international practices. For instance, the New Climate Institute and the Carbon Market
Watch in February 2023 published the Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor 2023: Assessing the
Transparency and Integrity of Companies' Emission Reduction and Net-zero Targets report.38
Remarkably, the report analyzed the work of 24 major global companies considered at the
forefront of climate action. However, the results indicated that the climate strategies of
15 companies of which were estimated to be very low or low in integrity, highlighting practicing
greenwashing, as illustrated in Figure 6. Although its lofty goals are net-zero emissions, it will only
be able to cut 15%.
Figure 6
Results of assessing 24 major global companies: Net-zero pledges break down to only moderate emission
reductions alongside offsetting and scope exclusions
What they What they really Potential role Scope

appear to pledge commit to for offsets exclusions
by by net-zero
2030 target year
-790 MtCO.e (36%) Committed
emission reductions
-2.2 GICO,e in 2019

-890 MtCO,e (40%): Emissions
Combined GHG
under ambiguous targets where
the role for emission reductions
emission footprint
and offsetting is unclear.
of 24 companies
Minimum 43%
with net-zero
reductions by -100 MICO,e (5%): Offsetting
targets.
2030 for a 1.5°C plans
(global cross-
(target years -420 MtCO,e (19%) Emissions
sector)
range from 2030 that the companies exclude
to 2050) from the scope coverage of
their net-zero targets.
Minimum 90-95%
reduction for
meaningful net-
zero terminology
Source: New Climate Institute and Carbon Market Watch, Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor 2023, 2023, accessed
May 18, 2023, bit.ly/3pU3QjK, p.5.

Amazon pledged to reach its net-zero emissions by 2040. To that end, it has pledged to rely on
100% renewable energy by 2025, and 50% of its shipments will be net zero by 2030. However, the
report confirms that these two goals would achieve only a 16% reduction in emissions from 2019 at
the latest.
Finally, the role of traditional and new media in

combating the phenomenon of greenwashing is
evident. Brands use social media to wash off their
climate reputations, exploiting individuals' concerns
about climate change and environmental issues in
general. They include automotive, fossil fuel, and
aviation companies that use green, innovative, and
charitable brands instead of using language and
pictures, according to a study issued by Harvard
University.39 Nevertheless, social media platforms are
used by ethical consumers fighting greenwashing
practices. They are also an intellectual beacon for
experts, researchers, and professionals utilized to
publish their valuable knowledge and information to
introduce greenwashing practices and point out the
brands that adopt them. Therefore, it is vital to rely on
green media in the face of the evils of greenwashing.
Conclusion
On November 8, 2022, former Canadian minister and head of the Expert Group, Catherine McKenna,
said during COP27 that some net-zero pledges covered over 80% of global emissions. Several actors
have made strides to fulfill their pledges. They have invested in research and innovation activities,
shifted investments from polluting to green fields, and transitioned to renewable energy sources.40
Nonetheless, negative stances still persist —per McKenna's statements— as certain pledges do not
cross the threshold of ingenuine slogans and publicity. Greenwashing is extremely crippling: it
deceives humanity that the world is on the right track, guided by Paris Agreement. Overshadowed
by the grave danger facing the world, such ingenuine and deceptive green claims will inevitably
lead to aggravating the cost incurred by humanity at present and in the foreseeable future.
88
Hence, joining forces to combat this illusion, whether deliberate or not, upon the consensus of all
stakeholders is vital. The world's current condition must be put to an end. An n integrated system
must be established to pinpoint, monitor, evaluate, and adhere to the governmental and non-
governmental pledges.
The world has to break free from this existential crisis. In the words of Kevin McCloud,
"Sustainability is now a big baggy sack in which people throw all kinds of old ideas, hot air, and
dodgy activities in order to be able to greenwash their products and feel good".
Endnotes
1AliceHancock, Weakened EU greenwashing rules under attack, Financial Times, March 22, 2023, accessed March 24, 2023,
http://bit.ly/42xlucd
2Rochelle Toplensky, Global Executives Say Greenwashing Remains Rife, Wall Street Journal, April 13, 2023, bit.ly/41mslmU
3Ibid.
4John Wills et al., The Greenwashing Hydra, Planet Tracker, January 2023, bit.ly/3Omtpo7
5Sophia Kianni, Greta Thunberg, and Vanessa Nakate, Opinion: Biden betrays our generation by greenlighting the Willow
Project, CNN, April 7, 2023, bit.ly/3VXlzTv
6JakeJohnson, Biden Accused of Breaking Key Climate Pledge After Ex-Im Bank Backs Indonesia Oil Refinery, Common
Dreams, May 12, 2023, bit.ly/3O6QACE
7ETX Studio, Beware of 'greenshifting' and other forms of greenwashing, Astro Awani, February 5, 2023, bit.ly/42MIjYu
8HarryCockburn, ‘Greenwashing’ and ‘dirty tricks’: Shell sparks fierce backlash with emissions tweet”, Independent,
November 30, 2020, bit.ly/42uRQ6L
9Danni Button, PepsiCo and Coca-Cola Made Big Green Promises – Here's How It's Going, The Street, November 3, 2022,
bit.ly/44Wt0OQ
10AngelaSymons, What is greenhushing? How to spot the sophisticated greenwashing tactics being used in 2023,
euronews.green, February 1, 2023, bit.ly/3nP5OBC
11Rebecca Stewart, HSBC Put on Notice for Greenwashing Following 'Misleading' Sustainability Claims, ADWEEK, October
18, 2022, bit.ly/42QDWvr
12AlastairMarsh, HSBC Misled Consumers With Its Green Posters, Watchdog Says, Bloomberg, October 19, 2022,
bit.ly/3Bn1H2D
13Natalie Kenway, Alliance to End Plastic Waste members accused of ‘greencrowding’, ESG Clarity, August 31, 2022,
bit.ly/41vY98T
14Conor McGlone, Track down the plastic greenwashers, Engineering and Technology, March 10, 2023, bit.ly/3IhS74O
15American Chemistry Council, Industry Leaders Push Back on Break Free From Plastic Pollution Act, March 23, 2021,
bit.ly/3o0hod5
16Ibid.

ُ ‫ مؤسسة‬،‫أكبر اتفاقية بيئية منذ باريس‬: ‫ معاهدة عالمية للحد من التلوث البالستيكي‬،‫إيريكا نونيز‬17
،2022 ‫مارس‬2 ،‫المحيط‬
https://oceanfdn.org/ar/plastic-pollution-treaty/
‫ بما في‬،‫ لجنة التفاوض الحكومية الدولية لوضع صك دولي ملزم قانونًا بشأن التلوث بالمواد البالستيكية‬،‫برنامج األمم المتحدة للبيئة‬
bit.ly/42XencV ،2022 ‫ديسمبر‬2 ،‫ الدورة األولى‬،‫ذلك البيئة البحرية‬
bit.ly/42w8x1F ،2022 ‫ديسمبر‬2 ،‫البالستيك يتسبب في انقسام بين دول العالم‬.. ‫ رغم االتفاق‬،‫دويتشه فيله‬18
19The Sustainable Brands Journal, Is FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022 truly Carbon Neutral?, November 20, 2022, bit.ly/3W3F1hi
20Carbon Market Watch, Poor tackling: Yellow card for 2022 FIFA World Cup’s carbon neutrality claim – Updated, October
31, 2022, bit.ly/3pLH6Tc
21The Sustainable Brands Journal, Op cit.
22Carbon Market Watch, Op cit.
23Inside
World Football, FIFA accused of ‘greenwashing’ as carbon-neutral Qatar 2022 claims busted, November 3, 2022,
accessed May 17, 2023, bit.ly/433d2kd
24FIFA, Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Offsetting Remaining GHG Emissions, undated, accessed May 17, 2023, bit.ly/3Md6DvT
25Carbon Market Watch, Op cit.,
26United Nations, Secretary-General's remarks at launch of report of High-Level Expert Group on Net-Zero Commitments
[as delivered], November 8, 2022, accessed May 17, 2023, bit.ly/4374KYJ
27EllenWeinreb, In the finance sector, what ESG jobs this way come?, GreenBiz, September 3, 2022, accessed May 18, 2023,
bit.ly/4315OxL
28Terence Lyons, The ESG Playbook: the New Playbook for ESG Leaders by ESG Leaders, December 21, 2021, accessed May
18, 2023, https://tsc.ai/esg-playbook/
29Ibid.
،‫ سبعة دروس مستفادة من ندوة المعايير الدولية إلعداد التقارير المالية لالستدامة‬،‫المجمع الدولي العربي للمحاسبين القانونيين‬30
bit.ly/3M9Cca2 ،2023 ‫ مايو‬18 ،2023 ‫ أبريل‬4
31Korn Ferry, The Rise of the Chief Sustainability Officer, 2022, accessed May 18, 2023, bit.ly/3OiRL1O
32S&P Global, How Chief Sustainability Officers are becoming a 'must-have' for companies, August 19, 2022, accessed May
18, 2023, bit.ly/3OkoDYb
33Elisa
Farri, Paolo Cervini, and Gabriele Rosani, The 8 Responsibilities of Chief Sustainability Officers, Harvard Business
Review, March 02, 2023, bit.ly/3BfjsRA
34Ibid
35Wharton – University of Pennsylvania, https://esg.wharton.upenn.edu/

36Clifford
Chance, The Rise of Consumer Complaints, Litigation and Enforcement Actions to Curb Greenwashing,
December, 2022, accessed May 18, 2023, bit.ly/433uBRa
37Gov.uk,CMA to scrutinise ‘green’ claims in sales of household essentials, January 23, 2023, accessed May 18, 2023,
bit.ly/3ods4oO
38New Climate Institute and Carbon Market Watch, Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor 2023, 2023, accessed May 18,
2023, bit.ly/3pU3QjK
49RosieFrost, Social media is at the forefront of ‘climate deception’, Harvard report reveals, Euronews.green, September
21, 2022, accessed May 17, 2023, bit.ly/3o9Eo9u
‫ وتقرير جديد ينتقد الوعود الفارغة‬،"‫األمين العام يدعو إلى عدم التسامح مع "الغسل األخضر‬: ‫ قمة شرم الشيخ‬،‫األمم المتحدة‬40
bit.ly/432Z3ef ،2022 ‫ نوفمبر‬8 ،‫بشأن االنبعاثات الصفرية الصافية‬
90
Urban Governance and
Policy for the Net Zero
City
An Excerpt from the book:
"Net Zero City The Ten-Year Transformation Plan

How to Overcome the Climate Crisis by 2032."
Abstract
Cities are very complex systems, among the most

complex ever devised in human history. Built up by
incremental actions over decades and centuries,
Eng. Farah Naz
they have become the container for human
Certified engineer, fellow of the
Chartered Institute of Building civilization.
Services Engineers (CIBSE), UAE
Chapter Chair, award winner in
climate change, and author of "Net Now, humanity finds that we must transform them
Zero City."
not over a long period but very quickly to avert the
worst impacts of global climate change. This will be
an intentional process of change unlike anything
humanity has ever attempted, a civilization-wide
transformation undertaken by design and policy.
How can we accomplish this? To do so, we must

understand the city's complexity and learn to drive
purposeful change through mastery of this very
complexity.
The book Net Zero City describes how this could be

done in a mere decade. This excerpt presents a
Mr. Langdon Morris
conceptual model framing the city-as-a-system,
A global pioneer in innovation and a followed by a discussion on how urban governance
major partner in "Innovation Labs", a
leading global innovation consulting and policy can be applied to promote this
company.
accelerated transformation. The excerpt concludes
with 13 global best practice examples of cities and
nations already taking important steps forward.
91 Climate Prospects – third

Third Issue
Issue –– may
May 2023
The approach described here takes a comprehensive view to solve an incredibly complex
problem. Implementing an approach such as the one described will provide city leaders and
citizens worldwide with a valuable guide for the major transformations required in the coming
years. Government leaders, business leaders, and concerned citizens will benefit significantly
from such efforts to address and overcome the negative impacts of climate change.
92
The Urban System Framework
The challenge we all face when confronted with complexity is that we instinctively want to break it
into smaller chunks that we can more readily understand, but in doing so, we risk stripping away
the essence. The approach to this problem has been to describe the city within what is called “The
Urban System Framework” consisting of five major elements that, together, make the city what it
is.
Urban Governance and Policy
What are the critical approaches to governance, policy-making, and policy implementation that will
enable the Net Zero Transformation?
Urban Design and Master Planning
How do we conceive, design, and build or rebuild our cities? What are the design guidelines and
principles to be followed to facilitate attaining Net Zero?
Urban Infrastructure: The Food-Energy-Water Nexus
How shall we manage the critical integration of these three fundamental human requirements
such that we achieve food, energy, and water security for the entirety of humanity, recognizing
that achieving this tri-level security requires us to transform our urban energy systems away from
the current reliance on fossil fuels to completely different forms of renewable, sustainable, non-
GHG energy? How do we capture, manage, and analyze the data we need to shape our future
choices?
Urban Economics: The Circular Economy
What economic models and frameworks facilitate the transition to Net Zero and provide guidance
for running a Net Zero economy?
Urban Culture & Society: Innovation at Scale
How shall we manage the enabling process of innovation to guide the creation of solutions to these
problems, to solve the physical, technical, technological, economic, social, cultural, and governance
issues that we now confront? How shall we do it in a way that leads to better cities, better social
outcomes, a better quality of life, and more equity?

Figure 1
The Urban System Framework
The integration of essential sectors that describe the city as one system
Urban Governance Urban Design

1 2 Urban Culture & Society
Governance Urban Design &
& Policy 5
Master Planning
Innovation
at Scale
Urban Economics Urban Infrastructure
4 3
Circular Food, Energy, Water
Economy Nexus, & Data
Source: Authors
In this excerpt from the book, the focus is on the first quadrant of the framework, urban
governance and policy, and the policy initiatives that will help the city to reach net zero.
The Net Zero Imperative
As humans take heed of the warnings from scientists who tell us that we must reach Net Zero in
our cities in the 2030s to avoid a worse or worst-case climate crisis, it is obvious that achieving
transformation will require significant changes in how we work and live. As we consider the role of
governance initiatives that may be needed now, we recognize that:
All aspects of large-scale change inevitably have to do with governance and

policy, which is fundamental to how we prepare for the future, and then
meet it successfully.
Certainly, the crisis itself is a frequent motivator of change, and as the Covid crisis has vividly
shown, much can change quickly. In contrast with Covid, however, the climate crisis has been a
slow-motion drama with roots going back a century. Until recently, it consisted mostly of
incremental and invisible changes that too many people found too easy to ignore. As the era of
ignoring is at an end, and the period of massive and detrimental impacts has arrived, we will find
the determination and the means to facilitate the necessary changes.
94
Winston Churchill once supposedly commented that
leaders should "never waste a good crisis", which
applies to us now. Every drought, major storm, and
flood is a vivid warning of the perils of climate change
and the worse storms yet to come, and is thus further
compelling evidence of the need for us to adopt new,
Net Zero ways of living.
Structural Change
Leveraging crisis is one way to make change happen, and another powerful source of positive
change is leadership. Even in the absence of crisis, leaders have induced societal shifts through the
strength of will, the force of persuasion, or raw executive power.
Technology is a third powerful source of change, fundamentally affecting the way we work and live,
and often causes profound and enduring change. The attained level of technology is a defining
structural factor in all economies, but as a society’s technological foundation changes, the
structure of its economy also changes. Hence, the prehistoric shift from stone tools to bronze was
technological-economic, as was the recent transition from the Agricultural Era to the Industrial.
As the Industrial Era model spread worldwide, change came quickly to some nations and cultures
and more slowly to others. However, after nearly 250 years of refinement, the Industrial Era model
has achieved the total transformation of economies globally and so of lives and lifestyles
everywhere.
Only a tiny portion of humanity remains unaffected by industrialism. Still, the arrival of climate
change means that literally, no one will remain unchanged because no matter how isolated or
remote they may be, the world’s climate is one single system.
The technological basis of society is again undergoing fundamental change, and we can expect that
the next ten years will see many more technology-induced revolutions in work, play, and
communications and, therefore, in the world’s entire economic structure.

Our opportunity is to use this as a purposeful process to attain Net Zero,
meaning we must leverage all three-change agents: leadership and crisis,
plus technology.
Doing so requires the coordination of initiatives across all levels of government and throughout all
facets of society, which is why we begin our discussion about the “how” with governance and
policy.
Hence, governance and policy must address three layers of structural change that are now
occurring simultaneously:
▪ The structure of the economy is shifting,
▪ The technological basis of the economy is evolving, and
▪ The climate is creating a crisis.
To address all three, the government must facilitate widespread behavioral changes across all
societal groups to help us adapt to changing conditions. Failing to do so will risk a climate backlash
of immense proportions that will endanger our ability to make any progress at all.
However, we undertake this at a time when governments globally are already highly stressed and
struggling to meet the needs of their citizens. Many are so deeply indebted that their options are
quite limited, and as a result, optimism has ebbed:
"In many countries, people are pessimistic about the

future and growing distrustful of leaders and
institutions they see as unable or unwilling to deal with
disruptive economic, technological, and demographic
trends. Communities are more fragmented and in
conflict; competing visions, goals, and beliefs place
greater demands on governments. And over the next
two decades, there will be a growing mismatch
between what the public needs or expects and what
governments can or are willing to deliver."
US National Security Council
96
The Social Contract and the Common Wealth
The principle that there is an agreement that defines the legitimacy of any government originated
in classical times and then returned to prominence during the Enlightenment in the works of
philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Many writers during that period significantly
influenced the overthrow of monarchies and the American and French revolutions. The central
importance of what has come to be called “the social contract” became an essential theme in
America’s Declaration of Independence, in which it was written …
Governments are instituted

among Men, deriving their just powers
from the consent of the governed….
The social contract of monarchy does not involve such consent, but the Net Zero transformation
certainly does. As climate change now threatens all citizens of every nation, dealing effectively
with it has become an imperative and, thus, an essential obligation that must be specifically
addressed as a core element of the social contract of every city and nation. In effect, a new set of
conditions has arrived, which requires us all to take further actions and new priorities. This is what
the Extinction Rebellion is all about, and what activists such as Greta Thunberg have been
demanding.
Citizens are beginning to recognize the self-serving obfuscation of Exxon and Koch for what it is
and demand that their leaders undertake the important and necessary work to shift to Net Zero.
Politicians and government officials must also push the citizenry to adopt new mindsets and
behaviors.
What they are all pushing is the necessity of protecting (or perhaps a better term is restoring) the
form of wealth shared by everyone, often referred to as "common wealth".
"Commonwealth" is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common
good. The official name of many nations, states, provinces, and multi-state groups includes the
term "Commonwealth" in recognition that a society consists of both the material resources held in
common, as well as the agreements and institutions that we also have in common, all for our
individual and mutual benefit. These agreements and institutions bind us together, often
contributing to our shared identity as a people.

In cities, the “common wealth” includes public spaces and parks, as well as rights and institutions. It
includes fresh air, good water, civil liberties, and civic obligations.
Further, when we talk about the climate, we are speaking of the common wealth not of a particular
nation but all humanity. The climate does not respect borders, so if the social contract of Nation A
calls for aggressive action to address climate change, but its neighbor next door, Nation B, takes no
action, then what are the citizens and leaders of A to do? Multiply this complexity times
200 nations, and here we are.
Cooperation across national boundaries has thus become

essential, which means that a vitally important response involves
multi-national forums that facilitate dialogue between nations and
governments at all levels, all types of businesses, and indeed every
one of us.
While adding the greenhouse gas emissions of a single car, my car is of no consequence to the
climate situation. Now, there are billions of cars on the road, and their combined emissions are a
major cause of the climate crisis.
But if each of us thinks, "It's OK for me to drive whenever and wherever I want to, but others
must give up the driving habit and switch to public transit," where do we end up? In the tragedy
scenario, which is exactly where we are.
Education and Engagement
This means that people everywhere have to learn what is at stake, what is needed, and what they
must do differently. We have to change our behaviors as well as our structures. Floods, fires,
storms, and droughts are already making clear what the threat is, but how we should change our
behaviors needs to be clarified. Sure, I can use less fossil fuels, but does it matter when there are
more than 2000 coal-fired power plants worldwide?1
Addressing this essential issue of scale is a critical task for public policy, to determine what is
necessary, and for public education to help people understand and adapt. History has repeatedly
shown that engaging with people, educating them, and relying on their newly acquired
knowledge to lead to behavioral change is an important and highly effective way to change
society.
98
Data scientist Emre Eftelioglu and coauthors note that "Research
has demonstrated that the degree to which scientific and
technical knowledge is successfully applied to decision-making
depends on three criteria:
▪ Salience, the significance, and impact of the topic,
▪ Credibility and trust in the scientists, and
▪ The legitimacy of the science.
Two-way engagement between scientists and users of scientific findings is key to building trust
and a better understanding between policy needs and scientific knowledge. Collaborative
processes that facilitate social learning and the co-production of knowledge can help overcome
concerns about credibility, saliency, and legitimacy, and joint modeling also enhance cooperative
decision-making.2
The Importance of Dialogue
United Nations Development Program official Luis Felipe López-Calva has said about large-scale
social dialogue on complex issues: "If we don't get people together to discuss the way forward, the
alternative is very chaotic, probably with a lot of discontents. This is not easy, but it's the best way
to weather the storm".3
Coping successfully with the climate emergency will follow the same guidelines: people can be
mobilized to effective action with adequate information, the opportunity to dialogue, and clear
guidance.
The themes considered so far in this article: the Roles of Leadership, Overcoming Informed Denial
and Misinformation, the Social Contract and Common Wealth, and Public Engagement, provide a
quite useful general context to explain why governance is the necessary beginning point. Nearly
anything can be accomplished with good governance and effective leadership, whereas bad
governance and poor leadership make even the simplest bit of progress almost impossible.
Here are descriptions of excellent examples from around the world highlighting practices that any
city should consider adopting.

Global Best Practices in Urban Governance and Policy
Governments play a critical role in promoting and enabling important changes, and achieving the
Net Zero vision requires very strong government leadership.
Consequently, the questions we ask here are,
What are the critical approaches to governance, policy-making, and policy implementation that will
enable the Net Zero Transformation?
How should governments and government leaders be involved?

Here we share 13 timely examples:
▪ From Vision to Policy ▪ Public Education
▪ Civic Engagement and Adaptive Governance ▪ UAE: Visionary Governance and Leadership
▪ Policy Alignment ▪ Focused Governance
▪ Global Cooperation ▪ Engage with Leadership Early On
▪ Carbon Taxes ▪ Facilitate Behavioral Change
▪ Investment ▪ Require Climate Risk Disclosure
▪ Denmark: Leadership for a Green and Sustainable World
100
From Vision to Policy
The journey to Net Zero begins with the vision that will define the aspiration not only to address
the climate emergency but also to do so in an expansive way that achieves important social and
environmental goals. This visionary transformation of the city is an unprecedented opportunity for
progress toward a better city for all, which means that the engagement of everyone is central to
this effort. Certainly, it begins with leadership.
Figure 2
Forty Critical Years: Two Net Zero Scenario Timelines.
40
Annual Gigatons of CO2 Emissions
30
20
10
2010 2030 2050 2070 2090
Forty Critical Years: Two Net Zero Scenario Timelines
IEA Report Net Zero 2050 Scenario Low International Cooperation Scenario: Net
But is 2050 Soon Enough? Zero Delayed; Much Higher Climate Risk
Source: International Energy Agency and Authors.
Achieving the Net Zero aspiration requires engagement throughout all governmental organizations
at the city, region, province/state, national, and multi-national levels. Many governmental
departments will contribute actions and policies toward the goal. Thus, it will be necessary to
conduct many dialogs among governmental entities to determine what steps should be decided at
what level and how the necessary policies will be developed, enacted, implemented, enforced, and
monitored.

This policy and planning effort also requires public and private sector leaders to engage in a far-
reaching creative process to identify targets, generate new ideas, and then launch the innovation
process to engineer and implement the best options.
Engaging in policy design collaboratively with diverse group participants from all facets of the
community will tap into creativity throughout society while enabling large groups to learn from
one another. It also builds shared understanding, often leading to stronger commitment and more
effective implementation.
Civic Engagement and Adaptive Governance
To complement broad-ranging exploration, policy development, and actions by all levels of

government, it is also important to engage in dialogue early with the public.
The example of the Covid crisis offers important insights into how this can work well. It is quite
clear from the Covid experience that how community leaders handled their messages regarding
the crisis and the consequent need for change made a tremendous difference in terms of
outcomes achieved.
It is also worth noting that the Covid crisis showed how fast society could adapt when people
understand that it really is a crisis. For example, in early 2020, when the world economy went from
full speed to full stop in only weeks, people shifted almost overnight from office work to working
from home. At the same time, and unexpectedly, people began almost immediately to look out for
one another’s needs in ways they had never done before. In Italy, for example, people living in large
apartment blocks who had never paid much attention to their neighbors quickly realized that the
vulnerable elderly were now homebound. They began grocery shopping for people they did not
know.
Similarly, in Brazil, new forms of social engagement also developed spontaneously as people began
interacting in new ways from their balconies.
102
These various forms of civic engagement are
referred to as “adaptive governance,” a term
that describes the broad involvement of
society in areas that were formerly thought
of as entirely the government’s responsibility:
“During the COVID-19 pandemic,

numerous examples of adaptive
governance have appeared. Corporations,
philanthropies, technology companies,
and research and academic institutions
have worked together to produce
breakthroughs rapidly. Civil society
organizations worldwide have filled gaps
in government responses, providing
humanitarian relief and welfare services."
US National Security Council
This level of engagement should also

“Strategies and policies for buildings will
characterize the global community’s response
work best when aligned with those adopted
to the climate emergency. While it is largely
the role of governments to catalyze this for power systems, urban planning, and
effort, widespread participation will arise mobility. This will help to ensure the
when the need is clear, and the opportunity to successful scaling up of building-integrated
make a difference is apparent. photovoltaics, battery storage, and smart
controls to enable buildings to become
Policy Alignment active service providers to electric grids.
Policies incentivizing dense and mixed-use
In our ambition to make a good change, we
urban planning coupled with easy access to
must also remember that the best results will
local services and public transport could
come when we think holistically and
systemically rather than in a fragmented, reduce reliance on personal vehicles.”
parts-first manner. The International Energy
Agency (IEA) Report offers some specific IEA Report
examples:

Global Cooperation The report further suggests that these five
dimensions of cooperation are particularly
The IEA report also notes that achieving net-zero important:
emissions by 2050 requires an unprecedented
level of international cooperation between ▪ Cooperation can accelerate knowledge
governments to protect the climate common transfer, as we have seen with the
wealth: development of Covid-19 vaccines.
"Underpinning the journey to Net Zero are ▪ Cooperation also promotes economies of
decisions taken by governments. The scale for new energy technologies, as we
magnitude of the changes required to reach have seen with the growth of solar energy
installations.
global Net Zero is not within the power of
energy or environment departments alone to
▪ Cooperation can help to create demand
deliver, nor within the power of individual
for clean energy technologies and fuels by
countries: it will involve an unprecedented integrating markets across nations and
level of global cooperation. Governments regions, thereby enlarging the total
must start by setting unequivocal long-term addressable market for energy firms. This
targets, fully supported by near-term targets will enable them to increase and
and policy measures." accelerate innovation and market
development investments.
▪ Coordination and standardization of

national carbon policies is an important
restraint on global firms that work in many
countries by eliminating the export of GHG
emissions to countries with more relaxed
regulatory regimes. Carbon regulations
must apply nearly everywhere to influence
corporate behavior effectively.
▪ The diffusion of clean energy innovations

will be accelerated by initiating pilot
projects in nations that are currently not
leaders in energy research, which would
enhance local expertise and speed
adoption.4
104
Carbon Taxes
Most nations' tax and subsidy regimes have been structured to promote fossil fuels for decades,
showing the enduring influence of social structures again. With the commitment to Net Zero, this
will have to stop very soon and switch to taxing carbon instead of promoting it.
As The Economist notes, “The opportunity to pollute the atmosphere without penalty is a kind of
distorting subsidy”, which makes it clear that carbon taxes or tariffs are an important part of the
solution. Indeed, they are already working well in Europe (see sidebar).
However, the main barrier to implementing such taxes is not moral, as we know they are morally
required, nor are they economic, as economists understand how they can be done correctly, the
main barrier is politics.
The straightforward solution the International Monetary Fund (IMF) offers is a global system of a
minimum carbon tax across all borders, including stiff carbon tariffs on exports from countries
that do not join the system. The time for a global commitment to this scheme has indeed arrived. 5
Carbon Taxes Work in Europe
Carbon taxes are in effect in Europe, where the carbon price, traded on the Emissions Trading
System established in 2005, seems to work quite well to reduce emissions by electric utilities:
"Emissions from electric utilities

have fallen by roughly half since
the launch of ETS, By contrast,
the industrial sector, cushioned by free
carbon allowances, has seen little
improvement."
(The Economist, February 27, 2021)

The shipping, road transport, and construction industries are expected to join ETS in the
coming years, and we should expect significant emissions reductions once they do so.
So why wait?
Investment
Everyone agrees that substantial investments will be required to reach Net Zero. As
the IEA report puts it,
“Government investment and public policies are essential to attract large

amounts of private capital and help offset the declines in fossil fuel income
that many countries will experience. Governments also need to create
markets for investment in batteries, digital solutions, and electricity
grids.”
The Princeton Report puts the price tag at US$ 2.5 trillion in accelerated
spending beyond current spending rates for the decade from 2020 to 2030.
Public Education
Reaching the broadest possible audience in every community, city, and region
worldwide will require a large-scale public education effort.
Educational materials should include textbooks, comic books, scientific

papers, guidebooks for school activities and classroom teachers, and
instructional guidebooks for community facilitators working with local
groups to design Net Zero action plans. Media libraries of images, signs,
posters, and videos can all be used to help create awareness,
understanding, and participation.
106
United Arab Emirates (UAE): Visionary Governance and Leadership
The UAE has published extensive development plans for the next century to guide its efforts in
urban development, infrastructure development, economic development, science, and other fields.
In their words …
The Strategy
‘The UAE Ministry of Cabinet Affairs launched the Future Foresight Strategy, which involves
building future models for the health, educational, developmental, and environmental sectors,
harmonizing the current governmental policies, building national capacities in the field of future
fore-sighting, establishing international partnerships, and launching research reports on the future
of the various sectors in the country. The strategy aims at setting governmental systems that
make foresight a part of the strategic planning throughout the government, and launching studies
and scenarios to forecast the future of all priority sectors in addition to setting plans and
policies.”6
The UAE Future Foresight Platform

“In 2017, the UAE launched Future Foresight Platform, an interactive electronic platform to support
efforts to spread a culture of foresight and awareness in preparation for the challenges ahead.
This platform is a reference for future foresight and capacity building that documents and shares
knowledge by providing references, tools, and resources in the field of future foresight. The UAE's
future foresight platform will support the execution of the country's strategy to anticipate
opportunities and challenges in vital fields, analyze them, and execute long-term pre-emptive plans
to achieve national goals.” 7
Future Foresight is thus a government-led effort to create engagement and awareness throughout
UAE society about situations like climate change of significant social and cultural importance.

Denmark: Leadership for a Green and Sustainable World
The government of Denmark has adopted a very proactive stance regarding its global role in
addressing climate change. A highly detailed set of strategic goals was published in 2020, as
explained here in this excerpt from the Preface:
▪ The Danish Government wants Denmark, as a green pioneer, to lead the global climate effort
and a fair global transition to sustainable societies for the benefit of the world’s peoples – just
as we have ensured a smooth transition to a green economy in Denmark over the past
50 years.8
▪ We have a historic and moral responsibility to take the lead. We have the experience, and we
have the green solutions. We have shown that economic growth and green transition can go
hand in hand. We now have a unique opportunity to contribute solutions to the global climate
challenges. Through bilateral and multilateral collaborations and efforts via the European
Union (EU), Denmark will be a global driving force in the international struggle for a green
and sustainable transition. Through stronger collaboration, dialogue, and alliances with
countries and non-state actors, we will inspire and influence others to raise ambitions to meet
the goals of the Paris Agreement and ensure sustainable development in line with the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We will work for a socially just green transition that
creates growth and opportunities for all and fights inequality.
▪ With the Government’s long-term strategy for global climate action, A Green and Sustainable
World, a course is charted for Denmark's international climate efforts spanning foreign,
development, trade, and sector policy, as well as export and investment promotion. Success in
our efforts for a green and sustainable transition globally will require political support at the
highest level in all countries and comprehensive solutions involving all sectors and
stakeholders. The Government will therefore activate all relevant areas of international policy
and coordinate the Danish approach to ensure an ambitious, persistent, multifaceted, and
integrated global climate effort.
108
The plan emphasizes six major theme areas where
Denmark intends to provide global leadership to
address climate change. In addition, it provides an
extensive list consisting of 48 ambitious strategic
goals. For example, one of the theme areas is …
We will reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by
leading the way in the green transition.
Wouldn’t it be great if every nation followed the

example of Denmark and undertook similar
initiatives? If that were to happen, the world would
reach Net Zero in about five years rather than ten
or thirty, and everyone would be much better. This
is exactly our aspiration, and therefore we can
willingly follow the example that the Danes have
provided us.
Focused Governance
In 2016, the UAE recognized the significance of climate change and established its Ministry of Climate
Change & Environment, which it describes this way:
“In 2016, UAE leadership expanded the role of the Ministry of Environment and Water to manage all
aspects related to international and domestic climate change affairs. The establishment of the newly
named Ministry of Climate Change and Environment. It enhances the UAE's efforts to address
climate change by implementing comprehensive policies and initiatives to mitigate and adapt to
climate change and protect our unique environmental systems.9 The Ministry of Climate Change and
Environment will continue to enhance domestic efforts across all fields to achieve sustainable
development and to maintain the UAE’s position as a regional and international leader of action.”10
Engage with Leadership Early On
The British design firm Allies and Morrison performs architecture, urban design, and master planning
work globally. During a recent webinar, partner Simon Gathercole made the interesting point that
the potential for leaders to have a beneficial impact on any project or initiative is generally greatest
during the early phases of design, but that the cost and effort required to make changes to a given
design increase substantially as it moves through its stages of planning and development. 11

Figure 3
When To and Not To Intervene
Engage weith
Leaders Here
Initial Project Soliciting Conceptual Technical Construct-

Operation
Conception Framing Proposals Design Design ion
Source: Allies and Morrison Architects; Chip Holt, Xerox; Authors
Hence, it is clearly a best practice to engage with senior leaders during the very early stages of any
design and policy-making effort to ensure that they are fully informed, that their views are
reflected, and to avoid major changes later in the process.
This is similar to observations made by others, including Chip Holt of Xerox, who, as an innovation
expert, noted that senior managers tended to provide feedback and guidance toward the end of
the product development cycle just before launch. Nevertheless, that is actually the worst time to
intervene because the costs involved in shifting a design at this end stage can be enormous. The re-
do, re-think, and re-work add a lot of time and cost to the development process.
This guidance is equally relevant for policy and governance as it is with urban design and product
design innovation: it is essential to engage with senior leadership as early as possible and to make
sure leaders understand their roles as co-participants in the design process. This will help to
prevent expensive adjustments downstream while building commitment and enthusiasm. It is the
fastest and most effective way to get from “concern” to “action” and from “discussion” to
“implementation.”
110
Facilitate Behavioral Change
The IEA report identifies three major opportunity areas

for governments to promote Net Zero behavioral change,
namely regulations and mandates, market‐based
instruments, and information and awareness measures.
Regulations and mandates examples:
▪ Upper-speed limits at 100 km/h (62 mph) could cut

emissions from road vehicles by 3% in 2050.
▪ Appliance standards to maximize energy efficiency in

the buildings sector.
▪ Regulations cover office heating and default cooling

temperatures for air conditioning units to reduce
excessive thermal demand.
▪ Changes initially tackled by market‐based mechanisms,

such as swapping regional flights for high‐speed rail,
can be addressed by regulation to influence and mirror
changes in public sentiment and consumer norms.
Market‐based instruments use a mix of financial

incentives and disincentives to influence decision-making.
Examples:
▪ Congestion pricing and targeted interventions are

differentiated by vehicle types, such as charges for the
most polluting vehicles or preferential parking for
clean cars.
▪ Transport demand measures such as fuel taxes,

distance-based vehicle insurance, and registration fees
reduce travel.
▪ Information measures help consumers to change

behaviors, such as mandatory labeling of embodied or
lifecycle emissions in manufacturing and a
requirement for companies to disclose their carbon
emissions.

Information and awareness measures examples:
▪ Personalized and real-time travel planning

information facilitates a switch to walking, cycling,
and public transport.
▪ In combination, clear product labeling and public

awareness campaigns help make recycling
widespread and habitual.
▪ Comparisons of household consumption patterns can

reduce wasteful energy use by up to 20%.12
An entirely different approach to facilitating behavioral

change was offered by the polymath genius
Buckminster Fuller, who observed that the way to
change people’s behavior was to change their tools or
environments. "You can't change the way people think.
All you can do is give them a tool, which will change
their thinking."
The Net Zero city can be that tool.
A modest bit of good urban design can also be that tool.

For example, the High Line Park in New York City was
created from an abandoned rail line at about US$
170 million. Before it had even opened, it had generated
US$ 5 billion in real estate investment in its
neighborhood, a paper return of 30x.13 The point is not
to advocate for luxury parks in luxury neighborhoods
but to think about how environmental changes lead to
changes in behavior.
Require Climate Risk Disclosure
The US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC),

which regulates some financial markets, has recently
created a task force to examine environmental, social,
and governance (ESG) issues, appointed a "climate tsar,"
and said it would "enhance its focus" on climate-related
disclosures for listed firms.
112
Table 1
Recommended Reporting Standards
Governance Strategy Risk Management Metrics and Targets
Disclose the Disclose the actual and Disclose how the Disclose the metrics
organization’s potential impacts of organization identifies, and targets used to
governance around climate-related risks assesses, and manages assess and manage
climate-related risks and opportunities on climate-related risks. relevant climate-related
and opportunities. the organization’s risks and opportunities
businesses, strategy, where such information
and financial planning is material.
where such information
is material.
Recommended Recommended Recommended Recommended

Disclosures Disclosures Disclosures Disclosures
1. Describe the 3. Describe the 6. Describe the 9. Disclose the

board’s oversight of climate-related organization’s metrics used by the
climate-related risks and processes for organization to
risks and opportunities the identifying and assess climate-
opportunities. organization has assessing climate- related risks and
identified over the related risks. opportunities in line
short, medium, and with its strategy
long term. and risk
management
process.
2. Describe 4. Describe the 7. Describe the 10. Disclose Scope 1,

management's role impact of climate- organization’s Scope 2, and, if
in assessing and 0related risks and processes for appropriate, Scope
managing climate- opportunities on managing climate- 3 greenhouse gas
related risks and the organization’s related risks. (GHG) emissions
opportunities. businesses, and related risks.
strategy, and
financial planning.
5. Describe the 8. Describe how 11. Describe the

resilience of the processes for organizations'
organization's identifying, targets to manage
strategy, taking into assessing, and climate-related
consideration managing climate- risks and
different climate- related risks are opportunities and
related scenarios, integrated into the performance
including 2˚C or organization’s against targets.
lower scenarios. overall risk
management.
Source: 2017 Global Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosure Report

The SEC is also planning to introduce rules that will force companies to disclose risks related to
climate change. Regulators in Britain, New Zealand, and Switzerland have similar plans, as do stock
exchanges in Hong Kong, London, and South Korea.
A 2017 global task force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures has recommended the creation of
new Reporting Standards consisting of 11 categories, including carbon footprints and climate-
related risks.14 Notably, it also includes a requirement for “scenario analysis” (see Table 1, Strategy
column), which, as we suggested above, is a critically important tool that helps leaders grasp a
broad range of future possibilities and which stretches their thinking beyond mere extrapolation of
current trends.15
Summary
Getting to Net Zero is going to be a significant undertaking. These examples demonstrate a wide
span of efforts ranging from long-term planning and community foresight to carbon taxes and
comic books. They also show a broad set of possible governance and policy actions for the leaders
and citizens of your city to consider.
They all reinforce the essential role of public education and engagement because to reach Net
Zero, citizens will have to change their behaviors, just as governments and industries must as well.
These examples also highlight the central role of leadership, and of developing a comprehensive
point of view, by looking broadly at possibilities for the unpredictable future rather than narrowly
at only our desires for a preferred future. By thinking systemically about the whole system of the
city, not just about its component parts, we gain perspective that helps us to prepare and
implement effective policies to reach Net Zero.
114
Endnotes
1Jeff Desjardins. “Every Coal Power Plant in the World (1927 – 2019). Visual Capitalist, December 26,
2019. https://www.visualcapitalist.com/every-coal-power-plant-1927-2019/
2Emra Eftelioglu, Fernando R. Miralles-Wilhelm, Rabi Mohtar, Benjamin L. Ruddell, Peter Saundry, and
Shashi Shekar. “Applying Science to Practice.” The Food-Energy-Water Nexus. Springer, Nature,
2020.
3“Bello: A grand bargain.” The Economist. February 6, 2021.
4IEA. “Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector.” IEA, 2021.
5The Economist. “Carbon and capture.” July 17, 2021.; “Carb loading.” The Economist, February 27,
2021.
6https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/strategies-initiatives-and-awards/federal-governments-strategies-
and-plans/future-foresight
7UAE Future Foresight Strategy. https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/strategies-initiatives-and-

awards/federal-governments-strategies-and-plans/future-foresight
8The Danish Government. “A Green and Sustainable World: The Danish Government’s long term
strategy for global climate action.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark and The Danish Ministry
of Climate, Energy and Utilities, October 2020. www.regeringen.dk, www.um.dk, www.kefm.dk
9https://www.moccae.gov.ae/en/about-ministry/about-the-ministry.aspx
10https://www.moccae.gov.ae/en/about-ministry/about-the-ministry.aspx
11RIBA Gulf Chapter. “The Route to Net Zero” Online Conference. Presentation by Simon Gathercole
of Allies and Morrison, March 17, 2021.
https://twitter.com/FarahNazSustain/status/1372418497842663424/photo/1
12IEA. “Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector.” IEA, 2021.
13Jennifer Yoos and Vincent James. Parallel Cities: The Multilevel Metropolis. Walker Art Center, 2016.
14Recommendations of the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures. Bank for

International Settlements, 2017.
15“Telling all: Corporate climate reporting.” The Economist, March 13, 2021.
116
Role of Climate
Litigation in Achieving
Paris Agreement Goals
(Comparative Study)
In this research, we talk about the role of this
phenomenon in achieving the Paris Agreement
goals, highlighting its nature, origin, and
development.
Mr. Ahmed Saied He is a former public law assistant professor and doctoral
Judge at the Egyptian Council of researcher in constitutional law - Faculty of Law,
State. Alexandria University.
Abstract
This research examines and analyzes the climate litigation phenomenon and its role in achieving
the Paris Agreement goals. The importance of this research lies in that the climate crisis has
become an existential issue, threatening the whole world and requiring consorted international
efforts to be confronted. Such efforts have materialized in concluding the Paris Agreement in 2015.
This research is based on a comparative analytical approach to address climate litigation's
effectiveness as a mechanism to ensure the commitment of countries and institutions to achieving
the Paris Agreement goals. It started with presenting the most prominent factors of the
emergence and development of climate litigation. Then, it moved on to illustrate the types of
climate litigation by introducing several judicial applications in Egypt and comparable systems that
highlight the development it achieved and its role in encouraging countries and private institutions
to fulfill their climate obligations. Finally, it tackles the most prominent obstacles facing climate
litigation and addresses the mutual influence between the climate litigation phenomenon and the
Paris Agreement. The research ended with several conclusions, most notably the effectiveness of
climate litigation to a large extent in obliging countries and private institutions to achieve the Paris
Agreement goals. It also presents several recommendations to promote climate litigation, the
most important of which is to work on enacting the necessary climate protection laws.

Keywords: Paris Agreement, Climate Litigation, Climate Lawsuits, Environmental
Courts.
Introduction
Recognizing the growing danger of climate change, various countries became convinced that more
efforts should be made to conclude an agreement to combat this phenomenon. This culminated with
concluding the Paris Agreement in 2015. The goals of this agreement focus on keeping the average
global temperature rise much less than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and continuing
efforts to limit the temperature rise to no more than 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels2.
Despite its importance, this agreement doesn't include the necessary elements to achieve its goals; it
has yet to identify any supervisory mechanisms to ensure that its state parties implement their legal
obligations. What is more dangerous is that it did not stipulate any penalties to be imposed on states
proven not to fulfill their commitments. This gives it a voluntary rather than compulsory nature 2,
prompting individuals and associations concerned with the climate issue worldwide to resort to the
national courts of each state party to require the authorities and institutions to fulfill their climate
obligations specified in the Paris Agreement. This has led to the prevalence of the climate litigation
phenomenon globally. In this research, we talk about the role of this phenomenon in achieving the
Paris Agreement goals, highlighting its nature, origin, and development.
118
The climate crisis has now become an existential issue threatening the entire world. The earth's
temperature has risen unprecedentedly, leading to waves of extreme heat, the drying up of some
rivers in China and Europe in the summer of 2022, the spread of forest fires, and rising sea and ocean
levels due to the ice melting. Undoubtedly, these phenomena and others require concerted official
and societal efforts, culminating in climate litigation.
First: Emergence and development of climate litigation phenomenon
Climate litigation can be defined as lawsuits filed by individuals and associations before the national
courts of a country to obligate its legislative and executive authorities, various agencies, and private
institutions (such as business enterprises) to take the necessary measures for climate protection 3.
Below we shed light on the most important factors that led to the emergence and development of
climate litigation.
The factors of emergence and development of the climate litigation phenomenon:
First factor: the failure of international law to compel countries to fulfill their climate obligations
specified in the Paris Agreement for the following two reasons:
▪ It is difficult to implement international sanctions if a ruling is issued by the International Court of

Justice (ICJ) or any other international court against the developed countries because if an
international judicial judgment imposes a penalty on one of them for violating its climate
obligations, executing that judgment will require a recommendation from the Security Council
(SC)4. Practically, this is difficult to be achieved, given that five of these countries are SC
permanent members and have the right to veto5. This hinders issuing any SC resolution and
executing the judicial rulings accordingly, highly likely given that the idea of international
sanctions affects the considerations of the states' national sovereignty.
▪ On the other hand, imposing international sanctions - especially economic ones - against countries
violating their climate obligations would negatively affect the global economy, which is already
suffering due to "The Covid-19" pandemic and the Russian-Ukrainian crisis, increasing the economic
cost of climate protection measures for all state parties, especially the developing countries.
Consequently, there will be a form of collective punishment bypassing the country that violates its
climate obligations, which is unquestionably unacceptable. Given international law's inability to
play the desired role in forcing governments to fulfill their climate obligations, attention has been
turned to local laws to find a mechanism that can achieve this goal, which is the role of climate
litigation.

Second factor: the growing societal awareness of the climate issue: Notably, many associations and
organizations worldwide are now concerned with protecting the environment in general and the
climate in particular. They realize the seriousness of the climate issue, which has become - as
mentioned above - an existential threat to the entire world, and the failure of various authorities
and institutions to address the issue. Such associations considered the judiciary a safe haven to
force the authorities and private institutions to fulfill their obligations. This is well noted through
the various judicial applications highlighted later.
Third factor: the legal basis for climate litigation: Regarding climate lawsuits, the courts usually
depend on climate protection legislation. If not, they apply the various constitutional provisions
and international agreements to oblige the defendant authorities to reduce polluting emissions.
Here are examples of such provisions and legislations:
Constitutional Provisions
The constitutional right to a healthy and safe environment: There are about 55 different
constitutions that include the right to a safe and healthy environment, including Article 112 of the
Norwegian constitution, Article 23 of the Belgian constitution, and Article 46 of the Egyptian
constitution of 2014. In addition, there are 10 constitutions stipulate the state’s commitment to
climate protection, including Article 45 of the Tunisian constitution of 2014, Article 407 of the
Bolivian constitution of 2009, and Article 258 of the Thai constitution of 20176.
Protecting future generations' rights: Article 20 of the German constitution stipulates the state's
responsibility for future generations. In the same context, Article 32 of Egypt's 2014 constitution
also stipulates the state's commitment to protecting future generations' rights. The Colombian
Supreme Court established its judgment dated April 5, 2018, which obligates the government to
limit the deforestation of the Amazon forests to preserve the climate on the state’s duty to
respect the other. The term "other" includes the planet's inhabitants and the generations that have
not yet been born7.
120
Legislation
Many state parties to the Paris Agreement have recently been concerned with enacting
national legislation to combat climate change. In 2021, Germany issued the Federal Climate
Change Law. In Britain, the Climate Change Law issued in 2008 and amended in 2019 obliges the
British government to reduce the rate of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 1990 by 100%, to
reach zero by 2050. On July 13, 2021, the French parliament approved the Climate Change
Adaptation Act, which obligates the French government to reduce the rate of GHG of 1990 by
40% by 2030. In India, the Climate Change Act was passed in 2015, which obliges the
government to develop a strategic plan to implement its climate commitments specified in the
Paris Agreement8.
In Egypt, there is still a need to issue legislation to combat climate change. However, it has
previously enacted a law for protecting the environment in general, which is the Environment
Law promulgated by Law No. 4 of 1996 and amended by Law No. 105 of 2015.
Although the Environmental Protection Law and its amendments are valid to be relied upon as
a legal basis for climate litigation in Egypt, the researcher believes that it is necessary to issue
legislation for climate protection that includes the appropriate rules and measures that must
be taken to activate Egypt's international obligations in the Paris Agreement of 2015. Such
legislation could also be relied upon to expand climate litigation in Egypt without depending
only on the courts' interpretation and application of the Environment Law and its amendments.
The Environment Law is insufficient to achieve this goal since it deals with environmental
protection in general with its broad areas, and it does not include all the necessary
commitments to achieve the Paris Agreement goals. It focused on defining the private
institutions' obligations concerning environmental protection and the penalties imposed on
them in case of breaching these obligations.
The Prime Minister Decree No. 1912 of 2015 on establishing the National Council for Climate
Change and the decree No. 1860 of 2022 on adopting the National Climate Change Strategy
2050 do not underestimate the importance of issuing legislation to combat climate change in
Egypt. All of these decrees, albeit commendable, are issued by the executive authority, which
has the power to discard them by amending or canceling them. At the same time, it will be
different if we have parliamentary legislation on combating climate change. The executive
authority will have to implement its provisions. Otherwise, this will be a basis for suing it before
the State Council.

Acknowledged International Texts
▪ The Paris Agreement: Australia's Land and Environment Court (LEC), the world's first
environmental court established in 1980, upheld the Australian Minister of Planning's decision to
reject the license granted to a company to establish a coal mine. The LEC based its judgment on
the Paris Agreement's provisions9.
▪ The Stockholm Declaration: Its first principle stipulates that all people have the right to an
environment that allows them to live with dignity and well-being, and they are responsible for
protecting and improving the environment for present and future generations 10.
Fourth factor: National courts' recognition of the importance of combating climate change. This is
the most important factor for the emergence and development of the climate litigation
phenomenon. The previous three factors alone would not have been suitable for the emergence of
this phenomenon if not accompanied by a response from the national courts to the lawsuits of
individuals and various associations to compel the concerned authorities and institutions to fulfill
their climate obligations. Those courts further coordinated among themselves to integrate their
efforts and attitudes regarding climate protection. This has materialized in the recommendations of
Cairo's sixth high-level meeting for chief justices of African Constitutional Councils, Supreme Courts,
and Constitutional Councils held on September 10-12, 2022. They included calls to consider
environmental protection an inherent constitutional right, protect it from pollution and degradation,
adopt the concept of "environmental justice" in African countries, and support African judges to
implement it. It was also materialized in the first workshop of the Association of African State
Councils and Supreme Administrative Courts, held in March 2023 under the title "Judicial Trends in
Climate Issues", to exchange experiences and integrate efforts on environmental and climate issues.
122
Noteworthy, the US Supreme Court issued the
world's first judicial judgment obligating the state
authorities to take the necessary measures to
combat climate change on April 2, 2007. It is
considered an icon or cornerstone of the climate
litigation phenomenon worldwide. In this ruling,
the US Supreme Court obliged the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to take the
necessary measures to limit the polluting emissions
of GHG. It rejected the EPA's argument that the
court had no jurisdiction to take these measures.11
Second: Types of climate
Thus, climate litigation originated within the litigation
administrative law, where the plaintiff resorted to
the administrative courts to challenge the legality Constitutional climate litigation
of the executive authority's failure to issue
regulations and administrative decisions necessary The plaintiff files a lawsuit before the
for climate protection. The constitutional judiciary constitutional courts to challenge the
followed the steps of the administrative courts and constitutionality of parliament's legislative
judged that the parliament's legislative omission omission regarding climate (parliament’s failure
regarding climate (the parliament’s failure to to enact the necessary legislation for climate
enact the necessary legislation for climate protection). The following ruling is one of the
protection) was unconstitutional. Then, Climate most prominent applications of this type:
litigation took a new direction when individuals and
climate associations recognized the need to The German Federal Supreme Court's judgment
address the private institutions' harmful activities on March 24, 2021: Many individuals have filed
to the climate. This was achieved by resorting to several lawsuits before the German
the civil courts requiring private institutions, such Constitutional Court to challenge the
as business companies, to take the necessary constitutionality of the Bundestag's legislative
measures to ensure their activities do not harm the omission. The Federal Climate Change Act of
climate. Finally, climate litigation has reached the December 12, 2019, failed to include appropriate
top of its development, with the courts inflicting measures to address the climate change
criminal penalties on these institutions' managers phenomenon. The lawsuit was based on the fact
in the event of climate violations that negatively that this omission violated Article 2 of the
affect public health. This brings us to tackle the German constitution on the right to life and
different types of climate litigation by presenting physical integrity and Article 20 (a) on
modern judicial applications on each type. protecting future generations' rights.

The court ruled that the contested legislative Administrative Climate Litigation
omission was unconstitutional as it conflicted
with the German State's constitutional The plaintiff files a lawsuit before the
obligation to protect the fundamental rights administrative court to challenge the legality of
stipulated in the two articles mentioned above. the executive authority’s negative administrative
The court obligated the Bundestag to enact the decision regarding climate protection (the
necessary legislations to regulate the process of executive authority’s failure to issue the necessary
reducing emissions polluting the environment regulations and administrative decisions for
no later than December 31, 202212. climate protection). This type is the oldest and
most prevalent among the climate litigation types,
The researcher believes that this judgment is given that the administrative authorities - with
one of the most important climate litigation their powers, tools, and obligations - are required
applications, given that it practically proves that more than others to combat climate change.
the climate litigation's effectiveness does not There are many applications of this type, including:
depend on the legislation on which courts rely.
This mechanism can be activated, even in the - The Administrative Court of Paris's judgment on
absence of climate legislation, through the February 3, 2021:
jurisprudence of the courts in general and the
constitutional courts in particular in On March 14, 2019, Oxfam France filed a lawsuit
interpreting the constitutional provisions on the before the Administrative Court of Paris, seeking a
right to life and health care and the protection ruling to obligate the French government to fulfill
of future generations' rights. This its legal obligations related to combating climate
interpretation compels the state authorities change. The organization based its lawsuit on the
and various institutions to play their role in fact that the state's duty to combat climate
protecting the climate. change is based firstly on its commitment to
protecting everyone's right to live in a balanced
and healthy environment, as stipulated in Article
1 of the 2005 Charter of the Environment, which is
complementary to the French constitution, and
secondly on France's international obligations to
combat climate change based on the Paris
Agreement of 2015.
The court obliged the French government to take

all necessary measures to achieve the goals of
reducing GHG emissions to stop possible climate
damage in the future.13
124
Notably, this judgment is compatible with that of the
German Federal Supreme Court mentioned above. Each was
limited to ending the negative behavior of the state
authorities, whether the executive in France or the
legislative in Germany, which is their failure to take the
necessary measures to reduce emissions. Although this is a
commendable step, it does not specify the actions required
to reduce emissions. This would open the door for the
authorities to take temporary or insignificant measures
through which they claim to fulfill their climate
commitments, curtailing these two rulings.
- The Supreme Court of Ireland's Judgment - July 31, 2020:
Friends of the Irish Environment (FIE) filed a lawsuit before the Supreme Court of Ireland, seeking to
cancel the Irish government's decision of 2017 approving the National Climate Action Plan. The FIE
based its case on the grounds that such a plan violates the "Climate Action and Low Carbon
Development Act" of 2015, the right to life, health, and physical integrity guaranteed by the Irish
constitution, as well as the right to private and family life guaranteed by the European Convention on
Human Rights. The organization argued that the National Mitigation Plan, "The Plan", which seeks the
transition to a low-carbon economy by 2050, contradicts the above-mentioned law and rights because
it does not guarantee to achieve significant reductions in carbon emissions in the short term.
The Supreme Court of Ireland accepted the appeal and annulled the plan. The court began its ruling
by affirming what we have previously mentioned, that the role of the courts in general, and the role of
this court in particular, is limited to defining the legal positions and providing appropriate remedies in
cases specified by the constitution and laws. The court went on to say that the plan does not include
the detailed goals and measures required by law to reduce carbon emissions because the ordinary
reader of the plan would need to understand how Ireland will achieve its emission reduction targets
by 2050. The Court stated that "the desired plan must be sufficiently specific in terms of policy over
the entire period up to 2050”.14
This judgment makes it clear that the Supreme Court of Ireland recognized the shortcomings in the
attitude of both the German Federal Supreme Court and the Paris Administrative Court mentioned
above. The ruling canceled the Irish government's positive attitude regarding combating climate
change on the grounds that the policies adopted by the state's authorities to protect the climate were
not characterized by the accuracy and specificity required to achieve the emission reduction goal.

- The Egyptian Administrative Judiciary Court's judgment on February 1, 2014:
Before we finish discussing administrative climate litigation, we have to

mention the important role of the Egyptian State Council's administrative
judiciary in climate protection. The Administrative Judiciary Court upheld the
administrative authority's decision to reject the license to establish a cement
factory on the grounds that the legislator granted the administrative
authority wide discretionary powers in licensing the establishment of
industrial facilities. This is due to the great effects of these facilities on the
state's economies and energy resources and their negative impact on the
environment, which requires taking into account the balance between the
licenses issued for this industry and limiting its polluting effects on the
environment as much as possible.15
Notably, this judgment differs from the previous ones in two respects: firstly,
it was not issued regarding general abstract regulatory policies but regarding
an individual case of an individual or a private company's request to be
licensed to operate a cement factory. Secondly, it was not issued to abolish
the executive authority's behavior, but to support it, given that it is keen to
ensure that individual activities, such as operating a cement factory, do not
harm the environment, which is undoubtedly praiseworthy.
Civil Climate Litigation
The plaintiff resorts to the civil judiciary to obligate subjects of private law,
such as individuals, institutions, or various companies, to take the necessary
measures to ensure that their activities do not damage the climate or to
oblige them to compensate prejudiced in case of causing climate damage
based on the general rules of fault liability in civil law.
- The judgment of the Hague District Court - Netherlands on May 26, 2021:
On April 5, 2019, Friends of the Earth Netherlands, other non-governmental

organizations, and more than 17.000 Dutch citizens filed a lawsuit in the
Hague District Court in the Netherlands, seeking to oblige “Shell” company to
reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 45% by 2030 compared to 2010 levels
reaching zero by 2050, in line with the Paris Agreement goals.
126
The lawsuit was based on the landmark ruling of the Hague
Court in the URGENDA case in 2015 when it ruled that the Dutch
government should reduce GHG emissions by at least 25% below
1990 levels by 2020. The plaintiffs sought to extend the principle
decided by the Hague Court against the Dutch government to
include obligating private companies to combat climate change.
The lawsuit was based on Article 6/162 of the Dutch Civil Code,
stipulating: “A person who commits a harmful act against
another person must repair the resulted damage”.
It was also based on Articles 2 and 8 of the European Convention

on Human Rights (ECHR). The plaintiffs said that Shell's failure
to take the necessary measures to combat climate change
endangers citizens despite the company's realization of the
seriousness of that matter, which is considered noticeable
negligence that requires the court's intervention.
The court obliged "Shell" to reduce its carbon emissions by 45%

by 2030 compared to emissions levels of 2019. The court was
flexible with the company concerning distributing emissions
reductions, provided that the total emissions were reduced by
45% during the mentioned period16.
This judgment highlights the importance of overseeing giant

commercial companies, especially multinational ones, given that
the waste of their activities is one of the important causes of
climate change in the first place. The researcher believes that it
is important for civil courts to follow the footsteps of
administrative and constitutional ones in coordinating with each
other to follow a unified judicial approach to oblige those
companies - whose branches and activities are spread in many
countries - to take the necessary climate measures. This is
because it is useless if a competent civil court in a specific
country issued a judicial ruling obliging a multinational company
to reduce its emissions without being followed by its
counterparts in the rest of the countries where that company
practices the same activity that causes polluting emissions.

Criminal Climate Litigation
This type differs from the previous one in that the Public Prosecution Authority is the one that files
a lawsuit before the competent criminal court based on the complaints of those affected by
private institutions’ violation of criminal laws related to climate protection. It seeks to impose
criminal punishment on these institutions' managers that may be severe penalties such as
imprisonment. In addition, the criminal court has the authority in all cases to order the closure of
the violating facility and the revocation of its license. Among the most prominent applications - in
Egypt - of this type is the following ruling:
Egypt's Dekheila Appellate Misdemeanor Court's judgment on March 21, 2018:
In July 2016, the Public Prosecution referred case No. 6645 of 2016 to the Dekheila Misdemeanor
Court in Alexandria, seeking that Alexandria Portland Cement Company's chairman be punished
under the Environment Law No. 4 of 1994, its amendments under Law No. 9 of 2009, and Article
244 of the Penal Code. The Public Prosecution filed three charges against the company's chairman
as the person in charge of the factory. The charges are: failing to take the necessary precautions to
prevent the polluting emissions, not taking the necessary measures related to the circulation and
production of hazardous materials, and causing injuries to the victims - more than three persons -
as a result of his carelessness and non-compliance with laws and regulations. On January 18, 2018,
the Misdemeanor Court imposed a fine on Alexandria Portland Cement Company's chairman of
EGP 20,000 for each of the first and second charges and EGP 200.000 for the third charge.
The company's lawyers appealed the ruling, but the Dekheila Appellate Misdemeanor Court upheld
the verdict on March 2117.
This ruling is a good example of the climate litigation's development; it is no longer limited to
instructing private institutions to protect the climate or obliging them to civil compensation in
case of any violation, but it extends to imposing criminal penalties on the private institutions'
representatives such as detention and imprisonment. Although this development is justified by the
significance of the climate issue and the private institutions' indifference to addressing it to
increase their profits, the researcher believes that it is necessary not to expand in taking
the criminal path and be confined to other types of climate litigation. This is due to the
severe economic risks of taking this path on the state’s public finances and investments. It
is not possible to list them all.
128
Despite the remarkable development of climate litigation, confirmed by the above-mentioned
judicial applications, climate litigation still faces obstacles that delay its spread and constitute a
real challenge to its desired role of achieving the Paris Agreement goals.
Third: The Obstacles Facing Climate Litigation
The focus here is on two obstacles related to the courts' jurisdiction to consider climatic cases, as
follows:
The first obstacle: the political nature of the climate protection issue: One of the main defenses of
governments worldwide in the lawsuits filed against them regarding climate protection is the
lawsuits' political nature, and therefore the courts' incompetence to consider them and to leave
them to the legislative and executive authorities in respect of the separation of powers principle,
adopted by most US courts18. They concluded that they are incompetent to consider lawsuits
related to combating climate change, leaving them to the legislative and executive authorities in
respect of the separation of powers principle19. For example, The Ninth Circuit Court (Court of
Appeal) overturned the ruling issued by a federal district court (Court of First Instance) to oblige
the US government to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. It dismissed the lawsuit on the grounds
that it is of complex political and technical nature, which is confined to the legislative and executive
authorities.20

The researcher does not agree with the US courts' attitude. Undoubtedly,
courts of all kinds are competent to enforce laws. In turn, they are competent
to hear climate lawsuits filed by citizens to obligate the legislative and
executive authorities to apply legal rules related to climate protection, the
most important of which are the recognized constitutional and international
texts concerned with climate protection. The Irish Supreme Court confirmed
this in its abovementioned ruling. Therefore, it is incorrect to claim that
climate issues have political nature or that climate litigation conflicts with the
principle of separation of powers. Rather, this is what the US Supreme Court
itself confirmed in its previous judgment.
The second obstacle: the technical nature of climate issues: Some see it useless
to file climate lawsuits before the courts because adjudging them requires
deep technical and scientific expertise in climate science that judges naturally
lack, especially in cases that raise causal questions. For example: Did the
defendant institution's GHG emissions cause harm to the plaintiff? Are
government measures sufficient to reduce carbon emissions to the targeted
rate? And other questions of a technical nature21.
The researcher also believes that the abovementioned

opinion cannot prevent the courts from considering
climate lawsuits. Of course, the courts are presented
daily with lawsuits that adjudging them require technical
expertise that judges lack, and no one said that the courts
could not consider these lawsuits accordingly. Rather, in
such cases, the courts seek the help of specialized experts
with the required technical expertise. This is applied in
climate lawsuits, where the courts ask climate scientists
to translate scientific findings about extreme weather
events and their relationship to climate change.
Despite the challenges these two obstacles pose to the

effectiveness of climate litigation, their impact on the
desired effect remains limited and largely confined to the
USA. This leads us to the fourth part of this research.
130
Fourth: The Climate Litigation's Effectiveness in Achieving the Paris
Agreement Goals
To answer this question, the researcher believes that there is a mutual influence between climate
litigation and the Paris Agreement, as follows:
1-It can be said that the Paris Agreement encouraged climate litigation. Its preamble stressed "the
importance of the engagements of all levels of government and various actors, under respective
national legislations of Parties, in addressing climate change”. We believe that the intended actors
include all governmental and private agencies, individuals, and associations concerned with climate
protection. On the one hand, many state parties to the Paris Agreement sought to enact the
necessary climate legislation after the agreement came into force.
On the other hand, the UN international reports confirm that climate litigation is spreading over
time after the Paris Agreement came into force in 2016. About 884 climate lawsuits were filed in
24 countries in 2017, doubled in 2020 to 1,550 in 38 countries22. Notably, the climate litigation
phenomenon - originated in developed countries such as the USA and European countries - is
currently expanding in Asian countries, the top of which are China and India. In China, the Friends
of Nature Association (FON) filed a lawsuit against a state-owned company and the authorities of
"Guangzhou" to obligate them to connect renewable electric energy to the public electrical grid.
Their refusal to do so causes more carbon emissions. This lawsuit is still pending before Guangzhou
Intermediate People’s Court as of the date of writing this research23. In India, Law No. 19 of 2010
was issued to establish the National Green Tribunal (environmental court) to consider
environmental protection lawsuits, particularly climate-related ones.
2- In light of the previous figures, the climate litigation phenomenon has become a decentralized
mechanism worldwide that guarantees the activation of the Paris Agreement and obliges States
and private institutions to achieve its goals, avoiding the shortcomings of the international law
rules as mentioned above, for the following considerations:
▪ Climate litigation does not conflict with considerations of the states' national sovereignty; the
judicial ruling against one of a country's authorities obligating it to take the necessary climate
measures is issued by its national courts established in accordance with its constitution.
Therefore, it is not envisaged that states will practice any means of objection (veto) to obstruct
the implementation of the judicial ruling issued by their national courts, in contrast to the case
of implementing judgments issued by international courts, as previously detailed.

▪ Climate litigation does not cause any harm to the
global economy; the ruling issued in the climate
lawsuit is not intended to impose financial
penalties on the country, but rather it is to oblige
the state authorities (legislative or executive) or
private institutions to take the necessary
measures to protect the climate. The judgment
gains its binding force from having res judicata
(claim preclusion) under the country's constitution
and laws. This does not negate the possibility that
the national courts oblige the State to pay
compensation for causing damage to the climate.
There is no comparison between an international
ruling imposing international financial penalties on
the state and national legislation obliging the
State to pay compensation. The first entails a
series of sanctions on other countries, which
restricts global trade and thus negatively affects
the global economy (which is the current situation
now in light of the Russian-Ukrainian crisis). In
contrast, the effect of the second does not exceed
the borders of the country against which the
ruling was issued and therefore does affect the
global economy. Notably, judgments issued at the
national level obliging state authorities or private
institutions to pay financial compensation for
damaging the climate are rare.24
Based on the above, the researcher believes climate

litigation is effective in achieving the Paris
Agreement goals and recommends that the
developed and developing countries alike expand in
issuing climate protection legislation to encourage
individuals and civil society institutions on the one
hand and courts on the other to expand climate
litigation.
132
Conclusion
The study reached a set of findings and

recommendations as follows:
The findings
▪ The inadequacy of the international law rules to

compel the Paris Agreement's parties to fulfill
their climate obligations and achieve its goals.
▪ In recent years, many states parties to the Paris

Agreement have enacted national legislation to
combat climate change, including measures the
state must adhere to achieve this goal.
▪ The Egyptian State has taken serious and constructive steps to combat climate change, the
most prominent of which is the adoption of the National Climate Change Strategy 2050,
according to Prime Minister Decree No. 1860 of 2022. However, at the legislative level, there is a
need to enact legislation to combat climate change in Egypt. Notably, the Egyptian legislator has
previously put in place a legislative umbrella to protect the environment in general.
▪ The African constitutional and administrative courts coordinated to unify their efforts and
attitudes related to climate protection.
▪ Climate litigation has been developed with expanded fields and varied applications in Egypt or
comparable systems. There is now constitutional, administrative, civil, and criminal climate
litigation.
▪ Despite the need for climate legislation in Egypt, the courts relied on the Environment Law and
its amendments as a legal basis to consider climate lawsuits. Generally, climate litigation
effectiveness does not depend only on the existence of legislation on which courts rely. It can be
activated - in some cases - even in the absence of climate legislation if the national courts deem
it important to address the climate change phenomenon by interpreting the constitutional
provisions related to the right to life and health care and the rights of future generations. This
interpretation compels the State authorities and various institutions to play their role in climate
protection.

▪ Climate litigation still faces obstacles in fulfilling its
desired role in achieving the Paris Agreement goals.
Many governments - such as the US government – cling
to the political and technical nature of climate issues to
say that the courts are not competent to consider
climate lawsuits. It seems that the US courts responded
to this by relinquishing their competence in considering
climate lawsuits. However, we believe these obstacles
have only a limited impact on the prevalence of climate
litigation. This effect is largely confined to the USA.
▪ Overall, it can be said that there is a mutual influence

between climate litigation and the Paris Agreement,
which confirms the effectiveness of the former in
obligating states and private institutions to achieve the
goals of the latter.
The recommendations
▪ All countries, particularly Egypt, must expand issuing legislation and resolutions necessary to
combat climate change.
▪ The private institutions, led by factories and energy companies, must take the necessary
measures to protect the climate.
▪ Individuals and civil society institutions must continue expanding climate litigation by resorting
to various courts to obligate public authorities and private institutions to combat climate
change. This requires raising media awareness to educate citizens about this serious issue and
encourage them to file lawsuits before the national courts to combat climate change.
▪ The courts should continue their effective role in monitoring the actions of public authorities
and private institutions regarding climate protection and oblige them to take all necessary
measures to protect individuals and natural resources from the dangers of climate change. This
requires continuing coordination among them - especially civil courts - to unify their efforts in
this field.
▪ It is necessary not to expand in criminal climate litigation except for extreme necessity and to be
limited to confronting serious climate violations due to the grave economic risks involved.
134
▪ In case they issue their judgment obliging the state authorities to take the necessary
measures to protect the climate, the constitutional and administrative courts have to specify
these measures precisely. This is for these authorities not to be satisfied with taking
temporary or sham measures through which they claim to fulfill their climate obligations.
▪ The national courts must not give up their original competence to consider climate lawsuits
on the grounds that such issues have a political or technical nature that takes them outside
their scope.
Endnotes
.‫ أ من اتفاق باريس للمناخ‬/2/1 ‫المادة‬1

.2021 ،"‫ دراسة تحليلية نقدية‬:‫ "تطور النظام القانوني الدولي لمواجهة التغيرات المناخية‬،‫ليتيم‬2
3Burger and Metzger, "Global Climate Litigation Report: 2020 Status Review." 2020.
.‫ من ميثاق األمم المتحدة‬94 ‫المادة‬4
.‫ من ميثاق األمم المتحدة‬27 ‫المادة‬5
.2021 ،"‫ "دعاوى المناخ واإلشكاليات المرتبطة بها أمام القاضي اإلداري‬،‫مشعل‬6
.‫المرجع السابق‬7
:‫ يمكن االطالع على تلك القوانين وغيرها من قوانين مكافحة التغير المناخي في مختلف دول العالم على الموقع اإللكتروني‬8
https://climate-laws.org/
9Peel and Osofsky, "Climate change litigation" 2020.
10Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972.
.‫ مرجع سابق‬،‫مشعل‬11
12Judgment OF GERMAN FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL COURT OF 24 MARCH 2021, BvR 2656/18- BvR 78/20- BvR 96/20 - BvR
288/20.
13JUDGMENT OF PARIS ADMINISTRATIVE COURT OF 3 FEBRUARY 2021, N°1904967, 1904968, 1904972, 1904976/4-1.
14Judgment OF THE IRISH SUPREME COURT OF 31 JULY 2020. Appeal No: 205/19.
.2014 ‫ فبراير‬1 ‫ ق بتاريخ‬64 ‫ لسنة‬801 ‫ حكم محكمة القضاء اإلداري بمجلس الدولة المصري الصادر في الدعوى رقم‬15
16 JUDGMENT OF THE HAGUE DISTRICT COURT of 26 May 2021, C/09/571932 / HA ZA 19-379.
:‫يُمكن االطالع على ذلك الحكم وغيره من تطبيقات التقاضي المناخي على الموقع التالي‬
http://climatecasechart.com/
.2018 ‫ مارس‬21 ‫ بتاريخ‬2018 ‫ لسنة‬2322 ‫ حكم محكمة جنح مستأنف الدخيلة الصادر في الجنحة المستأنفة رقم‬17
20See,
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT, Juliana V. United States, 947 F.3d 1159 (9th Cir.
2020), Jan 17 2020.
21Peel and Osofsky, "Climate change litigation" 2020.
.2020 ‫ التقرير الصادر عن برنامج األمم المتحدة للبيئة عام‬22
Burger and Metzger, "Global Climate Litigation Report: 2020 Status Review." 2020.
23"Natural
Friends Environmental Research Institute v. State Grid Gansu Corporation, Gansu Higher People's Court Civil
Decision No. 67 -2018.
.‫المرجع السابق‬24

136
The Goal of Carbon
Neutrality as a
Constitutional
Obligation on the State
and Corporations: In
the Context of Judiciary
The researcher won the platinum prize in the
Climate Law and Governance Competition,
organized on the sidelines of COP27 in
cooperation with Cambridge University.
Mr. Abdel Hamid Shehata He is a Climate Ambassador certified by the National Institute for
Judge at the Egyptian Council of Governance and Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development
State Ambassador at the Egyptian Ministry of Planning and Economic
Development, and former assistant professor of administrative and
constitutional law at the Faculty of Law, South Valley University.
Abstract
Carbon neutrality is the primary goal of the world at the moment. It is a global concern and a
major challenge for which the world's efforts are in solidarity. Numerous countries have placed this
goal at the heart of their strategic plans, and many corporations and institutions have made their
objectives align with it.
However, these efforts are not enough to achieve carbon neutrality: such commitments have not
transformed into actual steps toward the aspired goal. The climate change crisis remains inaptly
addressed, especially in major industrial countries. Although the scientific report recently issued by
the United Nations argues that the world needs to reduce carbon emissions by at least 45% by
2030, the actual indicators were shocking. They allude to emissions' elevation by nearly 11% by
2030, implying a diversion from the aspired goal by roughly 56%. German climate scientist
Marotzke, Head of the Max-Planck-Institute for Meteorology, states that the key to curbing global
warming is limiting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions according to Paris Agreement, which is
certainly achievable.

Countries have not been adequately committed to Paris Agreement, and corporations lack
adherence to their carbon neutrality pledges. The world has not achieved the desired results from
Paris Agreement; in other words, GHG emissions indications are still skyrocketing. Hence,
individuals and civil society organizations have resorted to the national judiciary system to oblige
state institutions and corporations to reduce their emissions and commit to carbon neutrality.
Adjustments could be made to public institutions' laws and decisions or corporations' activities and
objectives to safeguard their right to life and health and conserve natural resources.
In hearing lawsuits related to combating climate change and committing the state and
corporations to carbon neutrality, numerous courts have played a seminal role. Although carbon
neutrality is not stipulated in constitutions as an obligation to states and corporations, given its
novelty, these courts established it as a constitutional obligation that must be sought. They based
this on the goal's strong correlation with several human rights, future generations' rights, and the
gravity of disregarding it. Additionally, the duty of vigilance and the principle of precaution impose
it on states and corporations. The research shall explore how judiciary provisions concerned with
climate disputes have established carbon neutrality goal as a constitutional obligation on states
and corporations.
The mentioned confirms the significance of peoples' literacy in the fight against climate change
and their sense of responsibility toward achieving the carbon neutrality goal. It is vital to monitor
the actions of corporations and state institutions regarding carbon neutrality and resort to the
national judiciary system in case of non-adherence.
Keywords: Net-zero Emissions, Climate Lawsuits, Carbon Neutrality, State's Commitment

to Combating Climate Change, Constitutional Obligation to Carbon Neutrality.
138
Introduction
Climate change is caused by GHG emissions. Countries,

corporations, and civil society organizations seek to reduce
the latter and reach carbon neutrality after adopting all
necessary measures to limit climate change. The research
shall identify climate change, highlight its risks, introduce
carbon neutrality, and clarify how carbon neutrality has been
established as an obligation to states and corporations.
Climate change: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), in the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4),
defines it as a change in the state of the climate that can be
identified by changes in its properties that persists for an
extended period, whether due to natural variability or as a
result of human activity1.
The risks of climate change: Undoubtedly, climate change has countless risks, according to the
United Nations website2. It leads to rising temperatures and associated diseases, a disruption in
the ecological balance, wildfires, ecological system loss, and the destruction of lives and species in
oceans3. It also results in jeopardizing the fertility of agricultural lands, aggravating water shortage
in water-poor areas, and causing a shortage in the quantity of crops produced globally 4. Climate
change also increases the acidity of oceans, destroying the maritime resources feeding billions of
humans5 and exasperating poverty6. In addition, it increases the probability of hurricanes and their
severity7. Climate change is the biggest health threat facing humanity because of air pollution,
extreme weather phenomena, forced displacement, and malnutrition8.
Carbon Neutrality.. What is it?
The concept of net-zero emissions, also known as carbon neutrality, implies reducing GHG
emissions, the most important of which is CO2, to the closest level possible to zero. Any remaining
emissions should be absorbed from the atmosphere via oceans and forests9.
The French Energy Law defines carbon neutrality in Article 4-100 as a balance in the national
region between emissions caused by human activity and the absorption made by human activity as
well through GHG sinks10.

Paris Agreement, according to the first paragraph of Article 4 thereof, targets reducing
emissions to reach the zero-carbon goal in the second half of the current century11.
As for the notion of carbon neutrality as a constitutional obligation on states and corporations, it
is relatively novel as it is not provided for in legislation. However, it is mainly correlated with
committing to combating climate change. The former is a result of the latter; combating climate
change at the required rates stated in Paris Agreement will lead to carbon neutrality.
Commitment of States and Corporations to Carbon Neutrality
The world is joining forces to reach carbon neutrality. More than 70 countries, including the
biggest polluters – China, the United States, and the European Union – have set a net-zero target
in their strategic plans, covering about 76% of global emissions. More than 3,000 corporations
are working with science-based targets in line with the carbon neutrality goal. Over 1000 cities,
1000 educational institutions, and 400 financial institutions have joined the Race to Zero,
pledging to take rigorous, immediate action to halve global emissions by 203012.
Since adopting Paris Agreement in 2015, the world has witnessed more carbon neutrality
commitments by local governments, regions, and non-governmental actors, especially from the
private and financial sectors. The growing number of commitments has aligned with the
additional criteria and standards put in to determine carbon neutrality commitments of
different resilience levels.
140
UN Secretary-General, António Guterres, in March 2022,
established a High-Level Expert Group on the Net-Zero
Emissions Commitments of Non-State Entities. It targeted
establishing more robust and clear criteria for pledges to reach
net-zero emissions by non-state entities, like corporations,
investors, cities, and regions, and accelerating their
implementation. The Expert Group presented its It is worth mentioning here that
some countries have stipulated in
recommendations at COP27 on November 8, 2022, in Sharm
their constitutions their
El-Sheikh.13
commitment to combat climate
Despite all these efforts and commitments imposed by change. It is highly linked to the
countries and corporations on themselves, they have not yet commitment to the carbon neutrality
turned into practical and serious steps toward carbon goal, as combating climate change
neutrality. The report of the International Energy Agency (IEA) with certain controls leads to carbon
concluded that carbon emissions should be reduced by 5.8% neutrality. Indeed, it is better for
annually to reach carbon neutrality by 2030. The economist constitutions to explicitly stipulate it
Michael Spence, winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2001, because it is more specific. It obliges
commented on this report by saying: “Under these the state and corporations not only
circumstances, it makes no sense to cut emissions by this to combat climate change but also to
percentage because the reduction rate from 1980 to 2021 was reduce their emissions to net zero.
1.3% on average14”.
The Algerian Constitution stipulates
As a result, some individuals have resorted to filing lawsuits in in its preamble that the people will
national judiciary systems to determine responsibility for remain preoccupied with
obstructing carbon neutrality. environmental degradation, the
negative consequences of climate
Basis of Constitutional Obligation to Carbon change, the rational use of natural
Neutrality in the Context of Judiciary resources, and the preservation of

the rights of future generations in
The basis for the state’s obligations is its constitution, and them 15. Thus, the state is committed
there is no explicit text in states’ constitutions on their to combating climate change and
obligation to reach carbon neutrality since, as already reaching carbon neutrality while
mentioned, it is relatively novel. Most constitutions are rigid and being committed to preserving
do not quickly absorb new obligations, and not all constitutional natural resources and the rights of
obligations are explicitly enshrined in the constitution. However, future generations. It must also
courts can draw them from the constitution and the higher address the causes of climate change
principles, which we will explain below. or natural resource deterioration.

The Tunisian Constitution issued in 2014 provides The 2016 Constitution of Côte d'Ivoire also
in its preamble for the need to contribute to stipulates in its preamble the obligation of the
climate safety and environment preservation to state to protect the climate and preserve a
ensure the natural resources’ sustainability and healthy environment for future generations18.
secure a safe life for future generations16. It Therefore, the state is committed to protecting
constitutes a commitment by the Tunisian state the climate from change until it reaches carbon
to combat climate change until carbon neutrality neutrality, taking into account the right of
and consider the rights of future generations to future generations to live in a healthy
natural resources. This can only be achieved by environment. It must confront any project or
committing to the carbon neutrality goal by activity that conflicts with its commitment to
reducing carbon emissions to the maximum protecting the climate.
extent until it reaches net zero. In other words,
the state is obliged to reduce carbon emissions Article 16 of the 2019 Constitution of Cuba states
emitted by individuals and corporations with the the obligation to protect the environment and
necessary controls to reach carbon neutrality. respond to climate change, which threatens the
survival of the human race19. The constitution
Article 407 of the Bolivian Constitution of 2009 recognizes the significance of combating
protects agricultural and industrial production climate change, a hazard facing humanity.
from climate-related hazards17. The state has Therefore, the state is obligated to respond to
established a rural development policy as it aims any measure or action that would reach the
at protecting agricultural and industrial stage of safety and carbon neutrality. When
production from natural disasters, extreme enacting any legislation or making a decision, it
weather, and geological disasters. Bolivia places must consider its obligation to protect the
an obligation on itself to address any activity that environment and address climate change. Its
causes agricultural production deterioration, projects must also adhere to climate controls.
especially regarding climate.
Other states have included climate change in
their constitution and established their
commitment to combat it, such as the
Constitution of the Dominican Republic issued
in20 2015. The Constitution of Ecuador issued in
2008 and Article 414 thereof explicitly stipulate
that the state is obliged to take a series of
measures to address climate change21, and the
2017 Constitution of Thailand allocated Article
258 to climate change and the state's obligation
to address22 it.
142
When states recognize in the constitution their obligation to combat climate change and preserve
natural resources and the rights of future generations, they commit themselves not to take any
action or enact a law that violates these obligations. In this way, the administrative judiciary
system monitors the state's commitment to combating climate change and reaching the carbon
neutrality goal in its decisions. The constitutional judiciary system shall monitor the legislation
issued in terms of the extent of its commitment to the constitution and decide on the
unconstitutionality of the law that violates the state's obligations to preserve the climate and
hinders carbon neutrality.
On the one hand, some countries have stipulated in their constitutions their obligation to
combat climate change and aim for carbon neutrality in their plan. On the other hand, most
countries have not yet stipulated this relatively novel commitment in their constitutions, especially
developed countries that emit the largest GHG amount. In this case, the state must not nonetheless
abandon its responsibility to combat climate change and contribute to achieving carbon neutrality.
In the following, we will present the basis of the obligation of states and corporations to combat
climate change and contribute to the achievement of carbon neutrality if the constitution does not
stipulate this obligation in the context of the judiciary system.
Courts’ Seminal Role in Establishing Carbon Neutrality Goal as a

Constitutional Obligation:
Some courts have played a seminal role and have worked hard to determine the commitment of
states and corporations to combat climate change, entrench in their plan the carbon neutrality
goal, and strive to realize it. They must find a constitutional basis for this obligation to hold the
state and projects responsible for their failure to combat climate change and reach carbon
neutrality23.

Commitments made by governments to date fall far short of the required. Current national
climate plans – for 193 Parties to the Paris Agreement taken together – would lead to a sizable
increase of almost 11% in global GHG emissions by 2030, compared to 2010 levels. Getting to net
zero requires all governments to significantly strengthen their Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) and take bold, immediate steps toward reducing emissions. The Glasgow
Climate Pact called on all countries to revisit and strengthen the 2030 targets in their NDCs by the
end of 202224 to keep pace with Paris Agreement. The primary goal of COP27, held in Sharm El-
Sheikh, was implementing the pledges made by countries under the Paris Agreement and previous
climate conferences. It targeted developing serious solutions to address the climate crisis because
the Paris Agreement has not yet reached the desired results as GHG emissions continue to rise 25.
Evidently, states and corporations have not adhered to their obligations under the Paris
Agreement. As a result, civil society organizations and locals filed lawsuits against those
responsible for defaulting in the face of climate change and who did not work seriously toward
carbon neutrality. Consequently, climate lawsuits surfaced, and courts established this obligation
on states and corporations. This is what we will address in the following lines.
The text of the constitution is always at the forefront of the grounds that the plaintiffs uphold in
their lawsuits, in general, and in climate lawsuits, in particular, in which the plaintiffs demand that
the state and projects commit to combating climate change and reaching carbon neutrality.
However, the search for a constitutional basis in the absence of an explicit text in the constitution
regarding this obligation was an obstacle for judges while hearing cases, on the one hand, and civil
society organizations and lawyers, on the other hand. The latter indeed devoted their efforts to
hold those responsible for default in the face of climate change and the strive for carbon neutrality
accountable. Constitutions do not contain explicit texts that support this obligation, which led
courts to differ in establishing this responsibility. They did not have a united position on this
responsibility. Some courts, especially in the United States of America, denied the existence of this
obligation26; on the contrast, other courts in several countries like France recognized this obligation
despite the lack of explicit text in their constitutions27.
144
Courts have found a basis for establishing this obligation among the fundamental human rights
stipulated in constitutions and international human rights conventions, such as the right to life,
health, and a healthy environment. It can also be based on the Paris Agreement as it is binding on
the ratifying states. Neither major powers nor small states can elude its articles. Article 4 thereof
stipulates the obligation of states to reach net-zero carbon before 2050. The obligation can rely on
the duty of vigilance or the principle of precaution. The following is the basis which the courts used
in their lawsuits to establish the obligation of the state and projects to combat climate change.
a- With regard to human rights and future generations:
The Federal Constitutional Court in Germany is the most prominent court that took a positive
position in searching for a constitutional basis for the obligation of public authorities to realize the
carbon neutrality goal and combat climate change. It was challenged with the unconstitutionality of
the climate law issued on December 12, 2019, under the claim that it did not determine the
authorized amount of GHG emissions until 2030 and did not stipulate the provisions and the specific
amount of emissions after this date until reaching carbon neutrality in the second half of the
current century28, as stipulated in the Paris Agreement of 2015.
In their claim29, the plaintiffs based the unconstitutionality of the aforementioned law, given the
lack of provisions regulating emissions after 2030 until reaching carbon neutrality, on the fact that
the law violates the fundamental rights of citizens, in particular the right to life and the right to
health and physical integrity stipulated in Article 2 of the Basic Law, the right to property stipulated
in Article 14 thereof, the protection of the foundations of natural life and future generations
stipulated in Article 20 bis thereof, and the principle of human dignity stipulated in Article
1 thereof30.
The court issued a historic ruling that was widely supported stating the unconstitutionality of the
law in question in part because it did not include any clarifications or efforts to be implemented
after 2030 until reaching carbon neutrality. The law was limited to referring to a regulatory
decision in 2025 to determine the basic elements of these efforts. The court then called on the
legislator to announce the emission reduction goals after 2030 by December 31, 2021. The court
based its obligation on the legislative authority to combat climate change and reach carbon
neutrality on fundamental rights and freedoms. The court considered that future obligations to
reduce emissions are related to fundamental freedoms. Therefore, the legislator must take
precautionary measures to preserve freedom protected by fundamental rights. The duty of public
authorities to combat climate change and the severe consequences resulting from it is part of its
duty to protect the right to life and health based on Article 2 of the Basic Law31.

It is noteworthy that the Federal Constitutional Court in Germany, in this ruling, has expanded the
interpretation of basic human rights contained in the Basic Law, such as the right to life and health.
It considered the carbon neutrality goal and climate preservation protection of the right to life and
health. Hence, the public authorities were obliged to consider climate preservation and combat
future climate change until reaching carbon neutrality. The court blamed the legislator for not
taking precautionary measures and not placing restrictions on human activities that cause
emissions, even if they will restrict some freedoms. All human activities still generate emissions,
and that restriction is justified. The justification lies in the great threat resulting from GHG
emissions and their growing severity after 2030.
The Federal Constitutional Court in Germany excelled in that situation. There is no doubt that
preserving the climate to the extent that it leads us to the stage of carbon neutrality stems from
the human right to life and health constitutionally stipulated. What kind of human life and health is
enjoyed by the individual in the event of increased climate change and its accompanied dangers?
The court also decided that the rights of future generations must be respected. A sustainable
climate must be provided for them, and the current generation must not exhaust the bulk of the
carbon budget; thus, emissions must be reduced appropriately until it reaches the stage of carbon
neutrality32.
The court directed the legislator to consider the carbon neutrality goal and specify actions to
achieve the objectives of the Paris Agreement, which has become binding before the judiciary
system and has a constitutional basis from the Constitutional Court. Nevertheless, the court
applied the general rules of constitutional control, so it decided that it may not determine the rate
of carbon reduction and its annual budget. It recognized that the legislator must determine it. The
government obliged and submitted to the parliament on June 2, 2021, a draft law on amending the
climate law that provides for elevating the goals of reducing GHG emissions until carbon neutrality
in 2045, five years before the date set by the Paris Agreement. The court adopted the idea of the
proactive impact on fundamental rights and acknowledged the existence of divergent guarantees
of freedoms based on the constitution. Consequently, the notion of fundamental rights and
protection of the foundations of natural life and the rights of future generations stipulated in the
German constitution33 have become at the heart of legal analysis in the court in terms of obliging
public institutions to combat climate change.
146
In a lawsuit filed by Oxfam and others on February 3, 2022, the Administrative Court of Paris
overturned the government's negative decision to refuse to take regulatory measures to achieve
the Paris Agreement's goal of reducing emissions and reaching carbon neutrality. It ordered the
government to adopt these measures.
The court based its ruling on the fact that the state has an obligation to protect the environment
and combat climate change until it reaches carbon neutrality. The basis of this obligation is the
human rights and fundamental freedoms stipulated in the European Convention on Human Rights,
including the right to life and the right to respect for private and family life stipulated in Article
2 and Article 8 thereof and the consequent right to live in a sustainable climate system for present
and future generations. It should be mentioned that climate change threatens approximately
9.75 million people in France35.
Moreover, the court obliged the competent public authorities to adopt the necessary measures to
combat climate change and reach carbon neutrality, considering it a fundamental human right to
be protected, although the obligation of the state to combat climate change was not explicitly
stated. Nonetheless, the court seminally derived this from the human right to life contained in the
European Convention, the general principles of international and internal law, the rules of justice,
and natural law.
The Brussels Court of First Instance 36 issued a new ruling on February 17, 2021, that represents a
significant advance in the decisions of the Belgian judiciary on climate. It recognized for the first
time in Belgium that the climate policy needs to be reviewed and violates Belgium's obligations in
the European Convention on Human Rights, in particular Articles 2 and 8 thereof37. Klimaatzaak
organization and ordinary individuals called on the government to work to increase the established
rates to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The court only criticized the climate policy in Belgium
and called for a review to reach carbon neutrality. It did not address any orders to the federal
authorities and regions and did not set numerical goals for future climate policy consistent with the
binding agreements of Belgium in respect of the principle of separation of powers 38.

The Brussels Court of First Instance ruled that the government did not succeed
in adopting the necessary measures to combat climate change to the extent
necessary to reach net zero. It also expanded the condition of capacity and
interest, which must be met in order for the case to be accepted in form. The
lawsuit was accepted by the aforementioned organization in addition to
85,000 citizens. The court considered that they have a capacity and interest in
the lawsuit because they seek to assign responsibility for climate damage to the
state. However, the ruling did not specify the rates required to reduce
emissions per Paris Agreement to which the government is committed. It
claimed that it was the jurisdiction of the legislative authority, stemming from
a respect for the principle of separation of powers. These rates have already
been provided for in the Paris Agreement, joined by Brussels. Thus, it was better
to leave the annual reduction rate for carbon to the legislator but by stating
the reduction limits stipulated by the Paris Agreement, which was insisted on by
the litigants in the lawsuit. They filed an appeal against the ruling issued by the
Brussels Court of First Instance, demanding the judiciary system to set specific
targets with regard to GHG emissions to which the government adheres. An
appeal hearing is scheduled on October 6, 2023, before the Court of Appeal.
The Egyptian Constitution also stipulates in more than one place the rights of
future generations to the natural resources of the state and the obligation of
the state to preserve them and not to deplete them. Article 32 of the
Constitution stipulates that "Natural resources belong to the people. The state
commits to preserving such resources, to their sound exploitation, to
preventing their depletion, and to taking into consideration the rights of future
generations to them".
b- Duty of Vigilance, Caution, and Reasonable Care39:
The Brussels Court of First Instance, in the aforementioned ruling, criticized the
federal authorities and the three regions in relation to climate policy and called
upon them to reconsider them. It based the ruling on the fact that the federal
authorities and the three regions did not intervene with due diligence and care
as stated in Article 1382 and Article 1383 of the Civil Code40. They did not also
adopt the necessary measures to reach carbon neutrality and prevent the
consequences of climate change harmful to life.
148
The Court of First Instance based the obligation of the State to consider carbon neutrality in Brussels’
domestic policies on not abiding by the duty of caution and care imposed on it to intervene to combat
climate change and achieve the carbon neutrality goal.
The Hague Court also issued a ruling41 on May 26, 2021, against Shell ordering it to reduce GHG
emissions by 45% by 2030, compared to 2019, and considered this an obligation of the parent company
(an obligation to achieve a result). It had based the ruling on the reasonable person standard
stipulated in Article 162/6 of the Civil Code42. The court decided that the parent company had violated
the duty of reasonable care by not developing a group-wide strategy to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions in line with the carbon neutrality goal under the Paris Agreement, despite the company's
knowledge of the dire consequences of the petroleum products it produces.
This ruling is the first of its kind: It ordered a reduction in a project’s emissions from the perspective
that this reduction is an obligation to achieve a result. The importance of the ruling is that all parties
to economic activities have been made concerned with combating climate change and reaching carbon
neutrality. The court resorted to the application of the principle of caution even if this term does not
appear explicitly in the wording of the ruling. The court considered providing sufficient energy while
combating climate change represents the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 43.

The Hague Court, thus, established Shell's obligation to reduce GHG emissions
by the reasonable person standard set out in the national civil code, which
holds it responsible for its actions in relation to achieving the carbon
neutrality goal.
As for France, several laws were issued after the Paris Agreement to oblige
the entire country and its institutions to reach the carbon neutrality goal.
For instance, the Energy Transition for Green Growth Law was adopted on
August 17, 2015,44 to enable France to contribute effectively to the fight
against climate and reach carbon neutrality.
Law No. 399 of March 27, 201745, was also promulgated on the duty of
vigilance imposed on corporations. It establishes two types of lawsuits in
relation to the corporations addressed with it to respect their climate
obligations: order and liability. France also enforced a law to combat climate
change and promote adaptation to its effects in 2021.
On the one hand, the French government has a legal

basis for binding companies to consider the carbon
neutrality goal in their activity. The French judiciary
system, on the other hand, has a legal basis to oblige
the French government and companies to
contribute to carbon neutrality and not to carry out
any action or activity that hinders that goal by
directly ordering them to reduce emissions from
their activities or by determining liability in case of
a violation of the carbon neutrality goal.
The Court of Cassation of France issued a ruling on

the Total case46, which is the first case to be heard
by the French judiciary related to the duty of
vigilance imposed on companies. It ruled on the
jurisdiction of the Paris Civil Court for disputes
related to the duty of vigilance imposed on
companies under the aforementioned law.
150
Concerning the Paris Agreement on climate change, it is the basis for countries’ commitment to
combating climate change and reach carbon neutrality. It is a binding agreement for all ratifying
countries, and all the aforementioned provisions were based on it in obliging public institutions to
adopt measures to reduce GHG emissions until reaching net zero, as stipulated in Article 4 thereof.
As for the situation in Egypt, the Egyptian Constitution stipulated the basic rights of the human
being, including the right to health and healthcare for every citizen47 and the right of every human
to live in a healthy environment. It also states that the protection of the environment is a national
duty and stipulates the obligation of the state to adopt the necessary measures to preserve it 48. It
also provides for the right of citizens to adequate and healthy housing and everything that
preserves human dignity. The Egyptian Constitution also stresses achieving sustainable
development and utilizing it to reach economic prosperity and use rationally natural resources 49. It
stipulates considering the rights of future generations in natural resources and the optimal use of
renewable energy sources50. The State has committed itself to preserving agricultural biodiversity
and safeguarding the rights of generations.51
Moreover, the Environment Law No. 4 was issued in 1994 and was amended by Law No. 9 of 2009
and its executive regulations. Article 34 and Article 35 obligate projects not to exceed the
permissible limits for air pollutants52. Article 36 also prohibits the use of machines or engines that
emit heavy smoke53. Article 40 thereof stipulates the establishment of rules and controls when
burning any type of fuel and holds the person responsible for the activity to take all precautions to
reduce the amount of pollutants54. Article 47 also states that the level of radioactivity may not
exceed the permissible limits55 and prohibits illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances56. Rulings
were issued based on this law limiting pollution of the environment and air57.
All of this reflects the Egyptian State's interest in preserving the environment and natural
resources and safeguarding the rights of future generations. It is also keen on conserving human
life and mental and physical health and setting the goal of achieving sustainable development as a
basis for all its actions.
As for the lawsuits that target obliging the state and corporations to preserve the environment and
natural resources, combat climate change, and contribute to reaching carbon neutrality, the
Egyptian judiciary system took the lead in addressing them. After the Paris Agreement of 2015, the
Administrative Court in Alexandria in 2016 ruled to cancel the negative decision to refrain from
stopping sanitation, industrial, and agricultural drainage harming Lake Idku without conducting
adequate treatment per the scientific standards and specifications prescribed by law which harms
human health, fish, and the environment.

Another lawsuit was concerned with the industrial drainage resulting from power plants in the Nile’s
Mahmudiya Canal without conducting the required treatment. The administrative authority was
obliged to conduct those treatments at the expense of violators58.
The ruling became final on September 19, 2020, with the issuance of the Supreme Administrative
Court’s ruling considering the appeal null and void after the expiry of the period of the punitive
suspension ruled by this court without any actions by the appellants in their capacity in the appeal 59.
Hence, the Administrative Legal Court obligated the Government to stop the sanitation, industrial,
and agricultural drainage that took place in Lake Idku and Mahmudiya without the required
treatment according to the legally prescribed specifications and obligated it to treat this drainage at
the expense of those who caused it in violation of the law. This was supported by the Supreme
Administrative Court.
There is no doubt that the decision to stop this drainage, with the obligation to address it at the
expense of the perpetrators, preserves the environment in a broad sense and human health
specifically. There is no doubt that this is in the interest of the fight against climate change.
Despite the texts of the aforementioned constitution and environment law, which set an obligation
on the Egyptian State institutions to combat climate change until reaching the stage of carbon
neutrality implicitly, there was not even a lawsuit before the Egyptian judiciary system requiring a
reduction in emissions. It proves that the Egyptian State does not emit any notable GHG emissions.
However, Egypt has been interested, especially recently, in combating climate change until reaching
the carbon neutrality goal. It has raised community awareness and made individuals aware of their
responsibility. Before Egypt signed the Paris Agreement60 in 2015 and adhered to its terms to
implement its goals of combating climate change and contributing globally to reaching the stage of
carbon neutrality, the Egyptian Prime Minister issued Decree No. 1912 of 2015 to form the National
Council for Climate Change. It worked under the chairmanship of the Minister of Environment and
was subsequently reorganized by Prime Minister Decree No. 1129 of 2019 to be headed by the Prime
Minister. The first article thereof states that the Council is the body concerned with the climate
change file and has all the necessary powers to perform its work61.
The National Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development of the Ministry of Planning and
Economic Development62 has also been reorganized. It has played an important role in the process of
raising awareness of sustainable development and climate change. It held courses and programs to
qualify officials and support projects that serve this field.
152
The Egyptian Council of State also hosted the conference of the Arab Union for Administrative
Judiciary in Egypt, which was titled "The Role of the Administrative Judiciary in Protecting the
Environment"63, in the presence of the Egyptian Minister of Environment on Tuesday, November
16, 2021. It shows the extent of Egypt's interest in environmental issues and its international role in
solving them.
The conference was launched due to the importance of challenges and problems facing environmental
preservation at the national and international levels. It stressed that the implementation of States'
obligations to protect the environment could only be completed through an effective national
judiciary system to resolve environmental disputes and protect the environment. The Union had
recognized that the fragile global environment required the judiciary to implement and enforce the
applicable international and national laws that would help in the field of environment and sustainable
development. The effectiveness of the judiciary’s role in protecting the environment is also a measure
of the extent to which the judiciary appreciates and guarantees human rights, in particular the right
to the environment and the right to development.
In view of Egypt's influential role in the world, it was announced that Egypt was chosen to host the
next session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP27) during the period from 7 to
18 November 202264 during the Glasgow Conference held in November 2021. The Egyptian State, with
all its institutions, worked to get the best out of the conference with the maximum benefit. Many
important conferences were held, and several Egyptian initiatives were launched to combat climate
change and spread awareness. The Egyptian Prime Minister launched Egypt’s National Climate Change
Strategy 205065, which was in line with Egypt's Vision 2030 launched by the Egyptian President. Its
third sub-goal contains facing the challenges of climate change. The President of the Republic of
Egypt also launched the Go Green initiative66. The Ministry of International Cooperation launched
NWFE Program67 to support and promote the national platform for green projects and started the
first national climate campaign under the slogan "Restore The Environment to Its Nature".68
In conclusion, it is not enough for countries to state in their constitutions their commitment to the
carbon neutrality goal. Courts should not stop at considering the carbon neutrality goal a
constitutional obligation on all states and corporations. All of this could be restrained to slogans and
some ink on paper unless peoples were more aware of the importance of combating climate change
and reaching carbon neutrality. It can be achieved through two aspects, nonetheless. First, individuals
should start by themselves and be more considerate of the climate; thus, their behavior must be
adjusted. If the 8 billion habitants of Earth change their behavior in their personal lives and their
requirements commensurate with sustainable development and feel responsible, this will make a big
difference in reaching the goal of carbon neutrality.

Second, individuals and civil society organizations have to monitor the activity of corporations and
the extent of their commitment to GHG emission controls; otherwise, they should resort to the
judiciary system to prove their violation and penalize them. Hence, their actions would be deterred.
All administrative decisions should also be monitored in terms of serving the carbon neutrality
goal, and the judiciary system ought to be counseled if this obligation is violated. Benefits resulting
from considering carbon neutrality goal a constitutional obligation can only be realized if people
and civil society organizations are aware of carbon neutrality and have a sense of responsibility to
reach it. All the lawsuits concerned with deterring elevated emissions were filed by individuals and
civil society organizations related to climate.
Recommendations
The climate change crisis is global, and the goal of achieving carbon neutrality is sought by all
countries of the world. It will only be accomplished with the participation of all countries and their
contributions to it, especially the major industrial countries with the largest share of GHG
emissions that was evident after the Paris Agreement. However, all countries must abide by it, be
held responsible for this crisis, and work hard to achieve carbon neutrality.
▪ National strategies should be developed to adjust human behaviors and direct their demands
toward the carbon neutrality goal.
▪ The role of civil society organizations concerned with climate issues and individuals should be
activated to monitor the activity of corporations and the extent of their commitment to
reducing the volume of emissions to achieve the carbon neutrality goal. They must also follow
up on the implementation of state strategies on the ground and take into account its decisions
on this goal. They ought to resort to the local judiciary system if corporations violate this
commitment.
▪ The researcher also recommends that all countries must develop a strategy to combat climate
change and execute it; otherwise, they would be penalized. Consequently, the Paris Agreement
will not be a dead letter.
▪ Corporations that cannot sufficiently reduce their emissions must develop means to absorb the
resulting carbon, whether naturally, such as trees, or industrially such as carbon dioxide sinks.
▪ Carbon cards must be allocated to each corporation determining the maximum consumption of
carbon. If the company is committed and saves some points of carbon, it can sell it to companies
that did not adhere to its maximum limit and consumed its card’s points before the end of its
activity.
154
As for the local situation, we recommend the following:
▪ The Egyptian Constitution stipulates the obligation to protect natural resources, preserve the
rights of future generations, and achieve sustainable development. It clearly demonstrates the
assumption of responsibility. However, it does not explicitly stipulate the State's commitment to
combating climate change and the international contribution to achieving carbon neutrality.
Some countries explicitly stipulated this obligation, as we have previously presented, which is
exactly what we recommend. Therefore, there will be no discretionary power for the judiciary to
recognize this obligation or not, similar to the US, as the research has illustrated that the
American courts did not recognize this obligation.
▪ The Egyptian Environment Law needs to be amended to keep pace with global developments in
the environment. It should stipulate the commitment to address climate change until reaching
carbon neutrality and explain the means to achieve it as stated in the French Energy Law.
▪ In regulating the issue of licenses for projects, the maximum limits that the project must not
exceed when issuing the operating license should be considered. The compliance of projects
with the volume of emissions should also be monitored; otherwise, they will be penalized by the
cancellation of the license and a fine.
▪ The issue of the fine should be regulated legislatively. It shall be imposed on projects if they do
not comply with their legal obligations, the most important of which is their commitment to the
volume of emissions allowed. Otherwise, they will be penalized, and their license will be canceled
with a fine due to violating the state's policy of preserving the climate and not adhering to its
climate strategy.
▪ Egypt is spreading awareness of the importance of preserving the environment and addressing
climate change but within a narrow framework. We need to spread awareness more widely so
that everyone knows the magnitude of the crisis that the entire world is going through. We must
expand the scope of dissemination of knowledge of the importance of preserving natural
resources and turning green in all our activities. We must call for addressing climate change and
add this to schools’ curricula. TV programs and conferences should focus on the issue. Hence,
everyone can assess companies’ activities, their violations, and adherence to the legally
prescribed controls regarding GHG emissions through the judiciary.
▪ Complaints should be admitted in an accessible manner, for example, electronically, on activity

that harms the environment or the climate to be dealt with quickly and firmly.

▪ The role of civil society organizations concerned with climate should be activated so that they
spread awareness of carbon neutrality. They should report any activity that negatively affects
access to carbon neutrality and violates the state's climate policy.
▪ A strategy should be developed for mitigating and adapting to climate change.
Endnotes
1IPCC: Fourth Assessment Report (AR4): Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, p. 30 .
2https://www.un.org/ar/climatechange/paris-agreement ((15/8/2022 ‫تاريخ االطالع‬
،‫ جامعة ابن خلدون تيارت‬،‫ كلية الحقوق والعلوم السياسية‬،‫ رسالة دكتوراه‬،‫ أثر تهديدات تغير المناخ على األمن البيئي‬،‫ عماري حورية‬3
.53‫ ص‬،2020
4Oberthur(S)&ott(H.E) The Kyoto Protocol:International Climate Policy For the 21st Century Springer Science & Business
Media.1999.P4
534 .2‫ ع‬9, ‫ مج‬،‫ مجلة الحقوق والحريات‬،‫ التحدي المحدق على األمن اإلنساني‬:‫ التغيرات المناخية‬،(2021) ،‫ مليكة‬،‫ وأخام‬،‫ ليلى‬،‫بوغاري‬5
512 -
- 347 ،1 ‫ ع‬,9 ‫ مج‬،(2022) ،‫ مجلة الدراسات الحقوقية‬،‫ التداعيات المستقبلية وآليات التكيف‬،‫ األسباب‬:‫ التغيرات المناخية‬،‫ نادية‬،‫ليتيم‬6
.390
.84 - 82 ‫ ص‬،4 ‫ ع‬،(2011) ،‫ التنمية المعرفية‬،‫ التغيرات المناخية والتحديات المستقبلية‬،‫ سالم بن مبارك‬،‫ الحتروشي‬7
:‫ إلى مخاطر تغيرات المناخ على الصحة‬2018 ‫في عام‬lancet ‫كما ذهب تقرير سابق إلى‬8
The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change, Ibid.
9https://www.un.org/ar/climatechange/paris-agreement , ((15/8/2022 ‫تاريخ االطالع‬
10https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/download/file/pdf/LEGITEXT000023983208.pdf/LEGI .
‫ كلية الحقوق جامعة‬،‫ رسالة ماجستير‬،2015 ‫ في ضوء اتفاقية باريس للمناخ‬،‫ قواعد القانون الدولي لحماية البيئة‬،‫ موج فهد علي‬11
.66 ‫ ص‬،‫الشرق األوسط‬
12https://www.un.org/ar/climatechange/net-zero-coalition ((15/8/2022 ‫تاريخ االطالع‬
13https://www.un.org/ar/climatechange/net-zero-coalition 2023 /15/5 ‫تاريخ الزيارة‬
14A 2021 report by the International Energy Agency, p 30.
https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/deebef5d-0c34-4539-9d0c-10b13d840027/NetZeroby2050-
ARoadmapfortheGlobalEnergySector_CORR.pdf .
Spence, Michael. Is It Time to Give Up on 1.50 C?, Project Syndicate, December 23, 2022, accessed January 8, 2023,
bit.ly/3VOQ2RT.
https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/1-5-target-realistic-climate-action-by-michael-spence-2022-12
.15/5/2023 ‫تاريخ الزيارة‬
15https://www.joradp.dz/TRV/AConsti.pdf .
16https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tunisia_2014?lang=ar .
17https://climate-laws.org/geographies/bolivia/laws/constitution-of-bolivia-spanish-constitucion-politica-del-estado .
18https://climate-laws.org/geographies/cote-d-ivoire/laws/constitution-of-cote-d-ivoire .
19https://climate-laws.org/geographies/cuba/laws/constitution-of-cuba .
20https://climate-laws.org/geographies/dominican-republic/laws/constitution-of-dominican-republic .
21https://climate-laws.org/geographies/ecuador/laws/constitution-of-ecuador .
22https://climate-laws.org/geographies/thailand/laws/constitution-of-thailand .
‫ حيث إنه يمكن تقرير حقوق غير منصوص عليها في الدستور باستخالصها من حقوق منصوص عليها في الدستور متى كانت من‬23
،‫ ق دستورية‬16 ‫ لسنة‬23 ‫ يراجع في ذلك حكم المحكمة الدستورية العليا المصرية في الدعوى رقم‬.‫توابعها أو مفتراضاتها أو لوازمها‬
‫ ج‬،1/12/2018 ‫ جلسة‬،‫ قضائية دستورية‬32 ‫ لسنة‬207 ‫أيضا حكمها في الدعوى رقم‬ ً ‫ ويراجع‬،567 ‫ ص‬،‫ دستورية‬،6 ‫ ج‬،18/3/1995 ‫جلسة‬
.314 ‫ ص‬،‫ دستورية‬،17/1
24https://www.un.org/ar/climatechange/net-zero-coalition
25Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2022 : Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Working
Group II contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022 , p. 5 .
bit.ly/ 3 jZNAuV
26Daniel Esty et Mathilde Hautereau, Derrière les procès climatiques français et américains : des systèmes politique,
juridique et judiciaire en opposition, Recueil Dalloz 2022 p.1606.

‫ أبريل‬،‫ السنة العشرون‬،‫ العدد الثالثون‬،‫ مجلة الدستورية‬،‫ التزام الدولة والمشروعات بمكافحة تغير المناخ‬،‫ محمد عبد اللطيف‬.‫د‬27
.40 ‫ ص‬،2022
28Federal Constitutional Court, décision du 24 mars 2021, Neubauer " v ". Allemagne, n° " 1 " " BvR " 2656/18, " 1 " " BvR " 96/20,
" 1 " " BvR " 78/20, " 1 " " BvR " 288/20., en ligne sur http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/neubauer-et-al-v-germany/.
29Ch.Cournil, Les prémisses de révolutions juridiques ? Récents contentieux climatique européens, RFDA, 2021, p.957 "
Neutralité carbone",enlignesur https://www-dalloz-fr.ezpaarse.univ-paris1.fr/api/toolsAction/fa174c57-e4ca-4995-a629-

5f5c237cb2fb.pdf
156
‫‪30‬الفقرة الثانية من المادة )‪ (2‬من القانون األساسي األلماني تنص على "لكل شخص الحق في الحياة والسالمة الجسمانية‪ ،‬حرية‬
‫الشخص مصونة ال يمكن انتهاك هذه الحقوق إال بموجب قانون"‪.‬‬
‫كما تنص المادة )‪ (14‬من ذات القانون على "الملكية ملزمة‪ ،‬يجب أن يساهم استخدامها في مصلحة المجتمع‪ ،‬وال يجوز مصادرتها إال‬
‫بموجب قانون يحدد طريقة التعويض العادلة ومداه‪."...‬‬
‫تنص المادة )‪ (20‬مكرر منه على "تتحمل الدولة مسؤوليتها عن األجيال القادمة‪ ،‬وتحمي األسس الطبيعية للحياة من خالل السلطة‬
‫وفقا للشروط المنصوص عليها في الدستور والقانون‪.‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫التشريعية‪ ،‬في إطار النظام الدستوري القائم والسلطات التنفيذية والقضائية‪،‬‬
‫تنص المادة )‪ (1‬منه على يلي " كرامة اإلنسان ال يجوز االعتداء عليها‪ ،‬جميع السلطات العامة ملزمة باحترامها وحمايتها‪."...‬‬
‫‪https://www.bundesregierung.de/resource/blob/998616/388674/8ebe168c59975c69406341a69612f94c/loi-fondamentale-‬‬
‫‪data.pdf‬‬
‫‪31les‬‬ ‫‪obligations futures de réduire les émissions concernent pratiquement et potentiellement toute forme de liberté, étant‬‬
‫‪donné qu'actuellement presque toutes les activités humaines génèrent encore des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et que‬‬
‫‪la menace est grande de se voir imposer des restrictions encore plus sévères après 2030. Par conséquent le législateur‬‬
‫‪aurait dû prendre les mesures de précaution destinées à préserver la liberté protégée par les droits fondamentaux et à‬‬
‫‪atténuer ces charges considérables.‬‬
‫‪32‬د‪ .‬محمد عبد اللطيف‪ ،‬التزام الدولة والمشروعات بمكافحة تغير المناخ‪ ،‬مجلة الدستورية‪ ،‬العدد الثالثون‪ ،‬السنة العشرون‪ ،‬أبريل‬
‫‪ ،2022‬ص ‪.43‬‬
‫أيضا مسؤوليتها تجاه األجيال القادمة‪،‬‬‫‪33‬المادة ‪ 20‬مكرر من الدستور األلماني نصت على [حماية أسس الحياة الطبيعية] تتولى الدولة ً‬
‫فهي تحمي األسس الطبيعية للحياة من خالل ممارسة السلطة التشريعية‪ ،‬في إطار النظام الدستوري‪ ،‬والسلطات التنفيذية‬
‫وفقا للشروط المنصوص عليها في القانون‪.‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫والقضائية‪،‬‬
‫‪https://www.bundesregierung.de/resource/blob/998616/388674/8ebe168c59975c69406341a69612f94c/loi-fondamentale-‬‬
‫‪data.pdf‬‬
‫كما نص الدستور المصري على حماية حقوق األجيال المقبلة في أكثر من موضع في المادة )‪ (32‬والمادة ‪ 47‬والمادة ‪ 78‬منه‪ .‬وهو ما يدل‬
‫على اهتمام الدولة المصرية بمراعاة حقوق األجيال المقبلة في الموارد الطبيعية وتوفير بيئة صحية لهم‪.‬‬
‫‪34Tribunal administratif de Paris, 3 février 2021, Association Oxfam France et autres, n°s 1904967, 1904968, 1904972,‬‬
‫‪1904976/4-1 (l’affaire du siècle), en ligne sur :‬‬

‫‪http://paris.tribunaadministratif.fr/content/download/179360/1759761/version/1/file/1904967190496819049721904976.pdf‬‬
‫]‪]consulté le 13/08/2022‬‬
‫‪35VZW Klimaatzaak v. Kingdom of Belgium, et al. (Court of First Instance, Brussels, 2015).‬‬
‫‪ 36‬المادة الثانية من االتفاقية األوروبية لحقوق اإلنسان "‪ -1‬حق كل إنسان في الحياة يحميه القانون‪ ،"...‬والمادة )‪ (8‬منها تنص على "‪-1‬‬
‫لكل إنسان حق احترام حياته الخاصة والعائلية ومسكنه ومراسالته‪https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/convention_ara.pdf ".‬‬
‫‪ -37‬د‪ .‬محمد عبد اللطيف‪ ،‬التزام الدولة والمشروعات بمكافحة تغير المناخ‪ ،‬مجلة الدستورية‪ ،‬العدد الثالثون‪ ،‬السنة العشرون‪ ،‬أبريل‬
‫‪ ،2022‬ص ‪.49‬‬
‫‪38En 1986, le gouvernement allemand adopte des Directives sur la précaution en matière d’environnement qu’il soumet au‬‬
‫‪Bundestag : « Par précaution, on désigne l’ensemble des mesures destinées soit à empêcher des menaces précises à‬‬
‫‪l’environnement, soit, dans un objectif de prévention, à réduire et limiter les risques pour l’environnement, soit, en‬‬
‫‪prévoyance de l’état futur de l’environnement, à protéger et à améliorer les conditions de vie naturelles, ces différents‬‬
‫» ‪objectifs étant liés.‬‬
‫‪F. EWALD, Ch. GOLLIER, N. DE SADELEER, « Le principe de précaution », Que sais-je ?, PUF, novembre 2001, p.10-11.‬‬
‫‪40‬المادة ‪ 1382‬من التقنين المدني تنص على " كل فعل صادر من إنسان سبب ضر رًا للغير يلزم من تسبب فيه بخطئه بتعويضه"‪،‬‬
‫أيضا بسبب إهماله وعدم‬ ‫والمادة ‪ 1383‬منه تنص على أن كل شخص مسؤول عن الضرر الذي تسبب فيه ليس فقط بفعله‪ ،‬ولكن ً‬
‫حرصه‪.‬‬
‫‪41Tribunal de La Haye, Milieudefensie et al. c/ RoyalDutch Shell ,26 mai 2021.‬‬
‫‪https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/inziendocument?id=ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:5339.‬‬
‫‪41‬المادة ‪ 162/6‬من القانون المدني في هولندا التي تنص على "كل من يرتكب عم ًلا غير مشروع يلتزم بتعويض الضرر الناشئ عنه"‪.‬‬
‫‪42‬د‪ .‬محمد عبد اللطيف‪ ،‬التزام الدولة والمشروعات بمكافحة تغير المناخ‪ ،‬مجلة الدستورية‪ ،‬العدد الثالثون‪ ،‬السنة العشرون‪ ،‬أبريل‬
‫‪ ،2022‬ص ‪.50‬‬
‫‪44LOI n° 2015-992 du 17 août 2015 relative à la transition énergétique pour la croissance verte (1), disponible sur :‬‬
‫‪https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000031044385 .‬‬
‫‪45‬تنص المادة )‪ (1‬من قانون رقم ‪ 399‬لسنة ‪ 2017‬بشأن واجب يقظة الشركات األم والشركات التي تصدر األوامر على أن "‪ ...‬تشمل‬
‫الخطة تدابير العناية الواجبة لتحديد المخاطر ومنع االنتهاكات الخطيرة لحقوق اإلنسان والحريات األساسية‪ ،‬والصحة والسالمة‬
‫البشرية والبيئة‪ ،‬الناتجة عن أنشطة المجتمع وتلك الشركات التي تسيطر عليها بالمعنى الثاني من المادة ‪ ،L. 233-16‬بشكل مباشر أو‬
‫غير مباشر‪ ،‬وأنشطة المتعاقدين من الباطن أو الموردين الذين لديهم عالقة تجارية ثابتة‪ ،‬عندما ترتبط هذه األنشطة هذه العالقة ‪.‬‬
‫‪https://www.eastlaws.com/data/tash/details/1928999/0/0‬‬
‫‪46Cass.com. 15 décembre 2021 ,F 11,957-21, Z 11,882-21.Q.Chatelier, Le devoir de vigilance dans la main de du tribunal judicaire‬‬
‫‪de Paris, Dalloz Actualité,17 janvier 2022.‬‬

‫ً‬
‫وفقا لمعايير الجودة‪،‬‬ ‫‪47‬تنص المادة ‪ 18‬من الدستور المصري على أنه "لكل مواطن الحق في الصحة وفي الرعاية الصحية المتكاملة‬
‫وتكفل الدولة الحفاظ على مرافق الخدمات الصحية العامة التي تقدم خدماتها للشعب ودعمها والعمل على رفع كفاءتها وانتشارها‬
‫الجغرافي العادل‪."...‬‬
‫‪48‬تنص المادة ‪ 46‬من الدستور المصري على أنه " لكل شخص الحق في بيئة صحية سليمة‪ ،‬وحمايتها واجب وطني‪ .‬وتلتزم الدولة باتخاذ‬
‫التدابير الالزمة للحفاظ عليها‪ .‬وعدم اإلضرار بها‪ ،‬واالستخدام الرشيد للموارد الطبيعية بما يكفل تحقيق التنمية المستدامة‪ ،‬وضمان‬
‫حقوق األجيال القادمة فيها"‪.‬‬
‫‪157‬‬ ‫‪Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023‬‬

‫‪49‬تنص المادة ‪ 27‬من الدستور المصري على أنه "يهدف النظام االقتصادي إلى تحقيق الرخاء في البالد من خالل التنمية المستدامة‬
‫والعدالة االجتماعية‪ ،‬بما يكفل رفع معدل النمو الحقيقي لالقتصاد القومي‪ ،‬ورفع مستوى المعيشة‪ ،‬وزيادة فرص العمل وتقليل‬
‫معدالت البطالة‪ ،‬والقضاء على الفقر"‪ .‬المادة ‪ 46‬من الدستور الوارد ذكرها بعاليه‪.‬‬
‫كما تنص المادة ‪ 78‬من الدستور المصري على أنه "تكفل الدولة للمواطنين الحق في المسكن المالئم واآلمن والصحي‪ ،‬بما يحفظ‬
‫الكرامة اإلنسانية ويحقق العدالة االجتماعية"‪.‬‬
‫‪50‬تنص المادة ‪ 32‬من الدستور المصري على أن "موارد الدولة الطبيعية ملك للشعب‪ ،‬تلتزم الدولة بالحفاظ عليها‪ ،‬وحُ سن استغاللها‪،‬‬
‫وعدم استنزافها‪ ،‬ومراعاة حقوق األجيال القادمة فيها‪.‬‬
‫كما تلتزم الدولة بالعمل على االستغالل األمثل لمصادر الطاقة المتجددة‪ ،‬وتحفيز االستثمار فيها‪ ،‬وتشجيع البحث العلمي المتعلق‬
‫وفقا للجدوى االقتصادية‪.‬‬‫ً‬ ‫بها‪ .‬وتعمل الدولة على تشجيع تصنيع المواد األولية‪ ،‬وزيادة قيمتها المضافة‬
‫وتلتزم الدولة بوضع خطة وطنية لإلسكان تراعي الخصوصية البيئية‪ ...‬بما يحقق الصالح العام وتحسين نوعية الحياة للمواطنين‬
‫ويحفظ حقوق األجيال القادمة‪.‬‬
‫كما تلتزم الدولة بوضع خطة قومية شاملة لمواجهة مشكلة العشوائيات تشمل إعادة التخطيط وتوفير البنية األساسية والمرافق‪،‬‬
‫وتحسين نوعية الحياة والصحة العامة‪ ،‬كما تكفل توفير الموارد الالزمة للتنفيذ خالل مدة زمنية محددة‪ ".‬كما نصت المادة ‪ 46‬من‬
‫الدستور على حقوق األجيال المقبلة‪.‬‬
‫‪51‬تنص المادة ‪ 79‬من الدستور المصري على أنه "لكل مواطن الحق في غذاء صحي وكاف‪ ،‬وماء نظيف‪ ،‬وتلتزم الدولة بتأمين الموارد‬
‫الحفاظ على التنوع البيولوجي الزراعي وأصناف النباتات‬ ‫ٍ‬ ‫الغذائية للمواطنين كافة‪ .‬كما تكفل السيادة الغذائية بشكل مستدام‪ ،‬وتضمن‬
‫المحلية للحفاظ على حقوق األجيال"‪.‬‬
‫‪52‬تنص المادة ‪ 34‬من قانون البيئة على أنه "يشترط أن يكون الموقع الذي يقام عليه المشروع مناسبًا لنشاط المنشأة بما يضمن عدم‬
‫تجاوز الحدود المسموح بها لملوثات الهواء‪ ،‬وأن تكون جملة التلوث الناتج عن مجموع المنشآت في منطقة واحدة في الحدود المصرح‬
‫بها"‪ ،‬والمادة ‪ 36‬من الالئحة التنفيذية للقانون‪.‬‬
‫تنص المادة ‪ 35‬على أنه "تلتزم المنشآت الخاضعة ألحكام هذا القانون في ممارستها ألنشطتها بعدم انبعاث أو تسرب ملوثات للهواء‬
‫بما يجاوز الحدود القصوى المسموح بها في القوانين والقرارات السارية وما تحدده الالئحة التنفيذية لهذا القانون"‪.‬‬
‫‪53‬تنص المادة ‪ 36‬على أنه " ال يجوز استخدام آالت أو محركات أو مركبات ينتج عنها عادم أو ينبعث منها دخان كثيف أو صوت مزعج يجاوز‬
‫الحدود التي تحددها الالئحة التنفيذية لهذا القانون"‪.‬‬
‫‪54‬تنص المادة ‪ 40‬على أنه " يجب عند حرق أي نوع من أنواع الوقود أو غيرها سواء كان في أغراض الصناعة أو توليد الطاقة أو اإلنشاءات‬
‫أو أي غرض تجاري آخر‪ ،‬أن يكون الدخان والغازات واألبخرة الضارة الناتجة في الحدود المسموح بها‪ ،‬وعلى المسؤول عن هذا النشاط‬
‫اتخاذ جميع االحتياطات لتقليل كمية الملوثات في نواتج االحتراق المشار إليها‪ ،‬وتبين الالئحة التنفيذية لهذا القانون تلك االحتياطات‬
‫والحدود المسموح بها ومواصفات المداخن وغيرها من وسائل التحكم في الدخان والغازات واألبخرة المنبعثة من عملية االحتراق"‪.‬‬
‫‪55‬تنص المادة ‪ 47‬على أنه " ال يجوز أن يزيد مستوى النشاط اإلشعاعي أو تركيزات المواد المشعة بالهواء على الحدود المسموح بها"‪.‬‬
‫‪56‬تنص المادة ‪ 47‬مكـرر على أنه "يحظر االتجار غير المشروع في المواد المستنفدة لطبقة األوزون أو استخدامها في الصناعة أو‬
‫استيرادها أو حيازتها بالمخالفة للقوانين والقرارات الوزارية المنظمة لذلك وكذا االتفاقيات الدولية التي تكون جمهورية مصر العربية‬
‫طرفا فيها"‪.‬‬
‫‪57‬القضية رقم ‪ 27846‬لسنة ‪ 2006‬جنح الدخيلة بشأن الحد من التلوث‪ ،‬كذلك القضية ‪ 2039‬جنح الميناء باإلسكندرية بشأن تلوث المياه‪.‬‬
‫‪58‬حكم محكمة القضاء اإلداري باإلسكندرية – الدائرة األولى ‪ -‬في الدعوى رقم ‪ 2929‬لسنة ‪ 16‬ق‪ ،‬بجلسة ‪ 6‬سبتمبر ‪.2016‬‬
‫‪ 59‬حكم المحكمة اإلدارية العليا في الطعن رقم ‪ 4242‬لسنة ‪ 63‬ق ع بجلسة ‪ 19‬سبتمبر ‪.2020‬‬
‫‪60‬صدقت مصر على اتفاق باريس عام ‪ ، 2017‬وقبل ذلك قامت بتوقيع اتفاقية األمم المتحدة للتغيرات المناخية‪ ،‬وأصدرت بعدها قانون‬
‫البيئة عام ‪ 1994‬وصدقت على بروتوكول كيوتو عام ‪.2005‬‬
‫نصت المادة األولى منه على أن المجلس هو الجهة المعنية بملف التغيرات المناخية وله في ذلك كافة الصالحيات الالزمة ألداء عمله‪،‬‬ ‫‪َّ 61‬‬
‫حيث يعمل على رسم السياسة العامة للدولة فيما يخص التعامل مع التغيرات المناخية ودمجها ضمن االستراتيجية الوطنية للتنمية‬
‫المستدامة‪ ،‬كما يعمل على رفع وعي المسؤولين فيما يتعلق بالتغيرات المناخية ودمج المفاهيم المرتبطة به داخل مراحل التعليم‬
‫المختلفة‪.‬‬
‫‪62‬حيث أطلق المعهد مبادرة كن سفيرًا للتنمية المستدامة وبرنامج سفراء المناخ ولقد تكللت جهود المعهد بإدراج مبادرة كن سفيرًا‬
‫للتنمية المستدامة عبر منصة "مبادرات تسريع تحقيق أهداف التنمية المستدامة" التابعة إلدارة الشؤون االقتصادية واالجتماعية‬
‫باألمم المتحدة )‪.(UNDESA‬‬
‫‪63https://auaj.org/category/%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d8%ae%d8%a8%d8%a7%d8%b1%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b9%d8%a7%d9‬‬
‫‪%85%d8%a9/‬‬
‫‪64‬بعد إعالن عقد مؤتمر المناخ ‪ COP 27‬بمصر تم تشكيل لجنة عليا برئاسة رئيس مجلس الوزراء‪ ،‬وبعضوية الوزراء والمسؤولين‬
‫المعنيين لتنظيم المؤتمر ومتابعة خطوات االستعداد لتنظيم هذه الفاعلية المهمة وخروج هذا المؤتمر بالصورة التي تعكس للعالم‬
‫جهود مصر في دعم قضايا تغير المناخ‪.‬‬
‫حيث تمكن االستراتيجية مصر من تخطيط وإدارة تغير المناخ على مستويات مختلفة بطريقة تدعم تحقيق األهداف االقتصادية‬
‫واإلنمائية التي تهدف مصر إلى تحقيقها‪ ،‬وذلك باتباع تهج مرن منخفض االنبعاثات الحرارية‪ ،‬كذلك القدرة على التكيف مع تغير المناخ‬
‫وتخفيف اآلثار السلبية المرتبطة بتغير المناخ‪https://tinyurl.com/49rst8sf .‬‬
‫‪ 66‬تأتي هذه المبادرة في إطار االستراتيجية القومية للتنمية المستدامة "مصر‪ "2030‬وتستهدف تغيير السلوكيات ونشر الوعي البيئي‬
‫ً‬
‫حفاظا على حقوق األجيال المقبلة‪،‬‬ ‫وحث المواطنين على المشاركة في الحفاظ على البيئة والموارد الطبيعية لضمان استدامتها‬
‫والحفاظ على النظم اإليكولوجية وتعظيم فرص التنمية االقتصادية واالجتماعية‪ ،‬وتتبنى التوعية بأهمية التشجير وإعادة تدوير‬
‫المخالفات وترشيد استهالك الغذاء والطاقة‪ ،‬والحد من استهالك البالستيك والحفاظ على الكائنات الحية والحد من تلوث الهواء‬
‫وحماية المحميات الطبيعية‪https://egy-map.com/initiative/%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A9- . .‬‬
‫‪%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%B6%D8%B1‬‬
‫‪67‬برنامج نوفي " "‪ NWFE‬برنامج وطني ومنهج إقليمي للربط ما بين القضايا الدولية للمناخ وقضايا التنمية‪ ،‬مع حشد التمويل اإلنمائي‬
‫الميسر لحزمة من المشروعات التنموية الخضراء ذات األولوية بقطاعات المياه والغذاء والطاقة‪.‬‬
‫‪https://www.facebook.com/100064812882317/posts/pfbid032QNwx5dwiqfojrdgcMKPePY6XAKhNyf66JTWqjJyAjA1tnwPVBF7X‬‬
‫‪stfTDjhKVMEl/‬‬
‫‪68https://www.facebook.com/100064812882317/posts/pfbid036skCHBcsV5zgi5cZniJKxqdQhCaaC5xaS9B8v12Gt43wGhg7CuA1q‬‬
‫‪H5UFPk7jUNWl/‬‬
‫‪158‬‬
Cutting-off Carbon
Emissions: Are Carbon
Markets the Silver
Bullet?
To reach net zero and accelerate achieving

climate goals, VCMs should scale their full
potential. Thereby, tackling their deficits help in
reaching carbon neutrality.
Ms. Dina Ibrahim She is a Master's researcher in Finance, Faculty of Commerce -

Researcher in Climate Change & Cairo University. The article mainly focuses on the impact of
Sustainability climate change, particularly carbon emissions, on company
performance and cost of capital.
Abstract
Cutting off carbon emissions is an essential step in reducing the impact of climate change and
ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come. The voluntary Carbon Market (VCM) is an
important tool for businesses to reduce their environmental footprint and a way for them to
demonstrate corporate social responsibility. By participating in voluntary carbon markets,
companies can purchase credits from projects that have reduced or avoided emissions altogether.
This helps offset the company's emissions and enables them to become more sustainable while still
meeting customer demands and staying competitive in their industry.
Additionally, investing in these types of projects also supports local communities by providing funds
that can be used in clean energy initiatives or other green solutions. Ultimately, VCMs offer a win-
win situation for both environment and businesses, allowing organizations to contribute positively
to climate action without sacrificing profitability or productivity goals.
Despite VCM being a vital tool in halving carbon emissions, it is still fluid without a rigid framework
for implementation.

This study aims to tackle the issue of carbon credit quality to help in fostering the role of the
voluntary carbon market in carbon reduction.
The researcher recommends embedding Core Carbon Principles (CCPs) and an assessment
framework initiated by the Integrity Council of Voluntary Carbon Markets (ICVCM) to ensure the
high integrity of carbon credits.
Keywords: Carbon Market, Emission Trading, ACMI, VCM, CCP, ICVCM
160
Introduction
Climate change repercussions reach out to all countries in the world. Human-induced climate
change is inherently increasing, starting from fossil fuel combustion to using transportation and
air travel. Governments, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and policymakers should take
serious actions to combat climate change, particularly Carbon Emissions. The United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1997 mentioned market mechanisms to
combat carbon emissions. Consequently, The Paris Agreement was ratified in 2015 to obligate all
developed and developing countries with climate goals.
Carbon markets stand a greater chance of helping to achieve the transition to a low-carbon
economy. They can boost climate finance in all countries, particularly developing countries. The
voluntary carbon market is considered an incredible force for good that can help us accelerate the
transition to a net-zero economy.
VCMs are important in climate change mitigation. Therefore, we should work on their concerns to
ensure they operate with full potential to get the greatest benefit in reaching a net-zero economy.
Carbon credits are consequently at the heart of the voluntary system. Thus, carbon credit quality is
essential to reduce carbon emissions and accelerate reaching a net-zero economy significantly.
Furthermore, the study presents an acute problem in VCMs, how can we ensure that carbon credits
with high quality?
This study aims to define the carbon market, its types, and history and provide a successful policy
to ensure the high integrity of carbon credits in the future VCM in Egypt. In this study, the
researcher recommends embedding the CCPs from ICVCM to ensure high-quality carbon credits or
halve carbon emissions.
The remainder of the study is organized into six sections. The first is about the definition of carbon
markets. The second is an early history of trading notion, followed by the road from the Kyoto
Protocol to the Paris Agreement. The third presents the status quo in Egypt. The fourth indicates
positive insights in VCMs. The fifth presents vulnerabilities in VCMs. The sixth is related to policy
recommendations for tackling carbon credit quality.

What is the Carbon Market?
James Hansen
In 1988, NASA scientist "James Hansen" said, "Global warming has begun". 1
Simultaneously, Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere was convened in 1988 and
required to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 20% by 2005, against 1988 levels.
Carbon markets are key policy tools to reduce carbon dioxide and mitigate climate change. While
other Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) may be included, the term "carbon market" is usually used because
carbon dioxide (CO2) is the fundamental gas in terms of its overall contribution to global warming,
and the units of trade are always denominated in terms of "carbon dioxide equivalent" as well.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most dominant gas in GHGs and direly contributes to trapping
atmospheric heat. Furthermore, human-induced activities like fossil fuel combustion are critical in
increasing carbon dioxide emissions.
In 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was launched by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) to
conduct a comprehensive scientific assessment of the causes and consequences of global
warming. Excessive GHG emissions were abundant and should be tackled to abandon being an
economic threat.
162
Thematically, carbon markets have two types from an operation mechanism perspective: the first
is an emissions trading scheme called a cap-and-trade mechanism, which means that when a
company emits 1tCO2e, it must give one permit back to the government. The second is the
offsetting mechanism, the baseline-and-credit mechanism, where companies trade emission
reduction units elsewhere to offset their carbon emissions.
These two types of markets do not work similarly or have the same objective. The main difference
lies in what is being bought and sold on the market. In both cases, it’s a tonne of CO2e. However, in
the first mechanism, companies trade pollution permits (often called allowances), which allow
them to emit one tonne of CO2e. When a company releases 1tCO2e, it returns one permit to the
government. In the second mechanism, countries or companies trade offsets as emission
reduction units, which must represent a tonne of CO2e that has been reduced already.
In addition, carbon markets can be categorized into two types from a legislative perspective. The
first one is the compliance carbon markets, meaning that the participants must meet stringent
targets set by governments. They are regulated by international or regional reduction schemes. 2
The second is the Voluntary Carbon Markets, which allow companies or individuals to offset their
emissions voluntarily in terms of carbon credits.3 VCM is fluid with blur regulations. However,
companies usually participate on a voluntary basis in response to their corporate social
responsibility but not an obligation from the government.
Carbon markets are considered a crucial tool for reaching global climate goals. It facilitates the
low-carbon transition to achieve the purpose of net zero emissions most effectively.

Carbon markets boost climate finance by enabling carbon credits trading
in clean projects that help to halve carbon emissions, such as switching
from fossil fuels to renewable energy or enhancing carbon stocks in
ecosystems such as a forest.
So, it is projected that carbon credits trading could reduce the cost of implementing countries’
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) by USD 250 billion by 2030.
Early History of Emissions Trading Notion
Before the 1960s, the British economist "Arthur C Pigou" was the first researcher who indicated in
his research a method of controlling pollution to policymakers: levy a tax on polluters for each unit
of emissions. Since then, environmental externalities have been viewed as 'nuisance' problems.
Then, in 1960 "Ronald Coase" published his research entitled: “The Problem of Social Cost", a sharp
criticism of the Pigouvian tradition that gave birth to environmental taxes. This led J.H. Dales (1968)
to suggest assigning pollution rights to polluters and letting affected parties negotiate the
production and reduction of pollution could produce more efficient results than a simple "polluter-
pays" principle. This notion created the conceptual basis for GHG emissions trading. 4
Coase influenced the US National Air Pollution Control Administration to study emissions trading. 5,6
To halve toxic emissions and control pollution, the US enacted "The Clean Air Act" in 1970. The Act
requested the states to comply with National Ambient Air Quality Standards and charged the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with enforcing g these standards. In addition, the EPA
requested that companies would have to 'offset' the extra emissions with an even greater
emissions reduction elsewhere.7
In Europe, in 1975, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation was signed, stating
to “develop, through international cooperation, an extensive program for monitoring and
evaluating the long-range transport of air pollutants, starting with sulfur dioxide".
In 1985, the Helsinki Protocol was adopted and mandated 30% reductions of sulfur emissions by
1993, against 1980 levels.
Consequently, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was signed in
1987. It laid clear groundwork for targets and timetables for emissions levels in different countries.
164
The EPA laid the groundwork to launch an
emissions trading program on the
international level. Therefore, by considering
the problem of climate change along with
the emissions trading theory, we should use
the global market mechanism to offset
carbon emissions.8
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development (UNCED), held
in Rio de Janeiro, launched the Framework
Convention on Climate Change.9 The
Convention launched an international
framework to cut off anthropogenic GHG
emissions. Moreover, it mentioned that the
policies for tackling climate change should be
cost-effective to reach benefits at the lowest
cost.10 In the same year, the UNCTAD and
OECD presented analyses indicating the
possibility of launching an international
system of tradeable carbon emissions
permits.
In addition, in 1995, the IPCC mentioned in its second assessment report that a tradeable quota
system is the only potentially cost-effective mechanism for a global treaty where an agreed level of
emissions is met with certainty.11
In the same year, the UNFCCC held its first Conference of the Parties (COP) in Berlin. The conference
led to the launch of a voluntary pilot market, Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ), to operate the
international carbon market.
What are the Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)?
AIJ are greenhouse gas reduction projects carried out through partnerships between an investor
from a developed country and a host from a developing country or a country with an economy in
transition (EIT)*. The purpose of these projects is to share global warming abatement technologies
from developed to developing countries.
*Countrieswith economies in transition (EIT) are central and eastern European countries and states of the former Soviet
Union that are in a transition from centrally planned economy to a market economy.

Carbon Markets Overview from Kyoto Protocol to Paris Agreement
In 1997, The Kyoto Protocol effectively ended the AIJ pilot phase.
Kyoto Protocol is the first international agreement to set legally binding commitments to
sequester GHG emissions. The Protocol committed developed countries to cut off their GHG
emissions with agreed targets. The Protocol mandated that 37 industrialized nations and the
European countries cut off their GHG emissions by an average of 5% compared to 1990 levels.12
Hence, carbon markets emphasize trading and tracing carbon emission units as a commodity to
halve carbon emissions, given that carbon dioxide (CO2) is the dominant greenhouse gas.
The Kyoto Protocol defined three market-based mechanisms to meet the emissions reduction
goals: Emissions Trading (ET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and the Joint
Implementation (JI).
166
Emissions Trading (ET), as indicated in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, permits countries that have
extra emission units to sell them to countries that have exceeded their targets. Emissions trading
schemes may be implemented at the national and regional levels, such as the European Union
Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). 13
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), mentioned in Article 12 of the Protocol, permits a
country with an emission-reduction plan under the Kyoto Protocol to carry out an emission-
reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission
reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted to meet Kyoto
targets.14 It is the first credit scheme that provides emissions offset instrument. This mechanism
incentivizes high-emitted countries to meet their emission targets.
Joint Implementation (JI), defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an
emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn
emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission reduction or removal project in another (Annex
B Party), each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, that can be counted on to achieve targets of Kyoto
Protocol.15
The Kyoto Protocol is criticized for only obligating

developed countries; however, they are responsible for high
levels of GHG emissions. High-emitted countries did not
participate in the Protocol, like China and India. Thereby
such a situation hindered the success of the Protocol.
Therefore, the Paris Agreement superseded the Kyoto Protocol to bind all countries cut-off their
GHG emissions. It was adopted at COP 21 in Paris and came into force in 2016. The goal of the
agreement is to reach 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels. 16
The Paris Agreement is a 'turning point' in the climate change mitigation path since it is the first
agreement that binds all countries to combat climate change. Market mechanisms under the Paris
Agreement benefited from operated carbon markets under the Kyoto Protocol.
Article 6 of the Paris Agreement incentivizes countries to voluntarily cooperate to curb GHG
emissions and achieve each country's target set in the Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDCs). Thereby, countries can transfer their carbon credits – earned from GHG emissions
reduction- to other countries.

The Arrays of Article 6 under the Paris Agreement:
Article 6.2 creates the basis for trading in GHG emission reductions (or “mitigation outcomes”)
under the Cooperative Approaches (CA) across countries. In other words, countries can sell any
extra emission reductions against their targets in their NDCs. These credits are called
“internationally transferred mitigation outcomes” (ITMOs).
Article 6.4 indicates another emission credit market mechanism called the "Sustainable
Development Mechanism" (SDM). It intended to foster sustainable development in host countries
by trading GHG emission reductions. This mechanism is like CDM in the Kyoto Protocol.
On the other hand, Article 6.8 introduces a non-market mechanism to achieve mitigation and
adaptation. It can be achieved through technology transfer and capacity building to enhance the
cooperation of private and public sectors.
Status Quo in Egypt
In Africa, policymakers realized that

voluntary carbon markets play an integral
role in achieving sustainable economic
development by attracting climate finance
to Africa and cutting off carbon emissions.
In COP27, The African Carbon Markets Initiative (ACMI) was launched in collaboration with The
Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet (GEAPP), Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL), and the
UN Economic Commission for Africa, with the support of the UN Climate Change High-Level
Champions.17 ACMI sets a stringent, long-term target for Africa. Thereby, it aims to reach
300 million credits annually by 2030 and more than 1.5 billion annually by 2050. 18 Carbon markets
will help governments and companies to offset their carbon emissions through funding projects
that reduce emissions. Carbon credits can boost international cooperation on climate change,
since the carbon markets will increase the funding in the African countries. Therefore, they
manage to reach their own NDCs.
The Egyptian political leadership believes that Egypt is an integral part of the Arab area and the
African continent. Hence it should play a pivotal role in combating climate change consequences
and unifying the African front.
168
The African continent's emissions do not
exceed 4 to 5% of global emissions. However,
it is the most affected continent by climate
change repercussions, suffering from water
scarcity, desertification, and rising earth
temperature, negatively affecting many
sectors.19
In light of Egypt's keenness to fight climate

change across Africa, President El-Sisi
launched the Africa Adaptation Initiative at
the 21st Summit in 2015. The initiative
covered the sectors of water resources,
tourism, industry, irrigation, and agriculture.
It provided the resources in such sectors to
protect African countries from climate
change consequences. 20
Egypt was responsible only for 0.73% of global

GHG emissions in 2019. 21 However, Egypt is A recent Prime Minister Decree No. 4664 of 2022
fully aware of the climate change catastrophe was published on 25 December 2022, introducing
and has ambitious plans to reduce carbon new provisions to the executive regulations of
emissions. the Capital Markets Law No. 95 of 1992.
Alongside hosting COP27, held in November The Decree mentioned that a voluntary carbon
2022, the Egyptian government launched the market platform is launched within the Egyptian
first regulated African voluntary carbon Stock Exchange (EGX) to trade carbon emissions
market. The Egyptian Exchange (EGX) and reduction certificates (CERs). The CERs are
Financial Regulatory Authority (FRA) work on tradeable financial instruments for GHGs. They
this VCM's framework and structure. A are to be issued and traded for entities
subsidiary of the EGX signed an agreement implementing projects that reduce GHG
with the Agricultural Bank of Egypt and Enara emissions after obtaining the approval of the
Group’s Libra Capital to establish the Egyptian relevant authorities, which still needs to be
company Libra Carbon, which will be specified. Each CER unit represents the
responsible for issuing carbon offsets to the equivalent of one metric ton of reduced carbon
market.22 dioxide. 23

Positive Insights of Voluntary Vulnerabilities in VCMs.
Carbon Markets (VCMs)
Despite VCMs being considered an integral
solution to reach net zero by 2050, they are still
VCMs help corporations meet their climate
fluid, with no stringent framework to be followed.
goals in support of the low-carbon
Thereby, some vulnerabilities in VCMs might
transition. Compared to compliance
prevent them from scaling to their full potential. 25
markets, the value of VCMs is relatively
small. The Taskforce on Voluntary Carbon
Carbon credit quality: There is no definition of
Markets sees the potential for a voluntary
high-quality carbon credit, contributing to the lack
liquid market to be between USD 5 –
of integrity in VCMs.
50 billion by 2030. 24 In addition, VCMs
support financial flows to the Global South,
Double counting and the absence of centralized
as abatement activities in low- and middle-
registries: Voluntary carbon credits are subject to
income countries can provide a cost-
be recorded on different registries, depending on
effective source of carbon credits traded in
the credit certification standard body which has
the market.
issued the credit, leading to double counting and
no contribution to carbon reduction.
Transparency and accuracy of emissions reduction

calculations: There are different methodologies to
calculate carbon reduction. However, only some of
them are appropriate. This might increase the risk
of greenwashing.
Verification and oversight: VCMs are still fluid, and

they are not federally mandated or regulated.
Many voluntary markets follow different schemes
for measuring, reporting, verifying carbon
sequestration, and setting prices for generated
carbon credits.
Transparency and conflict of interest: There may

be conflicts of interest between traders and
investors, which could lead to traders manipulating
carbon credit prices.
170
Policy Recommendations
To reach net zero and accelerate achieving climate goals,

VCMs should scale their full potential. Thereby, tackling
their deficits help in reaching carbon neutrality.
Furthermore, carbon credit quality is being considered

by the Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market
(ICVCM), which released its Core Carbon Principles
(CCPs) and Assessment Framework. It is a threshold to
increase carbon credits' integrity, to be eligible for
credit issuance, and align credits with environmental
integrity.
The voluntary carbon market is currently valued at

around USD 2 billion and traded almost half a billion
tonnes of carbon credits in 2021. By setting a global
benchmark for high-quality carbon credits, the CCPs will
help to level up the market growth. 26
The CCPs and Assessment Framework issued some

requirements and principles which can be implemented
in carbon credit programs and different types of carbon
credits.
According to the CCPs, carbon credits can only be

determined as CCP-approved if they are issued through
the framework of the CCPs and Assessment Framework
methodologies. The ICVCM will use stringent evaluation
in the Assessment Framework application to define
which carbon-crediting programs are suitable for CCP
approval and ensure high integrity and efficient carbon
emissions reduction. 27

The Core Carbon
Principles (CCPs)
The ICVCM set out ten principles

within three categories to be
embedded to increase the integrity of
carbon credits:
A. Governance
1- Effective governance: Effective

governance provided by the carbon-
crediting programme will increase the
quality and integrity of carbon credits
and ensure transparency and
continuous improvement.
2- Tracking: The carbon-crediting

programme runs a register to identify,
document, and track mitigation
activities to ensure that carbon credits
can be determined unambiguously.
3- Transparency: The carbon-crediting

programme tends to provide
comprehensive data on all credited
mitigation activities that will be
publicly accessible for all audiences to
validate the scrutiny of mitigation
activities.
4- Robust independent third-party

validation and verification: The carbon-
crediting programme should have
requirements for strong third-party
verification of mitigation activities.
172
B. Emissions Impact
5- Additionality: Since the greenhouse gases (GHG) wouldn't have been reduced
without the incentive offered by carbon credit revenues, the greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission reductions from the mitigation activity should be additional. Additionality
is essential to carbon credits' quality and environmental integrity because it ensures
that credits are not given to activities that would have happened anyway. In
addition, a carbon credit must come from an activity that reduces or removes
emissions that wouldn’t have occurred without incentives from the carbon price.
6- Permanence: The removal of GHG emissions from the mitigation activity should
be permanent and ensure compensating risk of reversal due to human-induced
activities and natural causes carbon reservoirs may reverse. Therefore, reversible
mitigation is still important in global warming reduction efforts.
7- Rigid quantification of emission reductions and removals: The GHG emission

removals through the mitigation activity should be strongly quantified, based on
scientific methods.
8- No double counting: Avoid double counting the GHG emission reductions from the
mitigation activity.
C. Sustainable Development
9- Sustainable development benefits and safeguards: The carbon-crediting

programme should have clear guidelines and procedures to ensure that mitigation
activities align with widely established industry best practices and social and
environmental safeguards while delivering significant sustainable
development impacts.
10- Contribution toward net zero transition: The mitigation

activity should focus on achieving net zero GHG emissions by
2030.

Endnotes
1Fleming, J. R. (1998). Historical Perspectives on Climate Change. Oxford University Press.

2“Mandatory& Voluntary Carbon Credits Markets,” FairClimateFund, accessed February 13, 2023,
https://www.fairclimatefund.nl/en/compensation/mandatory-and-voluntary-carbon-markets.
3“Mandatory& Voluntary Carbon Credits Markets,” FairClimateFund, accessed February 13, 2023,
https://www.fairclimatefund.nl/en/compensation/mandatory-and-voluntary-carbon-markets.
4Coase R. The problem of social cost. J Law Econ 1960, 3:1–44.
5Burton E, Sanjour W. A Cost-Effectiveness Study of Particulate and SOx Emission Control in the New York Metropolitan
Area, Technical Report PB-227 121/1. Washington, DC: Ernst and Ernst; 1968.
6BurtonE, Sanjour W. A Cost-Effectiveness Study of Air Pollution Abatement in the Greater Kansas City Area, Technical
Report PB-227 116/1. Washington, DC: Ernst and Ernst; 1969.
7Gorman H, Solomon B. The origins and practice of emissions trading. J Policy Hist 2002, 14:293–320.
8Swisher,J. N. and Masters, G. M. (1989). International carbon emission offsets: A tradeable currency for climate
protection services. Pages 154–159.
9United Nations (1992). United nations framework convention on climate change.
10United Nations (1992). United nations framework convention on climate change.
11IPCC.
Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change: Contribution of Working Group III to the
Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva: Cambridge University Press,
1996.
12“Markingthe Kyoto Protocol's 25th Anniversary,” United Nations (United Nations), accessed February 7, 2023,
https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/marking-kyoto-protocol%E2%80%99s-25th-anniversary.
13Unfccc.int, accessed February 8, 2023, https://unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/mechanisms/emissions-trading.
14Unfccc.int,
accessed February 8, 2023, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-kyoto-protocol/mechanisms-under-
the-kyoto-protocol/the-clean-development-mechanism.
15Unfccc.int,
accessed February 8, 2023, https://unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/mechanisms/joint-
implementation.
16Unfccc.int, accessed February 8, 2023, https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-
agreement.
17“Africa
Carbon Markets Initiative Announces 13 Action Programs,” World Energy, accessed February 18, 2023,
https://www.world-energy.org/article/28853.html.
18“Africa
Carbon Markets Initiative Announces 13 Action Programs,” World Energy, accessed February 18, 2023,
https://www.world-energy.org/article/28853.html.
19“Egypt
and Climate Change,” SIS, accessed February 19, 2023, https://sis.gov.eg/Story/160255/Egypt-and-Climate-
Change?lang=en-us.
20“Egypt
and Climate Change,” SIS, accessed February 19, 2023, https://sis.gov.eg/Story/160255/Egypt-and-Climate-
Change?lang=en-us.
21Hannah Ritchie, Max Roser, and Pablo Rosado, “CO2 Emissions,” Our World in Data, May 11, 2020,
https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions.
22“EGX
Announces Africa Carbon Market,” Enterprise, November 10, 2022, https://enterprise.press/stories/2022/11/10/egx-
announces-africa-carbon-market-86775/.
23https://insightplus.bakermckenzie.com/bm/capital-markets/egypt-a-voluntary-carbon-market/
24TSVCM (2021). “Final Report of the Task Force on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets”, online at
https://www.iif.com/Portals/1/Files/TSVCM_Report.pdf
25"Voluntary Carbon Markets, Discussion paper", https://www.iosco.org/library/pubdocs/pdf/IOSCOPD718.pdf
26https://carboncredits.com/the-core-carbon-principles/
27https://carboncredits.com/the-core-carbon-principles/
174
Source: World Meteorological Organization, "Urgent climate action can secure a liveable future for all.",
March 20, 2023.

Urban Climate Change
Continuing to ignore the city's climate will have

a dramatic impact on global climate change in
the near future.
Dr. Eman Abdel Azim She holds a PhD. in Urban Climate Modeling, a Masters Degree in
Urban Climate Consultant Urban Climate, and over 15 years of experience in the urban
climate change, microclimate, micro and indoor climate, and
climate justice sectors. She also has experience in climate
modeling and remote sensing.
“Man spends two-thirds of his life inside closed premises,” a statistic cited in various studies.
Despite its importance, it raises several concerns and queries, especially in our world, where
climate change rapidly aggravates global warming. While the world is preoccupied with finding
ways to reduce climate change and global warming, urban climate acts as one of the important
paths to which we should pay greater attention in our course to fight against and adapt to climate
change, especially since we spend two-thirds of our lives in premises, whether for living, working,
hiking, or shopping.
While some view urban climate issues as delayed incidents, the reality of our lives and the world
today indicates that it is an accumulated incident that should be viewed objectively and
scientifically. By doing this, we will avoid more future problems and crises with their accompanying
economic costs, whether for the state or the individual.
When we look at man's life in the past, it is noted that he used to rely on natural methods and
energies for ventilation and lighting of his house, manifested in numerous conventional buildings
and Islamic architecture in various ancient civilizations. As for modern buildings, AC has become
the prevailing method used by man to control indoor climate.

The Egyptian capital, Cairo, is a clear example of the building and
urban climate crisis. It faces several issues in almost all urban
growth areas, such as overpopulation, insufficient housing,
insufficient environmentally-sustainable quality public
transportation, complete lack of an appropriate city center, and
poor distribution of buildings for public service facilities.
Above all, Cairo suffers from expatriation and loss of planning and
architectural identity, as it used inappropriate Western models. As a
result, it witnessed a disruption in urban growth emanating from
the pristine environment, which led to an increase in energy
consumption, emissions, and suspended particulate matter in the
atmosphere, along with an increase in the population within Greater
Cairo. In turn, human activities obviously increased, consisting the
main driver of climate change in urban areas.
178
To face that, the Government has exerted strenuous efforts to integrate climate considerations
into its development initiatives. For instance, it launched the National Social Housing Program,
also known as Housing for All. It is considered the first national initiative in Egypt to encourage
green building and the first green social housing initiative in the Middle East.
The program adopts the Green Pyramid Rating System (GPRS). It involves seven categories at
least to evaluate the construction of any building. They are sustainable sites, design quality,
materials and resources, water efficiency, energy efficiency, health and safety, as well as
management and innovation.
In addition, Egypt opted to construct 4G cities, which are targeted to be green and smart by applying
sustainability standards and recycling systems. The Green Housing Project was, thus, established
according to GPRS. These experimental units will be constructed to test the implementation of eco-
friendly features such as rooftop solar panels, green building materials such as white mortar instead
of cement, and a greywater system. 25,000 units are targeted to be established by the end of 2023
across five new cities: New Aswan, New Minya, October Gardens, New Sohag, and Capital Gardens City.
The buildings are designed based on a sustainable structure that would require minimum
maintenance. They are built from natural materials, depend on natural ventilation and light, and
blend in with the surrounding environment with the least impact. They are designed to limit air
pollution and preserve the environment.
The Egyptian Government has also developed a plan to introduce 38 new smart cities across the
country for the next few years as part of its long-term infrastructure development strategy. These
smart cities will be built on a total area of 530,000 feddans. When completed, they are expected to
attract 30 million people. Total investment in Egypt's smart cities is expected to reach EGP
700 billion.

Research shows that green buildings can reduce energy consumption by 24%
to 50% and CO2 emissions by at least 3% (from 33% to 30%). In other words,
Egyptian GPRS-approved projects will contribute to energy savings of about
30%.
It is vital to pay attention to the climate of cities in general and the indoor
climate of the building, in particular, to learn about various climate
conditions, especially temperature and relative humidity in summer. Many
people are now realizing the importance of these elements, which has been
evident in the increasing demand for ACs. Later, Egypt has been interested in
green city projects. During designing buildings, climate change, indoor
design temperature in winter and summer, and the ventilation and relative
humidity expected inside and outside the building must be considered.
Additionally, wind speed and direction, the intensity of solar radiation, the
movement of the sun, and the sun angle should also be studied.
Subsequently, residents will not feel a difference in temperature between
inside and outside the building, which reduces one's physical effort,
especially patients and children.
Here are some globally circulated concepts for urban climate:
Urban Climate: It represents, through the built area, an impact on the local
and indoor climate of the city through four main elements:
▪ Atmosphere: Several studies confirmed that pollutants, suspended

particulate matter, and greenhouse gases increased by 10% to 20% in
urban areas, compared to rural areas.
▪ Temperature: It increases significantly from 6 to 8°C in the city more than

in rural areas due to the number, density, and activities of the population
despite the city's size according to the meteorological data analysis.
▪ Air movement: Some buildings change the wind flow, and the streets
become tunnels for wind in front of tall buildings.
▪ Humidity: This impact stems from the scarcity of vegetation in urban

areas.
180
Local Climate: It involves local climate change in a specified area or location, and its impact extends
to roughly 1-10 km, Climate is influenced by environmental determinants such as topographical and
natural features affected by human activities.
Microclimate: It tackles the climate features of an area spanning 100 m to 1 km, impacted by the
constructed environment and architectural design.
Indoor Climate: It includes the climate features within the buildings' indoor space, impacted by the
external environment and the architectural space's features and specifications.
Impact of Building Materials on Urban Climate
Building materials are key elements in the construction process. In the long term, they mainly
affect the temperature and humidity of buildings, especially residential buildings. They must be
well determined from the start of the construction, considering the ambient climatic conditions.
Table 1 and Table 2 below illustrate the extent to which building materials affect the climate,
especially temperature, and how the selected surface materials and color affect roofs.
Table 1
Material Buildings and Solar Radiation Reflectance Degree
Surface material Reflection %
Light-colored
25 -20
concrete
Limestone 45 - 30
Bricks (depending
48 -23
on color)
Source: Adapted from Anatoly Rimsha, (Translated)

Dawoud Soliman El-Mez (1997).
The Table highlights that limestone and brick surfaces are the most reflective of sunlight, which
reduces the ratio of absorption of heat and sunlight by buildings. Thus, these types must be relied
on when building, rather than the usual concrete surfaces that do not reflect sunlight by a large
percentage, increasing the temperature of buildings.

Table 2
Solar Reflectance Index* and Temperature in Regard to Some Roof Materials
Roof materials Solar reflectance Temperature rise
Tiles
White metal 0.67 16
Red mudstone 0.33 34
Cement 0.25 39
Light brown 0.42 29
Metal
Steel 0.61 31
Aluminum 0.61 27
Paint
White 0.7- 0.85 5-13
Yellow shade 0.79 9
Dark blue 0.12 46
* Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) is a measure of the material's ability to reflect solar heat with a small increase
in the material's temperature. It is defined so that a standard black (reflectance 0.05, emittance 0.90) is 0,
and a standard white (reflectance 0.80, emittance 0.90) is 100. Materials with a higher SRI value are the
coolest.
Source: Adapted from Shaimaa Muhammad Kamel &Et. All.
182
Urban Climate Map
The map's uniqueness stems from the built mass and its
climatic ecological features, the main driver of urban climate
change. This is in addition to population size, urban sprawl,
buildings' distribution density, land use, the reflected and
radiating heat of the city's asphalt surface and buildings, and
the emitted heat and gases from means of transport, power
plants, and all factories. Climatic conditions within the city are
shifting, clearly reflecting the changing land use depending on
urbanization, population growth, and consequent human
activities. Given the city's heat build-up, human beings and
their activities are affected, and spending on energy
consumption increases to modify the air inside buildings.
A key urban climate element is the colors of facades and

external surfaces that affect the absorption of sunlight by
roofs and walls. Studies have shown that the impact of color
on roofs is highly critical. The building's western and eastern
facades are more affected than the northern ones, while the
southern facade is a special case. It receives solar radiation in
winter more than in summer, an advantage to benefit from
the sun's heat in winter. The exterior of the building is man's
second membrane after his skin. The building protects the
inhabitants of internal spaces from harsh climatic factors,
pushing the internal spaces to comfortable indoor
temperatures. The solar radiation-prone building's exterior
absorbs the radiation by day and emits it at night, affecting
both the internal and external spaces' temperature. The color
of the building's roofs also affects its heat properties and the
indoor climate as the sun's concentration on it is heightened.
The color of the most positive effect is white: it receives the
least radiation. The difference in the surface temperature of
the light and dark roof colors reaches about 40°C, as stated in,
and the least facade impacted by color is the northern facade.

A US study found that painting roofs in white may contribute to
cooling cities and limiting global warming. Researchers from
Colorado's National Center for Atmospheric Research have
reported that the results of a pilot study suggest that white
surfaces may be an important way to help society cope with
climate change. The study relied for the first time on a model
that mimicked the effects of white surfaces on cities. Keith
Olsen, who led the research, said, "Our study shows that white
surfaces, at least theoretically, may be an effective way to
reduce heat in cities". The possibility that cities are likely to
apply this theory and paint their surfaces white is being studied.
Cities are known to be particularly vulnerable to climate change
due to the heat build-up in the built environment, also known as
the urban heat island effect, in which the city's temperature is
3:5°C. The reason behind this is the absorption of heat by
buildings and streets and the city's inability to get rid of this
heat during the night, resulting in heat build-up.
The research team used a newly developed model to simulate

the amount of solar radiation absorbed or reflected by city
roofs. The study has concluded that white surfaces reduced the
urban heat island's impact by almost a third, which may lower
temperatures in the world's cities by approximately 0.4°C. The
temperature drop will appear more pronounced during the
daytime, specifically in the summer. White roofs also lower the
temperature inside buildings, reducing the amount of energy
used for heating and AC purposes. Equations conducted by
scientists found that painting 100 of the world's largest cities in
white would increase the rates of sunlight reflected by 0.03%; as
a result, the rising temperature caused by 44 billion tons of CO2
waste will be curbed. A study by the University of California
earlier suggests that painting roofs in white reduced AC
consumption by 20% and pointed out that white paint in homes
and pavements worldwide could reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by 44 billion metric tons and help control CO2 rates.
184
Table 3
Paint Color and Sunlight Absorption
Color Sunlight absorption rate
Dark black 100%
Light black 85%
Dark green or grey 70%
Light green or grey 70%
White oil paint 20%
New white paint 12%
Source: Climates Department of the Environment Building Research Establishment, 1980.
As the Table shows, white buildings and surfaces reflect more sunlight
than dark-colored buildings. Reflected sunlight does not contribute to
thermal emissions; white surfaces and buildings are the least absorbing
of sunlight, making buildings less hot, contrary to the heat energy
generated by dark surfaces after exposure to the sun.
Afforestation in Cities According to Local Climate
The efficiency of trees is vital to improve the indoor climate of the

building and the city's climate. The type of these trees must align with
the local climate of each city so that they can have a positive impact on
the climate to better the weather. They are not just aesthetic. Trees
planted in front of any building provide shade, reduce temperature,
modify humidity, and minimize negative wind impacts, especially in hot
areas. The bare earth, asphalt, and other types of tiles have a high heat
capacity that could raise the temperature of the air in contact, causing
discomfort, especially in the afternoon and the evening. Many studies
have shown that the difference between the temperature of a surface
planted with grass and an asphalt surface sometimes exceeds 14°C, and
the difference between the air temperature of both reaches 5.5°C.

The US National Academy of Sciences estimated that universal use of white surfaces and
afforestation could help save energy costs worth USD 2.6 million annually. The amount of air-
cooling power consumption in the building surrounded by a rock corridor is 20-30% higher than
the building surrounded by grass and bushes. The air temperature above the rock corridor is 2°C
higher than above grass. Indeed, grass reduces the temperature of long waves and air
surrounding the building, and bushes limit the absorption of sunlight and exposure to direct
radiation and short waves.
Plants reduce buildings' exposure to solar radiation and wind, contribute to providing shade and
diminishing light, and aid in cooling air and controlling its speed and direction. They also protect
against unwanted winds and raise the level of humidity in the dry atmosphere, while they absorb
excess humidity through their huge wooden trunks in a humid atmosphere. Plant leaves absorb
most of the fallen radiation (80%), convert a small portion (2%) into chemical energy during
photosynthesis, and reduce the temperature of spaces. Most of the solar radiation energy
absorbed during the process of evaporating water comes out, resulting in cooling leaves and
surrounding air and increasing humidity rather than elevating temperature.
At night, agricultural soils emit stored radiation (long waves), reducing the cooling rate of the
continental regions. Consequently, the land surrounding urban agglomerations aims at heating
the constructed areas at night, cooling and humidifying the air passing through them, and
lowering convection by day. Contrarily, the radiation of long waves increases due to being
absorbed by rough surfaces such as asphalt, concrete, and tiles in urban areas.
The temperature of the urban constructed areas increases (4-6°C) to 10°C higher than that of
the surrounding agricultural land due to contaminants of ongoing industrial combustions at
night. Plants also affect the humidity in the atmosphere as forest trees act as a water pump.
Humidity is diverted from the Earth's subsoil by roots to the atmosphere by evaporation through
leaves and branches.
Having introduced a simple approach to man-made climate change in cities, continuing to ignore
the city's climate will have a dramatic impact on global climate change in the near future.
Conclusion:
This paper has reached a bundle of results and recommendations that enhance harmonization
between urbanism and climate. They can be summarized in the following:
186
▪ Inappropriate architectural design is one of the most important factors affecting high
temperatures within residential buildings. Apart from population and construction density and air
pollution, it has the greatest impact on the formation of heat islands around residential blocks and
the city's climate-based lack of quality of life.
▪ The population and most of their activities are concentrated in low-rated areas in terms of climate-
related quality of life due to the poor state of most urban mass. The impact of the indoor climate in
these poor urban areas is, therefore, evident in terms of climate quality.
▪ The height of buildings and the effect of blocking the wind —air movement— behind the high
buildings vary. The height impacts wind direction in the city and around the low urban mass,
especially in areas east of Cairo where the law on the height of the buildings has not been applied.
▪ Green areas within the residential building, in its surroundings, on its roofs, and on facades
positively affect the shade and lower temperature. Green areas and water bodies within and around
the building are among the most important factors limiting heat islands around residential blocks.
However, they are considered to have limited impact as a result of the continuously increasing
population and construction density. They greatly impact the building's indoor climate, which is
evident in high-density areas in northern Cairo that are devoid of water bodies or green areas
within buildings.
▪ The density of the archeological mass and construction cover affects the temperature rise, the
feeling of heat discomfort, and increased energy consumption, especially electricity in the summer.
▪ Temperature and humidity are the key elements that affect human comfort and activity.
Temperature is also the leading cause of increased energy consumption in cities.
▪ Differences in urban mass patterns, in terms of height, construction materials, and colors, affect
cities' radiation budgets and transform horizontal density into vertical.
▪ The nature of building materials, roofs, and thermal insulation materials significantly affects
relative humidity within the building, especially in working-class neighborhoods such as
El-Matariyyah, Ain Shams, and Ezbet El-Nakhl, owing to the high construction density due to the
apparent population size in these neighborhoods and the lack of quality of life in parts thereof.
▪ The building shape and the position of the high buildings relative to the low ones affect the wind
direction within the urban mass. Most building materials with high heat properties are largely used
in buildings within the major cities, creating an uncomfortable indoor climate in terms of
temperature.

▪ Suppose the northern and southern facades do not face the North's self shadow, the energy
gained by the urban mass increases. The direction of buildings in cities affects the temperature of
roofs, and the difference between the best and worst directions can reach 3°C.
▪ Building's color of facades and exterior surfaces are incompatible with the climate in most
Egyptian cities; they have a significant effect on the temperature inside the building due to their
absorption of sunlight.
▪ Building roofs clearly affect temperature due to the absence of climatic treatments in most
buildings. The increased construction density also has a significant impact on the heat comfort of
the building's indoor climate and the rising temperature at places of population congestion.
▪ Islamic architecture is the ideal model that considers climate. It is better than newly planned
cities in considering climatic and environmental conditions. Energy consumption in residential
buildings is greatly associated with the indoor climate of the building and the lack of comfort
within it due to the buildings' lack of climatic treatments.
▪ The considerations of the local environment that serve and preserve residence must be adhered
to with a diligent look at areas where environmental quality has not been considered.
▪ Modern materials must be adjusted to preserve the general nature of the city's climate. A legal
framework must be established to deal with the built environment in terms of climate, and
traditional facades such as wooden windows and mashrabiya, evident in Islamic architecture, must
be replaced with modern building facades.
▪ The quality of life within the buildings must be considered by focusing on ventilation and sunlight,
reducing the areas of external facades exposed to external heat, and lowering the number and
spaces of external openings and placing them high in walls.
▪ Light colors must be used to paint surfaces and internal and external walls along with the use of
various plants in the patios or on the walls and perimeter of the building to reduce sunlight.
▪ Wall thickness must be increased to store heat by day and lose it by the evening before reaching
the rooms. Wood latticework (mashrabiya) must be used as it covers most of the facade to
protect it from heating by direct sunlight.
▪ The trend toward horizontal expansions should be maximized, and the height of buildings and the
area of surfaces directly exposed to sunlight should be reduced. Lastly, building roofs should be
planted.
188
The Right to Clean
Environment:
Theoretical and
Political Controversies
The right to a clean environment as a type of
the new human rights that emerged in the third
and fourth generations of human rights faces
considerable challenges involving its meaning,
its holders, and those authorized to assume
responsibility for it.
Dr. Ramy Magdy Dr. Ramy Magdy is a key editor of Climate Prospects Journal,
Professor of Political Science, specialized in political theories studies, human rights and
Faculty of Economics and Political correlations between environment and politics. He is also Vice
Science, Cairo University, Egypt Editor-in-Chief of Egypt’s Review of Economics and Political
Science.
Addressing climate change worldwide necessitated various concerted efforts, taking

place at several levels, such as the collaboration of governments through protocols and
agreements on reducing emissions and addressing global warming. This is in addition to
the global efforts of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), corporates' contribution to their
social responsibility, and the struggles of the most vulnerable environmental activists
and groups to climate change.
Furthermore, along with these efforts, another trend evolved, seeking to establish the right to a
clean environment. The reason behind this was that using a right-based approach to address
climate change issues would be the strongest and most efficient approach in determining and
implementing commitments, and combating government reluctance. However, the right to a
clean environment as a new human right did not pass peacefully through the rights development
phases: thinking, evolving, and recognizing. It has been facing several theoretical and political
conundrums impeding the possibility of its actual implementation. Within the same framework,
there are serious attempts to recognize said right through different legal systems but pursuant to
insufficiently favorable conditions that throw dust in the eyes.

First: The Right to a Clean
Environment: A New Intergenerational
Human Right?
The international human rights protection system in its

current form neither evolved overnight nor did its various
rights arise simultaneously at the same pace. The human
rights history as a stockpile of commitments has passed
by successive generations resulting from specific
historical and political circumstances that have
influenced the establishment of rights that ensure human
dignity in the face of the challenges they encounter.
Human rights evolution has gone through four important

generations, each contributing to this evolution of a
handful of distinctive rights. In turn, these rights
constitute humanity’s response to new challenges, which
may affect, in one way or another, their standard of living
and/or their human dignity.
The first generation was during the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries; it was a response to the great democratic transition in Europe and
the transformation of most of its regimes from authoritarian monarchies to
constitutional monarchies and democratic-republican regimes. This era brought
about the first generation of civil and political rights, such as the right to
freedom of expression, the right to assembly, the right to freedom of candidacy,
the right to vote in elections, etc. Furthermore, this generation was
distinguished by the fact that these are generally negative rights, for they
require the non-interference of state authorities, whether by tampering with or
restricting such rights without a democratic justification. However, such rights
do not impose financial obligations on the state toward its citizens.
190
With the activity of the socialist and communist movements in the
nineteenth century, whose efforts culminated in the establishment of the
Soviet Union in the first quarter of the twentieth century, the Eastern Bloc
turned to support and provide the second generation of economic and
social rights, such as the right to work, housing, education, and health
insurance. The Soviet model challenged the Western capitalist countries,
which was important in steering the world toward adopting this second
generation of rights. Notably, the Great Depression, followed by two
sweeping world wars, had raised the concerns of the Camp of Capitalism,
which encompasses night-watchman states that do not provide adequate
social services. The camp was concerned that these poor services may lead
its citizens to revert to communism and its regimes to shift to the Eastern
Bloc. This generation’s rights were characterized by being positive since
they require effective intervention from the state to provide its citizens
with a handful of services and the resulting financial and social obligations.
By the 1970s, new challenges encountered humanity due to a spike in pollution levels, environmental
hazards, and unprecedented situations resulting from the dreadful technological advancements
and the accompanying threats related to weapons systems evolution or their adverse impacts on
individuals and societies. Consequently, a right-based movement emerged, inducing the
establishment of rights that protect human beings against these novel dangers. Then, the so-called
third generation of human rights has become manifest. This was the moment the new human
rights were established, on top of which were the right to a clean environment, the right to peace,
and the right to development, in addition to other less well-known and effective rights. This
generation’s rights were solidarity rights that required the collaboration of numerous groups,
whether governments, individuals, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), or international
organizations, due to their complex nature.
By the end of the twentieth century, the beginning of the third millennium, and the development of
digital technology, which has intertwined with the various aspects of human existence, there were
indications of the fourth human rights generation, stemming from the belief that we are facing
new phenomena. Such phenomena completely differ from what we have previously faced,
especially regarding genetic engineering challenges, the cyber world's peculiarities, and embryo
technology. In turn, this spurred on the efforts of formulating legal instruments and establishing
rights to protect people and respect their dignity in the face of said challenges. Thus, this
generation’s rights were considered individual rights related to protecting oneself and defending
the future and the legacy of humankind in the world.

In this regard, it is important to read the third and fourth generations of human rights (or the
so-called new human rights) and their peculiar nature to understand the global status of the
right to a clean environment within the General Human Rights Framework. The status of these
two generations, with their new rights, differed from the first and second ones. While the
traditional rights of the first two generations were stipulated in binding international
agreements, such as the two international covenants, the new human rights gained a different
level of attention. At the international level, their binding force did not exceed a couple of non-
binding resolutions issued by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) as well as various
international bodies, neither of which managed to convince any states to draft a binding
international treaty that recognizes the right to a clean environment. There may be models for
multilateral or regional treaties for such purposes but said rights have yet to reach a
comprehensive international treaty.
In addition, the right to a clean environment, as well as the remaining rights of these two
generations, are characterized by many theoretical and practical conundrums. The first is the
weak capability of reaching a precise definition: Who are those rights holders? Who is entitled to
enjoy such rights? Are they individuals, societies, states, and governments, or vulnerable groups?
Who exactly? Who will hold the responsibility of guaranteeing and protecting those rights? Is it
the responsibility of governments or groups posing such threats, for instance, companies,
industrial states concerning the right to a clean environment, international organizations, or
courts at all levels? It is unclear who shall compensate for violating any said right nor who shall
be held accountable for poor compliance with such rights. Finally, the new human rights are
characterized by the inability to reach a precise definition, which enables agreeing on them and
moving forward toward drafting a binding international treaty.
192
Second: The Right to a Clean Environment: Global Recognition
One of the new human rights phenomena,
including the right to a clean environment, is
that their recognition varies across the
international and regional levels. Some regional
regimes and governments have promising legal
instruments to recognize one or more rights
and ensure their protection. However, other
regimes may only focus on and advocate for
said rights. Some states may have stronger and
more binding rights-protection practices than
those of the international and regional regimes
and vice versa in this vicious circle of such
problematic rights.
As for the recognition of the right to a clean

environment, it varied just like its counterparts.
At the international level, and as mentioned
above, no binding international treaty
On the contrary, the Association of Southeast
recognizes and frames said right, nor ensures
Asian Nations (ASEAN) system and the Arab
the commitment to protecting it. Furthermore,
system are unexpectedly the most powerful
the United Nations Human Rights Council
regarding the recognition of this right. The
(UNHRC) believes that ensuring the content of
ASEAN Human Rights Declaration, issued in 2012
the right to a clean environment does not have
by ASEAN, explicitly stipulates and recognizes
to be formulated as a standalone right but to
this right. Likewise, the Arab Charter on Human
gain its protection through protecting human
Rights acknowledges this right in its new version
life in general. The grounds for this belief are
issued in 2004. However, these two experiences
that environmental threats endanger human
are undermined by being part of a regional
life. As for Europe, the Council of Europe is in
human rights system that is inherently weak,
the same vein regarding said right. The Council
inefficient, and unreliable in protecting human
of Europe follows the so-called redundancy
rights. Both the Asian and Arab systems have no
argument, which is based on the idea that there
efficient monitoring mechanisms, no available
is no need to establish new rights if the existing
channels for individual reporting and
agreements and instruments protect the
complaints, and no rigid control bodies higher
content of the proposed right one way or
than the member states’ sovereignty.
another.

In Africa, there seems to be significant yet This indicates that states and governments are
cautious progress when it comes to recognition. extremely cautious toward the new human
The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ rights generally and the right to a clean
Rights stipulates that everyone is entitled to a environment specifically. The latter entails
good environment that guarantees conundrums about its meaning and the
development. Nevertheless, Article 24 of the recognition consequences, which in turn
Charter does not clearly identify who brings us to controversies particularly over
specifically bears the responsibility for this right.
enforcing that right. The African Commission on
Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) has Third: Controversies over the
explained that pursuant to said article, states
shall shoulder the responsibility of providing
Right to a Clean Environment
individuals with a clean environment.
The controversy over the right to a clean
Furthermore, ACHPR’s explanation for this
environment consists of several issues that
promising article is not binding, but generally,
the states’ approval of the Charter still
shape the stances of the right’s opponents and
advocates. As for opponents rejecting this
significantly guarantees the necessity of their
compliance. right, they first pinpoint the weak
identification of its content. As previously
In America, i.e., the member states of the mentioned, it is neither easy to determine a
Organization of American States (OAS), the specific category entitled to enjoy or protect
American Convention on Human Rights, in one these new human rights or this particular right
of its additional protocols, encompasses and nor outline a specific definition to hold
recognizes this right. It allows member states to violators to account. In addition, they base
bear the responsibility of gradually establishing their rejection on the redundancy argument.
said right according to the available resources. They argue that it leads to conflicting legal
regimes and unnecessary repetitive legal texts,
especially since the dimensions of the right to
a clean environment can be protected through
existing traditional legal instruments, such as
treaties, agreements, and binding legislation.
Furthermore, the recognition of the right to a
clean environment will cause a dilemma about
how it can be litigated before various courts
and the court’s standards in handling this
right. This generic right also poses various
obstacles to ways of implementation.
194
Besides, the right to a clean environment is the goal of the critics of the so-called human rights
inflation. They believe that the frequent recognition of new rights to confront every problem facing
humanity leads to amplifying the existing human rights structure and devaluing human rights in
general, for they are numerous, accumulated, and rapidly changing. In turn, negative consequences
arise for traditional human rights and their protection level, as they will become part of a system of
diminished value and declining respect. Finally, one of the distinctive arguments filed by the
opponents is the criticism of the so-called anthropocentrism of the right to a clean environment.
This right stems from the perception that the environment includes nothing but man, where man is
the center of the environment and the universe, and it ignores any form of life other than man in the
environment. Such a right is based on a false assumption: protecting individuals from environmental
issues will automatically lead to protecting the environment and improving its conditions. It is a
simplified, inaccurate, and unaware assumption implying that protecting human beings from
environmental damage is one thing, and protecting the environment and its biodiversity is another.
Nevertheless, advocates of this right respond to these arguments with numerous corresponding
propositions. First, they claim that undefining the right’s meaning or the uncertainty overshadowing
its content does not justify its rejection. Explaining the content of rights is a long process in which
international and regional organizations as well as courts participate efficiently to eliminate
ambiguity and lay down a clear perception.
Second, the claim of the redundancy argument ignores important issues concerning the nature of
the right to a clean environment and the context it faces. The rationale behind this right is the need
to bridge an important gap in the International Environmental Law. The target is protecting
individuals from environmental threats through actors of various forms and natures. In addition, the
complexity of the environmental phenomenon does not enable any agreement, charter, or law to
face all these complex aspects. Subsequently, the said refutes the redundancy argument and calls
for the need to draft new legal instruments based entirely on the right to a clean environment as
well as its circumstances and complexities.

As for the non-enforceability, advocates argue that this problem has
never been a justification for outright refusal to establish or
recognize new rights, as this can be practically worked out. Regarding
the criticism against the anthropocentrism of the right to a clean
environment, it devalues the significant contribution that will occur if
the commitment to protecting humans from environmental threats
is violated. This protection, in turn, will lead to numerous advantages
that will be beneficial to humans and the environment in general.
Since various environmental issues are mainly caused by man, the act
of restraining and deterring man to safeguard the rest of humanity
can sufficiently confront various environmental issues and improve
the environment.
Fourth: The Future of the Right to a Clean Environment
Undoubtedly, the future of the right to a clean environment can

never be forecasted outside the general context of the state’s
international efforts to combat climate change. Confronting
environmental threats through a right-based approach is quite a
strong and ambitious step. Within the framework of the global
reluctance in the face of climate change, that right will face many
obstacles.
The biggest obstacle is the existing scientific and practical

differences about climate change. We are living in a world where
there is still disagreement about the scientific fact of climate change
and/or its long-term implications. Meanwhile, the international
dispute between the great powers in the wake of the Russia-Ukraine
crisis and the resulting energy and food chain crises will undermine
their adherence to emissions reduction and the vital clean energy
transition. This transition has always been a priority for various great
powers, but the trade-offs will aggravate the energy and supply
chains issue. Thus, the momentum of international cooperation to
combat climate change would diminish, and the ambitious ideas, such
as the right to a clean environment, would be just a dream that is
difficult to achieve at the international level.
196
We live in a world whose states are still arguing about the scale of responsibilities
and procedures to be taken toward climate change, so how can this world take a
further step to adopt a binding right to a clean environment?!
Fifth: Recommendations
As for the recommendations on the right to a clean environment, the talks shall not
be mainly directed to the decision-maker, but to CSOs, courts, as well as legislative
and legal bodies. The first step toward an effective start of the right to a clean
environment is reaching a clear definition of its meaning. In turn, this requires
societal and legal efforts to develop a strong, clear, easily-adopted, and enforceable
concept.
These efforts shall start with a step-by-step approach to establishing and enforcing
this right by arranging the environmental threats in descending order, then
prioritizing this compulsory right according to the seriousness of the environmental
threat. It may seem that such a step turns a blind eye to the interconnected and
complex nature of the environmental phenomenon’s dimensions. In one way or
another, modesty and pragmatism are two important virtues for issuing and
recognizing that right.
Decision-makers also bear a burden, but their role is to encourage their

communities and political regimes to draft legislations that ensure a minimum level
of environmental cleanliness to their citizens as a start. In accordance with the
success of implementing these legislations, it is possible to start broadening the
scope of the definition and application of this right.

Conclusion
The right to a clean environment as a type of the new human rights
that emerged in the third and fourth generations of human rights
faces considerable challenges involving its meaning, its holders, and
those authorized to assume responsibility for it. Due to its problematic
nature, controversies arise over its meaning, the need to draft it solely,
the ability to litigate and enforce it, and its anthropocentrism.
Although said right is promising and ambitious, there is no binding
treaty for it at the international level, while there are existing
differences regarding its recognition in the regional systems.
Therefore, this important right faces a challenging future, especially
due to the international scientific and practical differences in terms of
climate change as well as the intensification of the international
dispute between the international powers following the Russia-Ukraine
war along with the energy and supply chain crises. Hence, the
concerted global efforts to confront climate change have been
sabotaged, making it difficult to rely on a right-based approach to
establish a right to protect people against climate change. In return,
this situation holds the civil society as well as the legislative and legal
authorities responsible for clearly establishing this right. Decision-
makers must take a step-by-step approach to defining and
implementing it.
References
-Christian Tomuschat. Human rights: between idealism and realism. Oxford : Oxford University Press,
2008 . pp.7-31, 54-58
-Adrian Vasile Cornescu. The Generations Of Human’s Rights. Days of Law: the Conference
Proceedings, 1. edition. Brno : Masaryk University, 2009, ISBN 978-80-210-4990-1
-Günther Handl .The Human Right to a Clean Environment and Rights of Nature: Between Advocacy
and Reality. in “ANDREAS VON ARNAULD et al.(eds.) . The Cambridge Handbook of New Human
Rights Recognition, Novelty, Rhetoric. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022 .pp.137-153
198
Creating Effective Role
for Central Banks
Worldwide to Combat
Climate Change
The global central banks' response to climate
change is gradually increasing. However, central
banks still need to take tougher measures, such
as updating their strategies and adjusting their
legislative and regulatory frameworks to
combat global warming.
Mr. Ibrahim El-Ghitani He holds a Master's degree in energy policy from the University
Head of the Energy Studies of Sussex, UK. His research interests include energy policy,
Program, since July 2017, at the political economy, and sustainable finance, and he has many
Future Center for Research and published research, studies, and economic analyses.
Advanced Studies, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Recently, global central banks paid great attention to environment and sustainability issues -
particularly climate change, despite the debate within the economic community over the financial
supervisory authorities' mandate to deal with such issues. Arguably, they are confined to
governments, and handling them threatens the independence and impartiality of central banks.
Meanwhile, another opinion believes that climate change lies at the heart of the central banks'
work due to its impact on the global financial system. There are two types of risks: physical risks
resulting from extreme weather events and transitional risks resulting from the world's transition
toward a low or carbon-neutral economy.
In this context, the international institutions recommend that central banks take new measures to
combat climate change, most notably: modernizing monetary policies, developing regulatory
frameworks, promoting green finance, and printing low-carbon banknotes. Undoubtedly, financial
regulators worldwide also need further coordination -whether within the framework of the
Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) or the G20- to enhance the global central banks'
roles in combating and mitigating climate change.

The Debate over Central Banks' Role
There is an ongoing debate within global economic circles over the

central banks' competency to address environmental and sustainability
issues within their supervisory powers. A group of economists believes
that policies to combat climate change worldwide fall outside the scope
of central banks' powers (Durrani and Volz, 2020, 2-3). Former German
Federal Bank (Central Bank) President, Jens Weidmann, was one of those
rejecting this role. He argues that while central banks have to
incorporate climate change into the financial risk management
assessment, they should refrain from directing the financial companies
and institutions towards political issues, such as climate change, which
will undermine the independence and impartiality of central banks.
In addition, US Federal Reserve Chairman, Jerome Powell, said in January

2023, "The Fed was not a climate policymaker and never will be". Powell
argued that bypassing the Fed's mandate to pursue social benefits that
were not closely related to its legal goals would threaten its
independence. On the contrary, there was another trend within the
economic community in favor of giving the major central banks a greater
role in addressing climate change. In turn, the European Central Bank,
supported by its president, Christine Lagarde, and the Bank of England
prioritized combating climate change and taking the necessary monetary
measures for the European economies to be carbon neutral in the future.
200
The European Central Bank has prioritized
confronting climate change and supporting
Europe's transition to a carbon-neutral
economy in the future. It put forward three
main mechanisms:
▪ assessing the risks of climate change on the

European financial sector.
▪ promoting green finance.
▪ expanding partnerships with outsiders to

enhance efforts of combating climate
change.
Overall, 12 of the 135 global central banks worldwide had explicit sustainability
goals, including adherence to the Paris Climate Agreement and the UN
Sustainable Development Goals.
Despite this low rate, it is expected to rise in the future, in light of the interest of other central
banks in countries such as Japan, Sweden, New Zealand, and others to take additional measures to
promote a low-carbon economy and green finance.
Double Risks
The trend in favor of integrating the issue into central banks' work based its opinion on the fact
that the financial and banking system may face two types of risks due to global warming: physical
and transitional risks. The physical risks are related to the damages caused by extreme weather
events, heat waves, floods, hurricanes, and frequent storms affecting global economic activities,
supply chains, and trade flows, all of which impact economic growth in both short and long terms
and international or domestic financial stability.

Individuals and companies may be exposed to
frequent incidents of floods, hurricanes, etc., which
make it difficult for them to pay their debts and
increase insurance claims required from insurance
companies. Therefore, central banks and financial
supervisors must seriously consider the physical
risks and climate change's impacts on financial
institutions and the financial system as a whole.
In this context, a study by Nature Climate Change in

2016 revealed that 1.8% of total global financial
assets were exposed to climate change risks, with
the carbon emissions continuing within the
business-as-usual scenario. This means the value of
assets estimated at USD 2.5 trillion could diminish
or disappear. Under the worst possible scenarios,
this figure could increase to USD 24.2 trillion, or
16.9% of total global assets, according to the study.
These estimates constitute a significant
underestimation of the basic value of global
financial assets.
The transitional risks are the potential loss of the

companies’ and assets' value as the world shifts to
a low or carbon-neutral economy. Tougher climate
policies will likely affect the high-carbon projects'
profitability, which may spill over to the financial
institutions most exposed to the former (ODI
2021,1-3). In other words, the profits and assets of
the financial system are likely to face loss due to its
exposure to companies with a global carbon
footprint. This is attributed to the latter's declining
profits, business disruption by new policies,
technological change, and the consumer and
investor's demands to align with climate change
combating policies .
202
New Business Model for Central Banks
International institutions provide recommendations and guidelines to be followed by world central

banks to address and mitigate climate change. They are shown in Table (1), and summarized in four
main sections as follows:
1- Monetary Policy and Inflation:
Climate change and its mitigation policies directly affect inflation dynamics, which is the main
objective of central banks worldwide. It is known that major physical risks –due to climate change-
can cause short-term fluctuations in production and inflation. In addition, mitigation policies, such
as carbon pricing programs or carbon tax, will likely affect prices and wages. This leads to long-
term trends of inflation that require fundamental amendments in the objectives and mechanisms
of monetary policy.
Central banks will likely have to make a trade-off between the priority of curbing inflation and
supporting price stability or economic growth due to the supply shocks resulting from climate
change. As expected, climate change will further complicate expectations of higher inflation in the
medium and long term, making it likely to repeat the price-growth trade-off in the future.
Besides, central banks can use other

monetary tools, such as adjusting the
required reserves, liquidity, and
lending limits to change the level of
the basic money supply in the banking
system. This, in turn, may affect the
provision of credit or liquidity to
banks and the financial system to
support loans and investment in the
economy's environmentally
sustainable sectors. However, they
should not risk expanding the use of
these tools in favor of low-carbon
sectors at the expense of the financial
and banking system's stability.

Table 1
Guidelines for central banks' measures to address climate change
Green and brown assets' classifications
Climate risk disclosure rules

Regulatory frameworks
Climate risk scenarios
Climate stress tests
Buying green assets

Monetary policy
Reserves and liquidity standards
Green bond incentives

Green finance
Preferential interest rates
Printing banknotes Banknotes with a low carbon footprint
Source: Vaze, Prashant et al.2019. “Greening the financial system Tilting the playing field the role of central banks”,
October 2019. https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi-greening-the-financial-sytem-20191016.pdf; Fisher ,P,
Alexander, K. “Climate change: the role for central banks”. Kings College London, April 2019.
https://www.kcl.ac.uk/business/assets/pdf/dafm-working-papers/2019-papers/climate-change-the-role-for-central-
banks.pdf
2- Regulatory Frameworks:
Regulatory standards are one of the effective tools available to central banks to combat climate
change. Stress tests, as the central banks' main supervisory tool, can reveal systemic weaknesses in
financial institutions in many aspects, including climate change. Central banks can ask financial
institutions to incorporate climate risk scenarios into their stress tests to detect the vulnerability
of assets of banks or insurance companies to losses in case of extreme weather events. In the same
context, central banks can use financial disclosure requirements to reveal how climate shocks
affect the financial sector and banks.
However, efforts to incorporate climate-related risks into central banks' regulatory frameworks
face important challenges. It requires precisely defining the climate risks and objectively assessing
their long-term impacts so that the preventive frameworks reflect actual risks. Moreover, it is
important to stress that efforts to incorporate climate risks should not create new regulatory
burdens that destabilize the financial system as a whole.
204
In addition, central banks may adopt
other measures to ensure financial
institutions pay attention to climate
change. In the UK, the Prudential
Regulation Authority suggested that
responsibility for managing climate-
related risks should be a special task
assigned to a senior manager on the
company's executive board or the
financial institution.
3- Green Finance Promotion:
Central banks have other options to

address climate change, such as issuing
guidelines for banks to expand the
credit portfolio in favor of greener or
more sustainable projects. Notably,
According to the UN Conference on Trade and
China has been at the forefront of
Development (UNCTAD), the value of sustainable
developing green banking policies. In
financial products in global financial markets in 2021
2012, the China Banking and Insurance
was estimated at roughly USD 5.2 trillion, an increase
Regulatory Commission issued the
of 63% compared to 2020. These products include
green credit guidelines to encourage
sustainable funds and sustainable bonds. Sustainable
banking institutions to focus on
financial product issues are expected to grow
financing sustainable projects.
strongly in the coming years, especially with
increased demand by investors interested in
Furthermore, central banks can provide
environmental and social dimensions.
guarantees to green bond investors or
reduce their issuance and trading fees
4- Printing Banknotes:
to encourage issuing green bonds.
There is a somewhat limited relationship between

Allowing central banks to accept high-
issuing and printing banknotes and promoting efforts
quality green assets as a loan guarantee
to combat climate change. Central banks have the
is another measure that helps banks
option to print banknotes with a low carbon
provide further financing for green
footprint. Some consider polymer banknotes more
lending.
sustainable.

A study by thinkstep for the Bank of England The NGFS includes central banks and financial
indicates that polymer banknotes have lower supervisory authorities from many countries,
greenhouse gas emissions than cotton such as the USA, Australia, Germany, Egypt,
banknotes. This is mainly due to the long life of Morocco, etc. It aims at strengthening the
the polymer sheet and the lower emissions from global response required to achieve Paris
the polymer raw material, according to the Agreement's goals, enhancing the financial
study's estimates. system's role in managing risks, and mobilizing
finances in favor of green and low-carbon
International Collective Action Framework investments. In addition, it identifies and
promotes best practices to be implemented
Recently, the international community has globally to support green finance.
sought to enhance its efforts and joint
coordination to encourage central banks NGFS develops -on a semi-periodic basis- future
worldwide to prioritize environmental issues scenarios regarding the impact of climate
and climate change. One of the most prominent change on the global economy and the global
measures in this regard was establishing the financial and banking system. Undoubtedly,
Network for Greening the Financial System this is supported by the financial system's
(NGFS) on the sidelines of the One Planet readiness for potential shocks resulting from
Summit held in Paris in December 2017. NGFS the risks of climate change. NGFS scenarios
members have grown from 8 central banks and reveal that an immediate, coordinated
financial supervisors upon its inception to 121 transition towards a carbon-free economy will
members and 19 observers until October 2022. be less costly to the global economy and
financial system than inaction or a disorderly
transition in the long run. In other words,
physical risks in global warming scenarios
(current policies) will lead to more severe
negative effects on the global economy and
financial system.
As part of the international efforts to green

the financial system, the G20 Sustainable
Finance Working Group was formed in 2016 to
mobilize sustainable financing and shift
towards more sustainable societies and
economies. It is responsible for aligning the
best practices of the international financial
system with Paris Agreement's goals.
206
In conclusion, the global central banks' response to climate change is gradually increasing.
However, central banks still need to take tougher measures, such as updating their strategies and
adjusting their legislative and regulatory frameworks to combat global warming. In this context,
the following is recommended:
▪ Central banks should update their data

system to reflect the risks of climate change.
▪ Central banks should balance between the

goals of supporting the financial system
stability and combating climate change.
▪ Common global standards must be issued for

determining the concept of green assets.
▪ Mandatory controls and legislation must be

formulated to combat greenwashing
internationally and locally.
▪ Coordination should be ongoing to green the

financial sector and support sustainable
finance.

Endnotes
- Durrani, Aziz et al.2020. “The Role of Central Banks in Scaling Up Sustainable Finance: What Do Monetary Authorities
in Asia and The Pacific Think?”. Asian Development Bank Institute, March 2020.
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/575571/adbi-wp1099.pdf
- Doillet ,Alice Eliet, Maino ,Andrea.2022. “Central Banks’ ‘Green Shift’ and the Energy Transition”. Oxford Institute for
Energy Studies, March 2022. https://a9w7k6q9.stackpathcdn.com/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Central-
Banks-Green-Shift-and-the-Energy-Transition-ET10.pdf
- Dietz, Simon et al. 2016. "Climate value at risk of global financial assets Nature Climate Change volume 6, pages676–
679.
https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2972
- European Central Bnak.2022. “Climate change and the ECB”. Accessed 10 March 2023.
https://www.ecb.europa.eu/ecb/climate/html/index.en.html
- Financial Times.2023. “Central banks have varying roles in climate change”. Accessed 9 march 2023.
https://www.ft.com/content/30da304d-5a82-439c-b767-3ed6dec6f8c0
- Fisher ,P, Alexander, K. “Climate change: the role for central banks”. Kings College London, April 2019.
https://www.kcl.ac.uk/business/assets/pdf/dafm-working-papers/2019-papers/climate-change-the-role-for-central-
banks.pdf
- Grippa ,Pierpaolo et al.2019. “Central banks and financial regulators are starting to factor in climate change”.
Finance and Development Magazine, International Monetary Fund, December 2019. https://www.imf.org/-
/media/Files/Publications/Fandd/Article/2019/December/climate-change-central-banks-and-financial-risk-grippa.ashx
- Kyriakopoulou, Danae.2019. “Central banks and climate change”. Official Monetary and Financial Institutions Forum,
2019. https://www.omfif.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ESG.pdf
- Network of Central Banks and Supervisors for Greening the Financial System. 2022. “Origin and Purpose”. Accessed
11 March 2023.
https://www.ngfs.net/en/about-us/governance/origin-and-purpose
- Reuters. 2021. “Factbox: How central banks are responding to climate change”. Accesed 11 March 2023.
https://www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/how-central-banks-are-responding-climate-change-2021-06-
18/
- Schnabel, Isabel.2021. “Climate Change and Monetary Policy”. Finance and Development Magazine, International
Monetary Fund, September 2021. https://www.imf.org/-
/media/Files/Publications/Fandd/Article/2021/September/isabel-schnabel-ECB-climate-change.ashx
- Thinkstep. 2017. “Carbon Footprint Assessment On behalf of the Bank of England Paper vs. Polymer £5 & £10 Bank
Notes”. Thinkstep, July 2017.
https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/banknotes/polymer/carbon-footprint-
assessment.pdf?la=en&hash=A2077D4BEF302DF8F8488503DEA041876627ECBD
- The UN Environment Inquiry. 2017.”On The Role Of Central Banks In Enhancing Green Finance” Inquiry Working Paper,
February 2017.
https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/16803/Role_Central_Banks_Green_Finance.pdf?sequence=1&
amp%3BisAllowed=
- Vaze, Prashant et al.2019. “Greening the financial system Tilting the playing field The role of central banks”, October
2019. https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi-greening-the-financial-sytem-20191016.pdf
- United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 2022. “World Investment Report 2022”. United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development, June 2022. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/wir2022_en.pdf
208
Climate Change and
Water Resources in
Jordan: Next Political
Crisis
Water resources management in Jordan is one
of the government's most complex issues.
Geography has played an additional role in
complicating Jordan's water crisis.
He is a researcher in climate and human rights issues and a

Eng. Ayman Al-Ghanamiyin
member of the Administrative Board of the Alumni Club of the
Planning and Development Officer
"Hussein Footsteps" program of the Jordanian Crown Prince
at ShezoMedia in Jordan
Foundation. He is also responsible for the environmental and
agricultural programs of the Shobak Reconstruction Foundation.
Jordan is ranked as the second worst country regarding access to water in the world with an annual
per capita share of less than 100 cubic meters of water, according to the Ministry of Water and
Irrigation. It is far below the absolute scarcity line set globally at 500 cubic meters per capita per
year. The Jordanian governments have struggled with water management for the past decade, but
the worst is yet to come. Many factors and figures suggest that the country will face increased
demands and an internal crisis that may marginalize poverty problems and unemployment rates,
putting the government in direct confrontation with the thirsty masses.
In this article, the aspects of this upcoming crisis will be tackled to explore its difficult political
consequences on Jordan, which seem not so far away. It will exacerbate if governments only
manage available resources instead of heading to an integrated national project to address the
crisis effectively and sustainably.
Geography Challenge
Water in Jordan is available from three main sources. First is groundwater (about 59%); most
basins are concentrated in the eastern Badiah areas. Second is surface water (about 27%) from
dispersed areas.

The source of the rest is treated wastewater (about 14%). Additionally, 55 million cubic meters are
imported annually from Israel and 250 million cubic meters from Syria. It is worth mentioning that the
annual rainfall rates range between 50 and 800 mm depending on the area, and the average annual
rainfall in Jordan is about 200 mm. This acute water scarcity is due to the desert and semi-desert
geography, which constitutes 75% of the Kingdom's area, where vegetation does not exceed 3.7%.
Geography has played an additional role in complicating Jordan's water crisis. The country is at the
heart of the map of conflicts and wars in the Middle East. Refugees today constitute 35% of the
population, most of them Palestinians, Iraqis, and Syrians, according to a statement by current
Minister of Interior, Mazin Al Farrayeh. Consequently, pressure has been placed on water resources,
implying that any national megaprojects aimed at addressing the crisis must consider the water
needs of refugee communities for one generation or even more.
Water Management
Water resources management in Jordan is one of the government's most

complex issues. Up to 80% of the available freshwater resources are
consumed in the country, and the total annual water consumption is
estimated at 1.3 billion cubic meters. This
amount is divided among different sectors: the
domestic sector accounts for about 52%, the
agricultural sector about 45%, and the industrial
sector 3%, according to the Ministry of Water
and Irrigation. Moreover, the storage rate of
dams for this season reached 42.7%, rendering
them vulnerable to the continuous shortage of
water sometimes due to direct consumption
and others due to elevating evaporation rates in
the summer, given the aggravating global
warming. The loss rate in large water networks
has also reached 48% because a large part of
them is dilapidated and exhausted. The state
budget is also unable to bear the high costs of
renovating and maintaining networks.
210
Figure 1
Water Consumption by Sector in Jordan
3%
52% 45%
Source: The Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation.
For the last two decades, the country has tended to invest in major water projects, such as the
Shatt El-Arab project and the Disi project. The latter covers nearly half of the water share of
Amman, embracing over 42% of the population. Although these projects have already contributed
to mitigating the repercussions of Jordan's suffocating water reality, they are insufficient and do
not meet the growing demand for water. The provision of additional quantities of water may be
part of the solution, but comprehensive sustainable solutions must consider other aspects, such as
social awareness of the crisis and the nature of consumption.
Citizens are concerned about the figures issued by the official authorities in this regard, which are
often met with fear and sometimes with denial and preoccupation with other issues. Hence, the
water resources problem had been placed at the bottom of the national priorities list. Domestic
water consumption, which represents half of the annual consumption of the Kingdom, is in the
hands of a majority that is not sufficiently aware of the need for rationalization and management.
They do not recognize the seriousness of discussing water resources at the level of public policies,
local administrations, civil society institutions, and others.
Figure 2
Water Consumption in Jordan by Sector (109 m3/year) and Water Stress (Percentage of Water Consumption
as a Share of Available Renewable Sources)
1.2 120
Consumption (109 m3/ year)
1.0 100
Water stress (%)
0.8 80
0.6 60
0.4 40
0.2 20
0.0 0
1978
1975
1986
1988
1989
1996
1998
1999
2016
2018
1981
1983
1987
1991
1993
1997
2006
2008
2009
2019
1984
1982
2013
1985
1990
1992
1994
1995
2001
2003
2011
2007
2017
2012
2014
2000
2002
2004
2010
2005
2015
2020
1980
1976
1979
1977
Water stress (%) Domestic consumption Industrial consumption Agricultural consumption

Source: FAO's Global Information System on Water Resources and Agriculture Water, Jordanian Ministry of Water and
Irrigation Data (2020).

Nearly half of the annual consumption rate is
allocated to the agricultural sector. Although farmers
suffer from the steady decline of available water,
large quantities of it are wasted due to traditional
agricultural systems, the deterioration of networks,
and the unstudied trend in the cultivation of crops
with high water needs. Notably, Jordan is self-
sufficient in most varieties of vegetables and fruits
and is also an exporting country for many of them. I
hope my words are clear when saying that water-poor
Jordan exports part of its annual water share at a time
Jordanian experts note the need for the Jordanian
Ministry of Agriculture to adopt agricultural programs
and calendars (agricultural cycles) that consider
achieving a balance between food security and the
trend to cultivate varieties with low water needs for
export purposes. So far, the government does not
seem to be taking such proposals seriously and as a
priority.
Figure 3
Food Insecurity in Jordan - Food Security Index (CARI) - July/August 2020
Jordanians Refugees Jordanians Refugees
100
%44 %12 3199307 71732
%67 417293
80
60
%53 3852662
40
20
%21 131613
%3 254231
0
Food secure Vulnerable to food insecurity Food insecure
Source: Water Stress in Jordan Report, UNICEF, July 2022
212
Water in Jordan's Political and Economic Equation
According to a UNICEF report, agriculture contributes about 5% of Jordan's GDP and employs 3% of
manpower. Although the direct contribution of the agricultural sector to the Jordanian economy is
relatively limited, its total contribution is close to 20-25% of GDP when considering indirect links with
other parts of the economy like tourism and services. A World Bank study estimates that the climate-
induced decline in water resources and related changes in crop quantities can diminish Jordan's GDP
by up to 6.8%, equivalent to USD 2.6 billion.
These figures add to concerns about the Jordanian economy’s future, especially when reflected in the
high unemployment rate of 25% following the COVID-19 pandemic, according to government figures.
In other words, these figures elevate pressure on the country's political decision-makers. Therefore,
the government was prompted to sign a declaration of intent with Israel with the participation of
the UAE, stipulating that Jordan will generate electricity from solar energy for Israel, which in turn
will desalinate water for Jordan to provide 200 million cubic meters of water.
Flammable Mixture
The country has recently witnessed a political reform led by King Abdullah II. A royal committee was
formed to modernize the political system; it developed a roadmap to reinforce party work in Jordan.
It is indeed an urgent need noted by the political leadership to introduce a more sustainable political
equation in the state’s second centenary. In summary, it implies the inception of a stage in which
parliamentary governments are formed with a partisan character, which is likely to inherit the next
decade for Jordan with all its political and economic files. Their key file will be water as it represents
an existential importance that ensures the continuation of Jordan's state and human project.
Given the rapid change of events in the region and its alliances, the options available to Jordanian
decision-makers in addressing the water crisis are finite. A total of 40% of Jordan’s water sources
rely on transboundary basins. Syria has been suffering from a humanitarian and political crisis that
does not seem to be solved soon, and Israel’s voters are inclined to a more right-wing government. If
the Jordanian voter also opts for a new generation of governments, governments will tend to
respond to the street’s desires and be less eager in the search for regional water cooperation. The
state budget will also not be sufficient for megaprojects such as the desalination of the Red Sea. Will
we see an environmental movement to demand solutions to the crisis, especially since each has its
economic cost, while climate change and the growing water demand do not enjoy the luxury of time?

214
Carbon Capture and
Storage in Egypt:
Potential Solution to
Compensate Growing
Dependence on Gas
The Government should encourage initiatives
that contribute to the process of capturing,
transporting, and storing CO2 through financial
incentives, taxes reductions, and intensive
training.
Mr. Shady El-Sherif He is a former Associate Lecturer at the American University in

Executive Manager & Researcher, Cairo. He holds an MA in Comparative Middle Eastern Politics and
IDSC. Society from the American University in Cairo and the University
of Tübingen in Germany, and has worked in various research
institutions and private institutions.
On May 8, 2022, Egyptian Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, Dr. Tarek El-Molla, announced that
the Ministry and the mega Italian energy firm ENI would execute the first pilot carbon capture project in
Meleiha concessions in the Western Desert at the cost of USD 25 million to store around 25-30 thousand tons
of carbon dioxide each year. The project is meant to be similar to ENI’s HyNet project in the United Kingdom,
which is by far signaling good indicators on its path to achieving its targets per their reports *. However, the
questions of why Egypt would invest in such projects and whether it will achieve its ambitious objectives are
still debatable. This article will shed light on possible answers according to the recent available data.
Egypt Is Threatened by Climate Change
Climate change poses significant challenges for Egypt. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns,
and increased frequency of extreme weather events have profound implications for Egypt's agriculture,
water resources, and coastal areas. The Nile Delta, home to 18 million Egyptians and vital agricultural land,
faces the dual threats of rising sea levels and saltwater intrusion, endangering both livelihoods and food
security.
*HyNet website: https://bit.ly/2BvWrLF

Furthermore, prolonged droughts and heatwaves put additional strain on already scarce water
resources. They exacerbate water scarcity and potentially lead to challenges and issues concerned
with access to water.
From 1990 to 2019, Egypt experienced a significant rise in its total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
from 134 megatons (Mt) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) to 352 Mt CO2e. In other words,
Egypt’s share of global emissions amounted to 0.73%. Between 2005 and 2019, Egypt's GHG
emissions surged by approximately 44%, which was considerably higher than the global average of
24% and contrary to the reduction trend observed in the European Union (Simões; Stanicek, 2022:
p.2). Said percentage is one of the highest in the region: the MENA region’s share in the world’s
CO2 emissions was 13 tons per capita per year in 2019 (Lienard, 2022). It is worth mentioning that
Egypt did not engage in substantial land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) activities that
aim at reducing harmful emissions. The current rate of harmful emissions resulting from the
recent land use equals 4.3 Mt CO2e or 0.1% of Egypt's total emissions from 2005 to 2019. Overall,
Egypt acted as a carbon source rather than a sink during this period (Ibid).
Figure 1
Global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions in 2019
Change in per capita emissions from 2005 to 2019
10.0
EU 7.57t
tons 7.5
World 6.28t
45 5.0
40.52
40 Egypt 3.50t
2.5
35
30 0.0
2005 2010 2015 2019
25 23.1
21.1
19.6
20
15
10 7.57
6.28
5 3.5
0
Qatar Australia Saudi Arabia Canada European Union world average Egypt
Source: European Parliamentary Research Service (October 2022)
216
Based on an analysis conducted by the German Climate Service Center (GERICS) using 32 Global
Climate Models (GCMs), it is projected that Egypt will witness a substantial change in its annual
mean temperature, ranging from 1.8°C to 5.2°C by the 2080s. In the same timeframe, high
temperature is expected to rise between 2.1°C and 5.7°C, while low temperature is predicted to
increase by 1.5°C to 4.6°C. Additionally, there will be a significant escalation in the severity,
frequency, and duration of heatwaves in Egypt
Prioritizing Greenhouse Emissions Mitigation
Reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions has become an urgent global priority in the face of
climate change and its detrimental effects on the planet. As the primary GHG responsible for
trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere, CO2 emissions from human activities, particularly the
burning of fossil fuels, have contributed to the rapid increase in global temperatures. To mitigate
the impacts of climate change, various methods and strategies are being explored to effectively
reduce CO2 emissions.
There are some potential methods to tackle the challenge of reducing CO2 emissions. These
methods encompass a wide range of approaches, including transitioning to renewable energy
sources, improving energy efficiency, implementing carbon capture and storage (CCS)
technologies, promoting sustainable land use and forestry practices, and adopting behavioral
changes at both individual and societal levels.
By adopting a multifaceted approach that combines these different methods, it is possible to make
significant progress in curbing CO2 emissions and transitioning toward a more sustainable and low-
carbon future. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that no single solution will be sufficient to
address the complex issue of climate change. Instead, a comprehensive and integrated approach
that leverages a combination of these methods is necessary to achieve substantial reductions in
CO2 emissions and mitigate the impacts of global warming.
The Egyptian Government recognizes the urgency of addressing climate change and has taken
steps to mitigate its impact, including investments in renewable energy and adaptation strategies.
However, sustained efforts and international cooperation are crucial to effectively tackle the
complex and interconnected challenges of climate change in Egypt.

Adopting Carbon Capture and Storage Approach (CCS)
One of the possible approaches that existed for a long time but is currently re-emerging as an
efficient solution for lowering GHG emissions is carbon capture and storage (CCS). It is a
comprehensive process that involves separating CO2 from various industrial and energy-related
sources, followed by its transportation to a designated storage site, where it is isolated from the
atmosphere for an extended period. CCS can be a potential component within a range of actions
aimed at mitigating climate change and stabilizing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere.
Figure 2
Carbon Capture and Storage Process
utilization
Sources Capture Compression Transportation
storage
Source: Vaniotis, George (2022).
There are different types of CCS technologies that can be adopted by countries to help reach the
goals of the Paris Climate Agreement that were settled in 2015, and they are mainly:
Carbon sinks
Natural carbon sinks, such as forests, oceans, grasslands, and wetlands, are expansive environments
that naturally absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. Preservation and cultivation of these carbon sinks
are recognized by scientists, environmentalists, and conservation experts as a means to efficiently
reduce atmospheric carbon levels. Grasslands and wetlands, in particular, exhibit faster carbon
storage rates, with coastal wetlands surpassing forests in terms of carbon absorption per hectare.
Certain tree species like birch or willow are also deemed optimal for land-based carbon capture
due to their higher CO2 absorption capacity compared to other tree varieties.
218
Saline aquifers
Deep saline aquifers are large underground geological formations

consisting of porous, sedimentary rock saturated with saltwater.
These formations serve as ideal storage sites for injected CO2; they
offer the highest potential for engineered CCS.
A prominent example of these aquifers is the Endurance aquifer in

the North Sea, located approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) beneath the
sea bed. With a size comparable to Manhattan Island and a height
similar to the Shard or the Empire State Building, this porous
aquifer can safely store carbon dioxide for potentially thousands of
years. In the United States, several large-scale saline aquifers are
being utilized for CCS purposes. The Citronelle Project in Alabama
successfully stored over 150,000 tons of CO2 annually during its
three-year trial period, captured from a nearby pilot facility.
Giant air filters
Carbon capture technologies are still evolving worldwide; countries have been developing
strategies to achieve their own net zero goals. For instance, companies have created experimental
commercial air filters known as giant towers in China. These towers function on a massive scale,
drawing in polluted air into heated glass rooms using solar power, thus, creating a greenhouse
effect. The heated air then rises through a series of filters within the tower, effectively purifying it
before releasing it back into the atmosphere as clean air.
A notable example is a giant air-purifier tower in Xian, which reportedly cleans more than
353 million cubic feet of air each day, significantly improving local air quality. Manufacturers are
close to developing even larger towers that could clean enough air daily to benefit a small city.
Ionic liquids
Among the recent advancements in CCS technology are new types of liquids that possess a high
capacity for CO2 absorption. Two-dimensional ionic liquids exhibit a molecular structure that allows
greater CO2 absorption rates. Scientists believe that by "editing" these liquids, more precise control
can be achieved in the chemical engineering process, making them environmentally friendly and
efficient tools for capturing carbon.

Aside from its types, there are different technologies that can be used to capture CO2 directly at
the source, such as the facility where the CO2 is generated. The three main types of carbon capture
methods are post-combustion carbon capture, pre-combustion carbon capture, and oxy-fuel
combustion systems. Post-combustion carbon capture is commonly used in current power plants
and involves extracting CO2 from the exhaust gases of a combustion chamber. Pre-combustion
carbon capture, which is often utilized in industrial applications, employs commercially available
technology. However, implementing pre-combustion carbon capture in power plants is still in its
early stages.
In recent years, the development of CCS has experienced significant acceleration, primarily due to
the reinforcement of climate targets and subsequent increases in policy support worldwide. As
evidence of this progress, an additional 61 carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) facilities
were introduced into the global project pipeline in 2022. This brings the global total of CCUS
projects to 30 currently operational, 11 under construction, and 153 in various stages of
development. Among countries leading in CCUS initiatives, the United States stands out, boasting a
higher number of CCUS projects compared to any other nation. Moreover, the landmark Inflation
Reduction Act of 2022 passed in the United States, a bill that will make an unprecedented initial
investment toward deficit reduction to combat inflation, promote domestic energy production and
manufacturing, and achieve a significant reduction of approximately 40% in carbon emissions by
the year 2030, is expected to further drive the deployment and implementation of CCUS
technology in the upcoming years, solidifying its position as a frontrunner in this domain.
220
Rise in Energy Consumption and Need for CCS
Bearing in mind that CCS is mainly used to curb greenhouse emissions from heavy energy-related
activities, it is important to note that the electricity and heat sector continues to hold the top
position in terms of GHG emissions. Emissions have increased by a little over 77% since 2005. In
2019, the transport sector emerged as the second-highest emitter, contributing 55.3 Mt CO2e. From
2005 to 2019, this sector experienced a significant 76% increase in emissions, propelling it to the
second position. The manufacturing and construction sector, which accounted for slightly over 39
Mt CO2e in 2019, witnessed an 18.4% growth in emissions between 2005 and 2019. Similarly, the
building sector saw emissions rise by over 39% during the same period.
Between 2005 and 2021, Egypt experienced a significant 52% increase in primary energy
consumption, as shown in Figure (3). Notably, gas consumption in the country has been steadily
growing and witnessed a substantial surge in recent years due to the discovery of the largest
natural gas field in the Mediterranean, located off Egypt's coast. Oil, which is Egypt's second largest
energy source, has remained relatively stable, although its share in total energy consumption has
decreased as overall energy consumption has risen.
Figure 3
Primary Energy Consumption by Energy Source (exajoules, 2005 and 2021)
4 3.8 EJ
2005 2021
3 Coal 1.4% 1.3%
2.5 EJ
Oil 49.7% 33.7
Gas 43.5% 58.7%

2
Nuclear 0.0% 0.0%
Other RES 0.0% 0.0%
1 Hydro 5.2% 3.6%
Wind 0.2% 1.9%
Solar 0.0% 0.7%

0
2005 2021
Source: BP statistical review of world energy (2022).

Benefits of CCS
According to projections, carbon capture has the potential to contribute to approximately 14% of
the required global GHG emissions reductions by 2050. It is widely recognized as the most feasible
and effective approach for achieving significant decarbonization in the industrial sector.
Moreover, the CCS approach can strategically contribute to global decarbonization efforts through
the following:
▪ Mitigating emissions in hard-to-abate (the most difficult to decarbonize) industries that pose
significant challenges in terms of decarbonization such as iron, steel, chemicals, and cement
industries and power plants which are responsible for almost 7% of the world’s emissions.
▪ Enabling the production of low-carbon electricity and hydrogen like green hydrogen, which can
be utilized to decarbonize various sectors and activities. This utilization of CCUS-derived
resources supports the transition to cleaner energy sources.
▪ Facilitating the removal of existing CO2 from the atmosphere, thereby contributing to efforts in
carbon dioxide removal and addressing the issue of accumulated emissions.
▪ Enhancing oil recovery in large oil fields and improving the production of geothermal hot water
for power production.
Furthermore, the diverse roles of CCUS can enhance the energy supply's flexibility and diversity.
Therefore, energy security will be reinforced, which is an increasingly important concern for
governments worldwide.
222
Policy Recommendations
It is important to take into consideration that this article has shed light on a widely-researched
topic that is still under progress. However, the two main risks that come with the CCS approach
are the high cost of such technologies and the fear of leaking the stored CO2 in an unsafe way.
Hence, the Government should encourage initiatives that contribute to the process of capturing,
transporting, and storing CO2 through financial incentives, taxes reductions, and intensive
training. Additionally, there should be well-structured policies regulating the whole process and a
monitoring system to keep the process under control. Moreover, there should be frequent
training and information sessions for the employees in these projects and even for the people to
raise awareness about the importance of cutting CO2 emissions and utilizing it in beneficial ways
rather than letting it harm our environment.
Endnotes
- Alkady. R. (2021). Carbon Capture Potential in Egypt. https://bit.ly/3MOdKfV

- Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (C2ES). (2023). Carbon Capture. https://bit.ly/3BNCL4B
- Enterprise. (2022). Oil Ministry announces launch of Egypt’s first pilot carbon capture project with Eni and raft of
other green energy initiatives. Available at: https://bit.ly/45qEpH5
- IPCC, 2005: IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared by Working Group III of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Metz, B., O. Davidson, H. C. de Coninck, M. Loos, and L. A. Meyer (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://bit.ly/435nZSY
- Lienard, Clementine (2022). Mitigating Climate Change in the MENA: Shifting to a New Paradigm. Brussels
International Center. Available at: https://bit.ly/43b9nBa
- NationalGrid. (2023). Carbon capture technology and how it works. Available at: https://ngrid.com/3IAbF4O
- Serin, E. (2023). What is carbon capture, usage and storage (CCUS) and what role can it play in tackling climate
change. London School of Economics (LSE). Available at: https://bit.ly/3pZNRkm
- Simões, H.; Stanicek, B. (2022). Egypt's climate change policies State of play ahead of COP27. European Parliamentary
Research Service. Available at: https://bit.ly/3IvGpDO
- The World Bank. (2012). Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Capacity Building Technical Assistance. Available at:
https://bit.ly/3MO4JDH
- The World Bank. (2021). Climate Risk Profile: Egypt. Available at: https://bit.ly/3MtryLj
United Nations. (2021). Protecting the Nile Delta. Available at: https://rb.gy/zywsz
- Vaniotis, G. (2022). Carbon Capture Technology & Converting CO2 into Something Useful. Labtag. Available at:
https://bit.ly/43iuCAV

224
Source: Jayawardena. A, "Humans, Science and Nature: 12 quotes for 12 months for 2023 on climate change.",
tire dearth, February 07, 2023.

Youth Against Climate
Change and Water
Stress: Hydroponic
Agriculture as a Model
Hydroponics is a widely used method. Over time,
many people have become increasingly aware of
its importance, role, and potential in achieving
both economic and social development and food
security, curbing pollution and climate change,
and preserving water resources.
Mr. Mostafa Benramel He holds a postgraduate diploma in the environmental field from
Environmentalist and Chairman of Ibn Tofail University in Kenitra, Morocco, a two-component high
Association Minarets Écologiques school diploma accredited by the American University of Oregon,
pour le Développement et Climat and a certificate for managing natural disasters resulting from
climate change from the International Cross and Red Crescent
Organization.
Our Story:
Our story with water was long. It began with heroes of young people from Morocco a decade ago in
the field of environment and climate. Manifestations of the problem were evident in the depleted
subsoil, polluted surface and groundwater, and a shortage of inflowing water due to drought and
delayed precipitation due to climate change. Back then, everyone in villages and cities strived to
find the optimal solution for today's generation and future generations.
Our story with water and climate change was told through the projects, programs, and activities of
the Association Minarets Écologiques pour le Développement et Climat, which I was honored to
frame, found, and chair. Beside the active participation of academics, researchers, and civic
activists, the Association began to work on raising awareness and enhancing capabilities and skills
within the framework of bridging gaps between environmental education and sustainable
development education. This was manifested through several public events in various ecological
spaces —both natural and human-made— in order to introduce the problem of climate change
caused by humans and whose impact is evident on humans and their environment.

During the framing of the environmental education workshops on water valorization and climate
change, the participation of young people in these workshops was firmly established. The
Association Marocaine des Petits Débrouillards (AMPD) handled the organizational aspect. At the
same time, support was provided by the Swiss Drosos Foundation in partnership with the
Regional Academy of the Ministry of National Education, Preschool, and Sports in Rabat-Salé-
Kénitra. This was part of the science project in the desert to simplify science. The theme for
2022-2023 is “Water Valorization for Climate Change”, aiming at developing the capabilities and
skills of young people in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and reducing the
climate change impacts. Therefore, Hydroponics Experience was chosen as an innovative model
that is developing today at the global level to overcome the food crisis and confront climate
change by preserving and valuing water resources. The ultimate objective is to introduce
ambitious youth who combat the repercussions of climate change in light of the current water
emergency in the Kingdom of Morocco in 2022 due to severe drought due to climate change.
228
Installation of the hydroponics model design by the youth of Al-Mutanabbi Preparatory Rehabilitation
Institution in Kenitra March 2023
Definition of Hydroponics:
The Association began with a group of young women and men to entrench the basic concepts of
aquaculture, as well as its importance and basic objectives. The introduction of the linguistic and
idiomatic concept of aquaculture —or what has become today called hydroponics agriculture or urban
agriculture— marked the beginning of the training. The term is derived from Greek words (Hydro),
i.e., "water" and (ponos), i.e., "work". It literally means "water work". The term mainly refers to the
method of growing crops without soil. At first, this may seem illogical because plants derive essential
nutrients for their growth from the soil, without which they may die. However, aquatic plants —
through aquaculture— obtain all required nutrients from an aqueous solution, thus, making the
presence of soil unnecessary for their survival1.
Worthy of mentioning, hydroponics is a technology-driven agricultural system that allows plants,

flowers, fruits, and vegetables to grow without soil. This technique is commonly used on farms, typical
agricultural exploits, orchards, plant beds, experimental gardens, or easily installed green walls.
Hydroponics emerged as a modern method of growing

plants without soil that uses water, nutrient solutions,
and a growing environment. This can give plants exactly
what they need in the right quantities, resulting in fresh
and natural products while increasing resource
efficiency. Given such features, hydroponics enables
farmers to feed plants with a calculated amount of
nutrients, leading to a significant increase in yield crops.

Figure 1
Hydroponics of Lettuce
Growth Base
Outlet of water
and nutrients
Water Tank
Gas Bubbles
Water and
nutrients
Air Pump pipe
Model of a hydroponic system by Luis Rivera.

Source: University of Arkansas
One of the themes highlighted by the Association Minarets Écologiques pour le Développement et
Climat is the restoration of wetlands as a top priority in 2023, under the slogan "Time to restore
Wetlands", stressing the urgent need and top priority of this topic. This is a call for an entire
generation to take effective action to revive and restore degraded wetlands, as natural wetlands
contribute to many phenomena, such as flood control and livelihood provision. A holistic approach
is needed to maximize benefits, with a participatory approach among the public and private
sectors and civil society.
The Association's scientific roundtable included several interventions highlighting the top seven
practices for wetland restoration. They include restoring multiple benefits, creating self-adaptive
wetlands, engaging residents, reducing causes of degradation, cleaning up degraded areas,
restoring endemic species of plants and animals, and ensuring access to wetlands.
The interventions emphasized the important role of wetlands as a major global ecosystem. Their
conservation, restoration, management, rational, and sustainable use are essential and should be
considered to deal with environmental and social circumstances and pressing current economic
challenges, such as climate change and biodiversity loss while ensuring the health and well-being of
humanity and the entire planet.
230
The round table alluded to the direct and indirect causes of the
decline, loss, and degradation of wetlands, such as rapid human
population growth and accompanying human activities such as
sanitation, drilling for agriculture and construction, pollution,
overfishing, overexploitation of resources, climate change, and
successive years of drought. All these phenomena caused a
drastic decline in the water level in wetlands, leading to the
destruction of many fishes and aquatic animals and the
increased possibility of fires that may affect plants and forests.
The interventions presented seven key elements through which wetlands can be restored. They
require much dedication and commitment and are represented in the following:
Generation Restoration: They are passionate individuals who promote the restoration of wetlands
with their actions, choices, words, and participation in local initiatives.
Public Sector: National governments of each country should enable, plan, and facilitate wetland
restoration initiatives, often leading or managing wetland restoration projects.
Funders: Governments, financial institutions, organizations, and individuals working in the private
sector should provide the necessary funding for implementing restoration projects on the ground.
Wetland Practitioners and Experts: Experts continuously should provide a high level of knowledge
and practical skills to the community and project owners and employ discoveries, technology, and
innovation to restore wetlands.
Community Leaders: They are the representatives well aware of the benefits of the ecosystem and
the important role of local residents. They also ensure that those residents have a say in restoring
wetlands.
Trainers/Components: Along with associations active and interested in the environmental aspect,
trainers, constituents, teachers, and researchers should work on awareness campaigns for citizens
to introduce the benefits of wetland restoration. They can also help build capacities, skills, and
competencies.
Private Sector: Local businesses, fishermen, and farmers depend on wetlands. Thus, restoring
wetlands enhances their economic opportunities and ensures their food security and livelihood.
This will also have a positive effect on the food and beverage industry and agriculture and tourism
sectors, especially ecological ones.

History of Hydroponics
As part of encouraging young women and men, we gave them a legendary tale of the history of
hydroponics. The word was first used in 1929 by Dr. Gericke, a California professor who began to
develop what previously had been a laboratory technique into a commercial means of growing
plants. The U.S. Army used hydroponic culture to grow fresh food for troops stationed on infertile
Pacific islands during World War II. By the 1950s, there were viable commercial farms in America,
Europe, Africa, and Asia2. However, there are other stories confirming that hydroponic techniques
were used by the Babylonians in the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Such techniques spread during
the Age of Enlightenment in Europe in its journey toward civilization. These stories confirm the
importance of this type of agriculture as a solution to achieve food security and development.
Why Hydroponics Now?
Attention is being paid to hydroponics today as a result of the growing demand for healthy diets
and high-quality fruits and vegetables. Given these indicators, hydroponics is expected to play an
important role in terms of supply and stimulating demand. Moreover, a growing interest in the
purchase of locally produced organic food by the public —which drives the industry— is evident.
Hydroponics enables farmers to produce fresh, pesticide-free fruits and vegetables almost
anywhere during any season and within reach of the local consumer, especially in places with
extreme weather conditions or inadequate arable land.
Hence, the interest in hydroponics today began from several advantages. First, it occupies a small
area and can be applied everywhere, whether in the village or the city. Second, it saves considerable
quantities of water. Third, it produces a high-quality product and high yield within a short period
and without using chemical pesticides. Hydroponics is highly significant, all the more so the Earth's
population is expected to reach more than 9 billion people by 2050. This huge number of people
need innovative solutions in order to secure food production much more efficiently than is the case
now. One of the new innovative ways is the use of hydroponics technology.
232
Hydroponics constitutes an ideal solution for water conservation since Morocco —the rest
of the Arab world and the world alike— experiences water stress, a way to absorb significant
amounts of carbon dioxide —one of the gases causing climate change— in the urban
environment, and new technology to solve the food crisis, i.e., it contributes achieving to
food security.
A simple design model incorporating modern technology via computer to control indicators for aquaculture
It is expected that we will soon see "greenhouses in the form of high-rise towers specially designed
for hydroponics" in our cities on the roads, between buildings and houses, or on their roofs not
inhabited by humans but green crops of various kinds. The task of these crops will be to meet
humans’ food needs instead of the vast fields and agricultural land that may disappear as a result
of the expansion of cities on them. This happened in several countries, such as Japan, Singapore,
some European countries, and other countries suffering from drought, including Morocco. The
meadows we used to run through are today boxes of cement that have been grown here and there
without even preemptive planning to make up for the trees and plants that used to prevail in the
region or the frequent droughts, with which some regions have become familiar.
Evidently, various countries such as Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and Mexico report that
hydroponics and greenhouses production systems are water efficient. A comparative analysis of
Australia's water consumption, for example, shows that we need 160,000 liters of water to produce
AUD 100 worth of cotton compared to 600 liters (the best amount) of water to produce a crop
from hydroponics worth AUD 1003.

Using closed systems that recycle more than 95% of used water loaded with essential nutrients for
plants and oxygen, hydroponics and greenhouses have been shown to reduce water use compared
to other agricultural and horticultural sectors.
The future of this agricultural field remains promising in Arab countries suffering from scarce and
deteriorated arable soils. Several ambitious political initiatives from some decision-makers in the
Arab world are enough to raise hydroponics to the level of meeting the growing needs for food and
contribute seriously to ensuring food security policy for Arabs and keeping them out of the circle
of food dependency. It is the future of agriculture now and in the near future, but we must know
that the real reasons why we use these modern methods of agricultural production are an urgent
need to secure food due to climate change, scarce natural resources, and weak land productivity.
More specifically, hydroponics is used to produce medicinal and aromatic herbs, fodder, vegetables,
fruits, and flowers. The system of this cultivation is amazing. It relies on tightly prepared pipes and
is closely monitored by modern technological control panels to control the indicators of food,
climate, and even epidemiological needs of plants. Using these systems, the roots of plants are
directly exposed to the nutrient solution to flow through it with a flow controlled by water pumps.
Thyme
Model of a general design on the importance of aquaculture in providing a diverse crop of aromatic and medicinal plants.
234
That being said, our story was a unique urban experience and an opportunity for young men and
women to learn that hydroponics saves water and fertilizers, substitutes chemical pesticides, and is
inexpensive and applicable everywhere. Moreover, hydroponics protects the plant from pests that
may attack the soil, which is the case in traditional agriculture. The goal of this program is to
"unleash the potential of a young distinguished agricultural engineer" to be introduced to pH and
salinity meters in water and participate in coming up with an idea for the model.
This experiment was characterized by the pleasure of innovative scientific thinking and the
acquisition of simplified concepts of modern techniques of modern agriculture through the
integration of environmental education and sustainable development education. In fact, the
beneficiaries of the program developed their skills and abilities to innovate new methods that limit
wastewater and combat climate change.
A model of the development of lettuce growth by hydroponics technique; the roots appear floating in the water
Key Characteristics and Benefits of Hydroponics:
Under the guidance of the Association Minarets Écologiques pour le Développement et Climat,
participants could identify the numerous characteristics4 and benefits of5 hydroponics6, including
the following7:
▪ Agricultural crops, such as fruit and leafy greens, some fruits, and feed, can be produced
throughout the year in a short time, i.e., the growth rate is 50% faster.
▪ Agricultural production is not affected by bad weather or climate change unsuitable for
agriculture.

▪ Productivity is characterized by high yields of agricultural
crops that could be multiples of ordinary agriculture.
▪ It is an alternative option to combat water scarcity given

saving about 90% of energy. It does not rely on
agricultural machines and reduces the labor effort and
number.
▪ Harmful chemical pesticides are not used. The growth of

cultivated plants is normal without the need for pesticides.
Hydroponics also prevents pests from infecting crops,
which is the case in traditional agriculture in soil and
running water that is often contaminated.
▪ It is applicable at the scale of large warehouses and

operational in small areas. It is possible to cultivate in
multiple places and small areas because it saves 75% of the
area. Abandoned and non-agricultural properties and lands
can also be converted to food production farms and feed
for livestock through hydroponics (One example is a
hydroponic farm experience in Chaouia, Morocco, where
the climatic conditions are harsh, and droughts are
frequent. This type of agriculture has enabled them to
provide feed for their livestock throughout the year.
Consequently, they have been producing milk continuously
as well as livestock destined to produce red meat. They
could also renew the herd permanently, leading to the
sustainability of their project in an arid region. It is a truly
unique Moroccan experience.).
▪ Fresh and locally produced food can be provided to nearby

consumers, while reducing food security risks. It can also
create many new jobs and improve the financial income of
companies and individuals, thus increasing the country’s
income.
▪ A sustainable and healthy environment can be created

with no harmful waste.
236
Figure 2
The design of the hydroponic system and its benefits
Saves water No harmful weed
No soil No harmful insects
Water pump
No chemical
Rapid growth Air pump
Water tank containing nutrients and water pump pesticides
with a circular flow system.
Hydroponic system design modified by researcher Mostafa Benramel (Association Minarets Écologiques pour le
Développement et Climat).
Prominent Designs of Hydroponic Systems:
By presenting the most prominent designs approved by scientific research committees globally, at
least six types of hydroponics systems have been identified that should be known by everyone
interested in this type of agriculture:
▪ Nutrient Film Technique (NFT). ▪ Deep Water Culture (DWC).
▪ Drip system. ▪ Ebb and Flow.
▪ Aeroponics. ▪ Wicking system.

Regardless of the differences among systems or their complexity, each has its own unique
advantages and can be obtained from household items and local materials. Whether the farmer
is an experienced amateur or uses it for the first time, he/she will be able to choose the most
appropriate system for his/her needs or according to the available tools.
Figure 3
Top 6 Hydroponic System Designs
1- Deep Water Culture (DWC) 2- Ebb and Flow

Source: University of Arkansas Source: University of Bordeaux
3- Wicking system 4- Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)

Source: Georgia Tech Source: University of Arkansas
5- Drip system 6- Aeroponics

Source: University of Arkansas Source: University of Arkansas
238
Two of the Most Important Designs Adopted Globally for Hydroponics
A hydroponic garden can be designed according to two basic categories of hydroponics techniques:
1- Cultivation in water on a solid floating substrate:
▪ This method is applied to cultivated crops and requires a plastic container (15 cm deep) and a
polystyrene sheet (2.5 cm thick), which must be the same shape as the tray.
▪ In a floating raft farm, the roots of plants float in a nutrient solution. Similarly, the plant is put
on a sheet of floating polystyrene material in a water basin.
Model for hydroponics design on a floating solid substrate:
2- Hydroponic garden in PVC pipes on vertical or horizontal supports:
▪ This design is ideal for growing crops. PVC pipes are used with flute-like holes of equal
dimensions. They are placed slightly diagonally as in the design model, and the distance of the
holes varies depending on the crop.
▪ The seedlings are placed in cups with a set of holes at the bottom and solid particles to fix them
for the roots to reach the nutrient solution passing through them. The excess flows through the
upper end and exits from the lower end of the pipe design. Connected tanks are placed to
recover the nutrient solution and return it again under a circular system.
Model for the design of hydroponics in PVC pipes placed on horizontal or vertical substrates

Future Prospects for Hydroponics
At the end of our story, young men and women knew with certainty that hydroponics would lead
the agriculture future in both rural and urban areas. Government sectors, farmers, producers,
environmental, climate, and development activists, researchers, and academics should explore this
modern method of agriculture, but only if they adhere to modern scientific methods and commit
to the healthy and organic production of the products.
Today, hydroponics is a widely used method. Over time, many people have become increasingly
aware of its importance, role, and potential in achieving both economic and social development and
food security, curbing pollution and climate change, and preserving water resources. Efforts are
ongoing in research and development to improve its efficiency, but there are also modifications to
its systems. With the global shift toward organic food and the importance of hydroponics in its
production, we can expect that growth has just begun and will evolve.
This skill-based education project has contributed significantly to supporting young women and
men to excel in the academic field: Now, they can see a bright future.
Endnotes
1Shrestha, A. B. Dunn, “Hydroponics.” Oklahoma state university, April 2017, ID: HLA-6442.
2Shrestha, A. B. Dunn, “Hydroponics.” Oklahoma state university, April 2017, ID: HLA-6442.
3Grewal, H. B. Maheshwari & Sophie Parks, “Water and nutrient use efficiency of a low-cost hydroponic greenhouse for a
cucumber crop: An Australian case study.” March 2011, Agricultural Water Management 98(5):841-846.
4Maryland, C. G. Izquierdo, “Popular Hydroponics Garden, Audiovisual Course.” Technical Manual, FAO Regional Office for
Latin America and the Caribbean, Third Expanded Edition and Revised Santiago, Chile, 2003.
5HM, R. “Hydroponic food production; a definitive guidebook of soilless food growing methods.” Santa Barbara, Calif.
(USA) Woodbridge Press Pub, Fifth Edition (1995), p. 527.
6Beltrano, G. D. Jimenez, “Agriculture in Hydroponics.”, Faculty of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, National University
of La Plata, Argentina, p.180.
7Rivera, L. “10 New Hydroponics Trends: What to Expect in 2017 and Beyond.” 2017, Available at:
https://www.agritecture.com/blog/2017/12/1/10-new-trends-in-hydroponics-what-to-expect-in-2017-and-beyond
240
Climate Change and
Cardamom Plantation
in Idukki, Kerala
New technologies can provide timely

advancements in understanding how future
climate trends will affect cardamom growth
cycles so adequate preparations can be taken
accordingly.
Mr. Akmal Ali He has more than 3 years of volunteering experience in various
Public Relations Officer, Kerala organizations, which enhanced his ability to work within the
Forum on United Nations Academic community, participate in social activities, and deal with different
Impact, India. situations.
Who knew that a tiny spice like cardamom could have such a big story?
Climate change is one of the most important global challenges of our day is. It can affect many
natural systems and upend millions of people's way of life. Agriculture, and in particular cardamom
plantations, is one of the industries that is expected to be impacted by climate change. In the Indian
state of Kerala, the region of Idukki is well-known for its huge cardamom plantations. Warming
temperatures substantially affect Cardamom production, which presents numerous obstacles for the
sector that cannot be disregarded.
Elettaria cardamom and Amomum subulatum are two plants in the Zingiberaceae family that produce
the seeds used to make the spice known as cardamom. They originally came from India, Bhutan, and
Nepal, but now they are grown worldwide, notably in Sri Lanka, Guatemala, and Tanzania. The spice,
frequently used in Indian, Middle Eastern, and Scandinavian cuisine, is highly prized for its distinctive
flavour and aroma. Cardamom pods are green and oval-shaped and contain small and black seeds.
The pods are harvested by hand, and the seeds are extracted and dried. The dried seeds can be used
whole or ground, and are often used to flavour curries, desserts, and drinks. With undertones of
lemon and eucalyptus, cardamom has a complex flavour profile that is both sweet and spicy.

Moreover, it has a potent perfume frequently characterized as
fragrant and slightly floral. The spice is commonly combined
with other herbs like cinnamon, clove, and ginger and is used
in various foods and drinks, such as chai tea, biryani, and lassi.
Besides, Cardamom is said to have health advantages. It has
been used in conventional medicine to treat many ailments,
such as gum disease, respiratory disorders, and digestive
problems. It may have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
qualities, according to some researches. Cardamom is a
valuable spice used for millennia in traditional medicine and
culinary. Researchers are interested in it because of its
potential health advantages and distinctive flavour and scent,
which make it a popular component in several recipes.
India's largest cardamom producer is Kerala, renowned for its

quality cardamom. This state has about 80% of the nation's total
land used for cardamom cultivation. Most of Kerala's cardamom is
produced in the Idukki district, responsible for over 90% of the
state's total production. Many small and medium-sized farmers in
the district grow cardamom as their primary crop, as the area has
favourable agro-climatic conditions for its growth. Wayanad,
Pathanamthitta, and Palakkad are the other notable cardamom-
producing areas in Kerala. People from Tamilnadu and the
Northern state of India work in the cardamom sector of Idukki.
242
How climate change affects
Idukki?
Idukki is a district located in the Western

Ghats, a mountain range that runs through
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. The district
covers an area of 4,358 square kilometers and
is home to a diverse population of over
1.1 million people. Idukki is renowned for its
breathtaking views and diverse wildlife, with
forests and wildlife sanctuaries covering much With the advancement of IT and IT-enabled services,
of the region. Idukki's economy is mostly the district has also experienced a surge in the
centered on forestry, agriculture, and tourism. service sector in recent years. New residential and
The district's economy is primarily based on commercial structures have been built, contributing
agriculture, with people's main occupations to the rise in the district's real estate industry.
being growing cash crops, notably rubber, Besides, Idukki is home to many agricultural-based
pepper, cardamom, and tea. Many small and businesses, including facilities that produce rubber
medium-sized farmers cultivate crops, such as goods, spice processing, and tea. It has many small –
tapioca, bananas, and coconuts. to – medium businesses that provide locals with
jobs. Although Idukki contributes significantly to
In addition, the district has a rich forest cover, Kerala's economy by creating jobs and bringing in
and forestry is an important source of income money through forestry, agriculture, power
for many people. The forest products like production, and tourism, the district has issues like
sandalwood, teak, and rosewood are some of a lack of infrastructure and slow industrial growth.
the major contributors to the district's
economy. The state's economy also benefits Due to Kerala's vulnerability to the effects of
greatly from the district’s tourism sector. The increasing sea levels and a rise in the frequency of
district has several wildlife sanctuaries and extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and
national parks that attract tourists. The cyclones, climate change is expected to influence
Periyar National Park, home to many the state substantially. It is likely that low-lying
elephants and other wild animals, is one of the coastal areas will be submerged and destroyed due
major tourist attractions in the district. to sea level rise, brought on by the thermal
Moreover, Idukki has several hydroelectric expansion of the ocean and glacier melting. This
power projects, generating a significant may lead to the destruction of infrastructure, loss
amount of electricity, which is a major source of coastal habitats, and displacement of coastal
of revenue for the state. residents.

In addition, climate change is expected to affect The dry season is characterized by cooler
the monsoon rains in Kerala, which can result in temperatures, with daily highs of 18 to
both droughts and floods. It is also likely to affect 25 degrees Celsius and overnight lows of 10 to
the state's economy, primarily dependent on 15 degrees Celsius. This is a popular season for
agriculture, tourism, and fisheries. Therefore, the tourists because of lower humidity levels.
state should encourage sustainable land-use Temperatures during the pre-monsoon season
planning, invest in renewable energy, and support typically range from 25 to 35 degrees Celsius
sustainable agriculture as proactive measures to and it is hot and sunny. Temperatures in the
lessen the effects of climate change. The state post-monsoon season range from 20 to
government and local communities must 30 degrees Celsius with sporadic rain showers.
collaborate in developing and implementing
adaptation programmes, to help locals become Here are a few examples of how climate change
more resilient to the impacts of this phenomenon. is affecting Kerala and the steps being taken to
address them:
Idukki has a tropical monsoon climate,
characterized by a rainy season that typically lasts Floods: The Kerala State Disaster Management
from June to September and a dry season from Authority (KSDMA) has developed a
December to February. A pre-monsoon season comprehensive plan to address the impacts of
runs from March to May in the district, and a post- floods. This includes strengthening existing
monsoon season runs from October to November. dams and embankments, building new dams,
The area experiences high rainfall throughout the and creating early warning systems to help
rainy season, which can occasionally cause people evacuate before floods.
flooding and landslides. This time of year has high
humidity and temperatures between 20 and Agriculture: The Kerala Agricultural University
30 degrees Celsius. has developed climate-resilient crop varieties
and farming practices that can help farmers
adapt to changing weather patterns. The state
government is also promoting sustainable
agriculture through organic farming and
agroforestry.
Clean Energy: Kerala State Electricity Board

(KSEB) has targeted generating 1 GW of solar
power by 2025. Kerala is also the first state in
India to launch the Green Energy Corridor
Project, which aims at transmitting and
distributing renewable energy.
244
Cardamom plantation in Idukki
The region's hilly terrain and humid climate make it an ideal location for growing the spice, and
many farmers in the region have established cardamom plantations. Cardamom plants typically
grow to 3-4 meters tall and have long, narrow leaves. The plants produce small, green pods
containing aromatic cooking seeds. The pods are harvested by hand when they are mature,
which usually takes about three years from the time the plants are first planted.
Idukki's cardamom plantations are mainly small businesses where farmers cultivate spice on a
tiny plot of land. The cardamom plants are planted in shaded regions to keep them out of direct
sunshine and are regularly watered and fertilized during the growing phase. The plants need
high humidity and regular rainfall to thrive, and Idukki's rainy season offers these conditions in
abundance.
The cardamom pods are harvested from July to October, the Idukki's peak season for cardamom
production. The pods are then dried by sun-drying or mechanical dryers, then sorted, and graded
based on their size and quality. Many farmers in Idukki depend largely on their income from
cardamom farming, and the region exports much of the spice. The region has many cardamom
auction centers, where traders worldwide can buy and sell the spice. Certainly, Cardamom
cultivation in Idukki contributes to the local economy and has made the area a significant hub for
manufacturing spices in India. It also contributes to the region's cultural heritage and gives
farmers a major source of income.
Climate change can considerably impact the physiology and growth of cardamom plants. Some
of the potential changes that could take place are as follows:
Increased respiration rate: Rising temperatures may increase cardamom plants' respiration
rates, increasing their need for energy. The crop's growth and yield may be affected if this
causes a decline in the net photosynthetic rate.
Decreased rates of photosynthetic activity: Due to stomatal closure brought on by higher

temperatures, cardamom plants are less able to take in carbon dioxide and carry out
photosynthesis.
Alteration in nutrient intake: Climate change may influence the nutrients in the soil, which may
impact the nutrient uptake by cardamom plants. The demand for nutrients may increase as
temperatures rise, and the availability of nutrients in the soil may fluctuate as precipitation
patterns change.

Water stress: Water stress can impact the growth and
productivity of cardamom plants due to higher
temperatures and altered precipitation patterns.
Infestations of pests and diseases may also rise in response
to water shortage.
Modifications in root growth and development: Climate

change may impact cardamom roots' nutrient intake and
water stress. Rising temperatures can damage roots, lower
the quantity and size of roots, and thus, reduce growth and
production.
Changes in plant-microbe interactions: Plant-microbe

interactions can change due to climate change, which can
also affect the microbial communities in the soil, the
growth and productivity of cardamom plants. This may
affect the plant's ability to absorb nutrients, resist disease,
and flourish.
Changes in phenology and growth: Climate change can

impact the timing and length of plant growth stages, such
as flowering, fruiting, and ripening. According to studies,
the phenological stages of cardamom plants may advance
due to rising temperatures, resulting in early flowering and
fruiting. This may have an impact on the crop's quality and
output.
Variations in leaf morphology and anatomy: Due to elevated

temperatures and fluctuating humidity levels, shape and
anatomy of Cardamom leaves can be changed. According to
studies, high temperatures can promote leaf bending, which
slows down photosynthetic activity and impacts plant
growth. To make up for increasing carbon dioxide levels in
the environment, leaves may either become thinner and
narrower or increase in size. Furthermore, humidity
variations can impact stomatal conductance, which can
affect gas exchange and water usage effectiveness.
246
Changes in plant-water relations: Water relations between plants and their environment can
change due to climate change. Increased evapotranspiration rates can cause plants to experience
water stress due to higher temperatures. This may impact cardamom pod output and quality.
Changes in precipitation patterns can also affect how much water is available for plant growth.
Fermentation: The fermentation of roots is caused by an abnormal rainfall distribution.
As per the advance estimate of the Spices Board 2021-22, cardamom production in India in 2021-22
is estimated at 23.34 thousand tonnes, an increase of 3.6% over 2020-21. Kerala had a major share
in cardamom production, contributing to 91 % of the national output. The highest price for
cardamom was recorded in 2019-20 at Rupees 2,980 per kg, which declined since then, recording
the lowest in 2021-22 at Rupees 953.16 per kg. Cardamom farmers struggle to balance the expense
of cultivation and the sale of yield because the government still needs to fix a purchase price for
the spice. Therefore, many farmers may decide to stop cultivating the spice.
Moreover, high temperatures can alter the soil profile, leading to the overuse of fertilizers. The
market's exorbitant fertilizer prices affect the farmers, who need to understand the mitigation
strategies for climate change adequately. This may potentially hasten the demise of the Idukki
cardamom plantation. The government is not taking this into account. Productivity is declining as
a result of climate change. The market price of cardamom is lower than their investment in the
plantation, which will ultimately encourage young people to cease growing cardamom. There are
also cardamom research facilities in Idukki, but the farmers don't benefit from them. Farmers will
be compelled to cease growing cardamom and switch to other, more valuable crops. Since
cardamom's prices are determined by colour, shape, and scent, farmers reportedly turned to add
artificial green colour to the cardamom before moving it to the dryer units to increase their worth
in the market. High levels of pesticide residue were also found in several export shipments from
Kerala.

In conclusion, it is advised that farmers learn about the indicators of climatic change, especially
extreme weather events like landslides, storms, or floods, so they may prepare in advance and limit
any potential harm to a particular crop when necessary. New technologies such as remote sensing
technology applications and other data-driven solutions can provide timely advancements in
understanding how future climate trends will affect cardamom growth cycles so adequate
preparations can be taken accordingly. The government's investment in climate-smart solutions
today should ensure that business operations function smoothly tomorrow and help maintain
profitability into the future, significantly contributing to achieving a lucrative, competitive edge
across all aspects of this industry.
248
Misr Elkheir:
A Pioneering
Experience in Climate
Change Adaptation
The experience of the leading "Misr Elkheir"
Foundation in climate action indicates an
increasing awareness of the importance of
addressing climate change at the local level in
Egypt.
Mr. Mohamed Mamdouh He has worked in the field of development and building the
Head of the NGO Development capacities of local communities for more than twenty-five years
Sector, Misr Elkheir- Arab Republic and joined the work teams of development projects within local
of Egypt. and international bodies.
Climate change is one of the most significant environmental problems resulting from increasing
human activities and the consumption of non-renewable energy sources. It threatens human
health and safety and has been referred to as a "creeping catastrophe" by some, akin to the danger
of wars. In addition to the increase in health issues and deaths caused by extreme weather events
such as heatwaves, droughts, and floods, climate change is likely to lead to a higher incidence of
heart and respiratory diseases due to changes in air quality and the distribution of disease carriers.
This burden can significantly impact humans.1
In this context, civil society organizations play a crucial role in mitigating the effects of climate
change. They work to reduce or prevent the radical impacts of climate change on local
communities. They also focus on enhancing green and blue infrastructure and increasing the
preparedness of local communities to address climate change and adapt to its effects effectively.
This is driven by ethical responsibility and civic duty2.
1Summerhayes. C, "Climate change: a creeping catastrophe", Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, June 2010, p:410
2Mumtaz. M, " Role of civil society organizations for promoting green and blue infrastructure to adapting climate change:
Evidence from Islamabad city, Pakistan", Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 309, 1 August 2021.

Misr Elkheir: A Bright Beginning
Misr Elkheir is a non-profit civil organization established in 2007. It aims to improve the life quality
of citizens and support various development efforts by increasing solidarity and community
participation. Recognizing that the private sector is one of the three pillars of sustainable
development, alongside the government and the private sector, Misr Elkheir believes it possesses
capable personnel to support the state in advancing society. As part of its efforts to play an active
role in Egypt's Sustainable Development Strategy (Egypt Vision 2030), particularly in achieving the
fifth goal of an integrated and sustainable ecosystem, the Foundation focuses on addressing the
impacts of climate change. It seeks to enhance the capacity of ecosystems to adapt, promote
resilience, and effectively address risks and natural disasters. It also advocates for sustainable
consumption, production patterns, and optimal utilization of natural resources.
Thus, Misr Elkheir has greatly emphasized addressing climate change through various projects and
development practices since 2016. It aims to mitigate the accompanying phenomena of climate
change and enhance the self-development capacity of local communities by focusing on human
elements.
250
Religious leaders should play
their role in preserving the
world, the environment, and the
earth by raising awareness of the
importance of environmental
preservation.
Dr. Ali Gomaa

The Chairman of Misr Elkheir's
Board of Trustees
Misr Elkheir Foundation: An Active Role in Climate Change Adaptation
Misr Elkheir is one of the first Egyptian civil organizations to enhance the capacity of local
communities to adapt to the consequences of climate change and work to find alternative solutions
to improve the citizens' conditions through various projects.
Dr. Ali Gomaa illustrates the organization -As a civil society organization- seek to collaborate with our
local and international partners to provide solutions to the many consequences of climate change on
local communities and increase their ability to adapt.
First: Housing Improvement Projects
The Foundation works on improving living conditions for citizens in areas most vulnerable to climate
change through:
▪ Constructing eco-friendly homes with adequate ventilation, natural lighting, and energy-saving
features.
▪ Installing clean drinking water connections and replacing old plumbing.
▪ Ensuring the safe disposal of organic waste through proper sanitation systems.
▪ Raising awareness in the community about the importance of cleanliness in housing and the
environment and reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions.

Figure 1 illustrates the number of beneficiaries of the Foundation's housing projects in Egypt's
various governorates.
Figure 1
Number of beneficiaries of the housing improvement project for the poorest groups
beneficiary
6909
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
951
2000
663
724
549
581
326
325
268
310
315
315
193
166
124
124
114
46
1000
33
6
3
2
1
1
0
Aswan
Luxor
Sohag
Beni Suef
Beheira
Suez
New Valley
Asyut
Alexandria
North Sinai
Matruh
Minya
Ismailia
Dakahlia
Gharbia
Monufia
Cairo
Giza
Damietta
Qalyubia
Qena
Faiyum
Kafr El Sheikh
Sharqia
Source: Misr El Kheir Foundation, “A sustainable climate: models of climate action from 2016-2022”, 2022.
Second: Confronting Crises and Natural Disasters
Certain regions occasionally experience natural disasters such as floods, fires, and house collapses
resulting from climate change. This prompts the Foundation to intervene and provide assistance in
delivering urgent relief to affected families who cannot live in their homes under normal
conditions. Figure (2) illustrates the number of beneficiaries from the relief and emergency
campaigns conducted by the Foundation nationwide.
Figure 2
Number of beneficiaries from the relief and emergency project
beneficiary
250
191
200
150 124 121
77 90
100 61
32 43
50 14 14 12 14 10 11 10 12 14
2 2 5 5 5 2
0
Luxor
Aswan
Sohag
Beni Suef
Beheira
Suez
Asyut
Alexandria
New Valley
Giza
Ismailia
Minya
Cairo
Dakahlia
Gharbia
Monufia
Damietta
Qena
Matrouh
Faiyum
Qalyubia
Kafr El Sheikh
Sharqia
252
Third: Improving the Drinking Water Quality
Misr El Kheir Foundation is one of the leading organizations in the field of water management
projects. These projects have a significant impact on improving the life quality of deserving
individuals directly targeted by the Foundation. The projects include:
▪ Extending the main drinking water networks to deprived areas, focusing on the most vulnerable
communities, as shown in Figure (3).
Figure 3
Number of beneficiaries from the water network extension project
thousand
beneficiaries
350 318.0636
300
250
200
150
100
50 3.8278 7.45 0.24 6.322 11.1352 3.1021 7.2908 1.82 2
0
Luxor
Aswan
Sohag
Asyut
Beni Suef
Ismailia
Minya
Monufia
Qena
Faiyum
▪ Substituting and renovating old Asbestos networks (from the 1960s) with UPVC networks. Figure
(4) shows the number of beneficiaries from that project in various governorates.
Figure 4
Number of beneficiaries from the Asbestos network substitution project
thousand
beneficiaries
3500 3162.401
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500 63.22 110.83 31.021
6.5 2.4 20
0
Luxor Qena Sohag Asyut Minya Beni Suef Faiyum

▪ Digging artesian wells and installing lifting units in Egyptian villages, as shown in Figure (5).
Figure 5
Number of beneficiaries from the artesian well digging project
thousand
beneficiaries
160 151.609
140
120
100
80 75
60
40
20 10 10.022
0
Qalyubia Monufia Sohag Asyut
▪ Rehabilitating deteriorated water stations, and establishing pumping and desalination stations
in several governorates, as shown in Figure (6).
Figure 6
Number of beneficiaries from the water station rehabilitation, pumping, and desalination project
thousand
beneficiaries
160
141
140
120
100
80
60
40
20 18
20 10.022 11.829
7 4.9
0
Luxor Sharqia Faiyum Asyut Monufia New Valley Beni Suef
254
▪ Establishing household water connections and providing sanitation facilities, as indicated in
Figures (7) and (8).
Figure 7
Number of beneficiaries from the household water connections project
thousand
beneficiaries
200 173.03
180
160
140
120
100
80
60 36.869
40
20 7 2.835 1 0.3 1.77
0
Asyut Luxor Qalyubia Minya Several Sohag Qena
Governorates
Figure 8
Number of beneficiaries from the sanitation facility project
thousand beneficiaries
35 32
30
25
20
15
10
3.8
5 1
0
Beni Suef Sohag Qena
Fourth: Supporting the Renewable Energy System
The Foundation focuses on supporting the development of renewable energy networks in several
governorates. For example, it coordinates with the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation
and the Drinking Water and Sanitation Company in Matrouh city to finance and implement a solar-
powered groundwater desalination station serving the residents of "Shamas" village in Sidi Barrani,
Matrouh Governorate. The Foundation also trains community cadres to create new job
opportunities in installing and maintaining solar energy devices and panels.

Furthermore, it supports a research project to design and manufacture locally-produced small wind
turbines with a capacity of 5 kW. These turbines are highly efficient and suitable for use in areas
with relatively low wind speeds in the Ismailia Governorate.
Additionally, the Foundation has supported a project to produce waste biogas to reduce pollution,
preserve natural resources, and address emerging environmental changes and issues. It has also
participated in a project to improve biogas production using nanomaterial additives and solar
energy. The goal is to introduce innovative and effective solutions utilizing solar energy to supply
biogas units with energy to enhance and increase production while identifying the most suitable
combination between agricultural waste and natural resources to achieve maximum methane gas
production
Fifth: Improving the Quality and Productivity of Agricultural Lands
The Foundation has embraced the goal of utilizing water canals to generate clean energy and
reduce evaporation by covering irrigation canals with solar panels. This helps maintain water
quality, reduce evaporation rates, and produce clean energy.
It has also encouraged farmers in rural communities to adopt modern agricultural mechanisms and
systems to increase productivity and optimize water consumption in agriculture. As part of these
projects, it has established greenhouses in three agricultural communities, two in Beni Suef and
one in Minya, which are collectively managed, as shown in Figure (9).
Figure 9
Number of beneficiaries from the greenhouse project
beneficiary
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Beni Suef Minya
256
Furthermore, the Foundation has supported a project to improve rice strains, to produce strains
capable of tolerating high soil salinity and being irrigated with mixed irrigation water. The
selection of strains and necessary testing have been completed to evaluate the final results.
In conclusion, the experience of the leading "Misr Elkheir" Foundation in climate action indicates an
increasing awareness of the importance of addressing climate change at the local level in Egypt.
Additionally, civil society’s commitment to playing a significant role in achieving the goals of the
Sustainable Development Strategy and Egypt's Vision 2030 is evident. This includes Egypt's
commitment to integrating climate change into national development policies and transitioning
towards a green economy.
The experience also highlights the integration of community efforts in Egypt to address the
challenges associated with the impacts of climate change at various levels, such as scientific
research, community awareness development, and activating the role of civil society as a necessary
partner in addressing such repercussions.

This picture is about a slogan for Misr El Kheir , Its means “Misr Elkheir stands behind all goodness”.
258
Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers, "Tackling climate change through technology: A global leadership role for
the Middle East.", 2023.

CO2 Emissions in 2022
The scope of CO2 emissions includes emissions

from all uses of fossil fuels for energy purposes,
including the combustion of non-renewable
waste, as well as emissions from industrial
processes. Non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions
include fugitive oil, gas, and coal supply
emissions.
Dr. Rabab Mahrous

Researcher at the Community
Engagement Department, the
Cabinet's IDSC.
In a year marked by energy price shocks, rising inflation, and disruptions to traditional fuel trade
flows, the 2022 global growth in emissions was lower than feared. Increased deployment of clean
energy technologies such as renewables, electric vehicles, and heat pumps helped prevent an
additional 550 Mt in CO2 emissions. Industrial production curtailment, particularly in China and
Europe, also averted additional emissions.
In this context, CO2 Emissions in 2022 report issued by the International Energy Agency (IEA)
highlights the first global stocktake in the lead-up to COP28 Climate Change Conference in
November to be held in the UAE.
This report is the first in the IEA’s new series called the Global Energy Transitions Stocktake. It
relies on detailed region-by-region and fuel usage analysis, incorporating a vast bundle of statistics
to illustrate estimates of the demand for energy and CO2 causing other greenhouse gas emissions
in 2022.

Energy-related CO2 Emissions Grew by 0.9% to over 36.8 Gt in 2022
Global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from global energy combustion grew 0.9% or 321 Mt
in 2022 to a new all-time high of 36.8 Gt. This increase follows two years of exceptional
oscillations in emissions related to energy usage and COVID-19. However, said increase was
much slower than 2021's emission rate of more than 6%.
Figure 1 illustrates the global CO2 emissions increase rate from energy combustion and
industrial processes and their annual change from 1900 to 2022. CO2 emissions from
energy combustion grew by around 1.3% or 423 Mt in 2022, while CO2 emissions from
industrial processes declined by 102 Mt.
262
Figure 1
Global CO2 emissions from energy combustion and industrial processes and their annual change, 1900-2022
Gt CO2
40
30
20
10
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Gt CO2
1-
2-
Source: "CO2 Emissions in 2022". International Energy Agency. March 2023.

https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/3c8fa115-35c4-4474-b237-1b00424c8844/CO2Emissionsin2022.pdf
The growth in emissions that occurred in 2022 of 60 Mt CO2 can be

attributed to cooling and heating demand in extreme weather, while 55
Mt CO2 can be related to offline nuclear power plants.
Figure 2 shows a change in CO2 emissions by region and sector (2021-2022). Notably, there were
divergent trends between regions and sectors where CO2 emissions grew globally. Emissions grew
in North America and Asia (excluding the People’s Republic of China). Nevertheless, CO2 emissions
from power and transport grew by 261 Mt and 254 Mt, respectively.

Figure 2
Change in CO2 Emissions by Region and Sector (2021 - 2022)
Mt CO2 By region By sector

600
500
400
300
200
100
Increase Decrease net change Increase Decrease net change
Sectors Regions
Other Industry Rest of the world North America
Buildings Power International bunkers Europe
Transport Rest of Asia Pacific China
Note: Refer to the net change in CO2 emissions for both regions and sectors.
Note: Transport includes international bunkers.
Source: "CO2 Emissions in 2022". International Energy Agency. March 2023. https://bit.ly/3qwMBFs
"Emissions from natural gas decreased by 1.6% or 118 Mt in 2022, as an already tight gas supply was
exacerbated by the Russia-Ukraine crisis. Emissions reductions were particularly pronounced in
Europe, where they fell by 13.5%. In the Asia Pacific, they declined by 1.8%.“
Greater Deployment of Clean Energy Technologies Helped Prevent

Further Emissions Growth amid Crises
In an exceptionally turbulent year due to the Russia-Ukraine crisis, energy price shocks, rising
inflation, and major disruptions to traditional fuel trade flows, global growth in emissions was
lower than anticipated.
264
The impressive growth of solar PV and wind generation helped prevent around 465 Mt CO2 in power
sector emissions. Other clean energy technologies, including electric vehicles and heat pumps,
helped prevent an additional roughly 85 Mt CO2. Without this growth in clean energy deployment,
the annual increase in energy-related emissions would have been almost triple. Figure 3 points out
the change in global CO2 emissions by driver (2021-2022).
Figure 3
Change in global CO2 emissions by driver, 2021-2022
Actual increase Avoided

Mt CO2
600
400
200
Actual increase Avoided
Nuclear plants offline Other clean technologies Industrial slowdown
Heating and cooling due to extreme weather Solar PV Wind

Other
Notes: Solar PV and wind refer to the annual growth in generation. Other clean technologies indicate the
annual growth in using other renewables, electric vehicles, and heat pumps. In this figure, industry includes
iron and steel, chemicals, non-metallic minerals, and non-ferrous metals.
Source: "CO2 Emissions in 2022". International Energy Agency. March 2023. https://bit.ly/3qwMBFs
Likewise, emissions from natural gas decreased in 2022 by 1.6%, or 118 megatons in 2022,
but the exacerbation of the gas supply crisis due to the Russian-Ukrainian crisis and the
large-scale trade unrest that followed, led to an increase in emissions from coal.

Coal emissions grew 1.6% or 243 Mt, which was faster than the 0.4%
annual average growth over the past decade. It reached a new all-time
high of almost 15.5 Gt.
Emissions from oil grew by 2.5% (or 268 Mt) to 11.2 Gt in 2022. last year’s aviation emissions
reached 85% of 2019 levels, compared with 73% in emerging markets and developing economies.
Total transport emissions increased by 2.1% (or 137 Mt. Nonetheless, emissions would have been
higher without the accelerating deployment of low-carbon vehicles. Electric car sales surpassed
10 million in 2022, making up over 14% of global sales.
Despite promising growth in renewables, power sector emissions had the

largest sectoral growth. The largest absolute sectoral increase in emissions
in 2022 was from electricity and heat generation.
Notably, electricity and heat sector emissions increased by 1.8% (or 261 Mt), reaching an all-time
high of 14.6 Gt. CO2 from coal-fired power generation grew by 2.1%, led by increases in emerging
Asian markets and developing economies. Natural gas emissions in the power sector remained
close to 2021 levels, propped up most significantly by an increase in the United States.
266
“Global electricity demand increased by
2.7%, and overall carbon intensity of the
electricity generation declined by 2.0%,
resuming a nine-year trend that had been
broken in 2021.”
Europe’s winter was not harsh as usual;

therefore, emissions from buildings were
lower than anticipated. For the full year,
cooling and heating demand from extreme
weather pushed up global emissions by
around 60 Mt CO2, around two-thirds of
which came from additional cooling needs,
and the remaining third from heating
needs. This accounted for almost one-fifth
of the total global increase in CO2
emissions.
As for China, energy-related emissions

were relatively flat between 2021 and 2022,
decreasing by 0.2%. Emissions from energy
combustion alone grew by 88 Mt.
“Emissions from natural gas increased 89 Mt, more
“The production of steel and cement were than supplanting the 69 Mt decline in coal
just 2% and 10% lower than in 2021, emissions.”
respectively. As a result, China’s industry
sector emitted 161 Mt less than 2020.” Power sector emissions decreased by 20 Mt,
largely thanks to solar PV and wind generation
On one hand, China’s transport emissions increasing by around 95 TWh. However, power
registered a 3.1% decrease in 2022 due to generation contributed more than half of the
reinforcing COVID-19 measures strongly in growth in natural gas emissions, as the trend of
comparison to 2021. At the same time, coal-to-gas switching resumed after a strong coal
electric car sales reached 6 million in 2022, rebound in 2021. The energy crisis pushed
preventing further emissions from diesel European Union to cut emissions through clean
and gasoline cars. On the other hand, US power; the European Union reduced its emissions
emissions grew by 0.8% in 2022; the annual by 2.5% (or 70 Mt).
growth was much slower than 2021’s spurt.

Power sector emissions increased by Despite the global energy crisis, recovery from
28 Mt even though electricity demand the COVID-19 pandemic is proving more
declined, as a temporarily higher reliance sustainable than past crises. Countries
on coal increased carbon intensity. A 15% responded to the high energy prices and energy
increase in wind and solar PV generation security concerns caused by the Russia-Ukraine
helped prevent further coal use with crisis with energy conservation measures, fuel
wind and solar PV for the first time switching, and an acceleration of clean energy
jointly overtaking gas as well as nuclear technology deployment.
energy as the top source of Europe’s
electricity generation. This record- Emissions trends now stand in contrast to those
breaking increase in solar PV and wind seen after the 2008 global financial crisis. Energy
generation avoided almost 75 Mt CO2 intensity of GDP is now 3.5% below 2019 pre-
emissions. Without hydropower pandemic levels, compared to 2% below three
generation decreasing by 21% year-on- years after the onset of the financial crisis.
year and nuclear by 17%, another 80 Mt
could have been averted. “CO2 intensity of energy use in 2022 was lower
than before the pandemic, after a short-lived
rebound in 2021, unlike the increase that
emerged in the early 2010s.”
The large green spending component of stimulus

packages has a lasting impact on controlling
emissions growth. Between April 2020 and
October 2022, economic recovery packages
enacted by governments worldwide included USD
1,215 billion in clean energy investment support.
Energy-related Greenhouse Gas

Emissions
Total energy-related greenhouse gas emissions

increased by 1.0% to an all-time high of 41.3 Gt
CO2-eq. CO2 emissions from energy combustion
and industrial process accounted for 89% of
energy-related greenhouse gas emissions in
2022.
268
Methane from energy combustion, leaks, and
venting represented another 10%, mostly
coming from onshore oil and gas operations
as well as steam coal production. Methane
emissions rose to nearly 135 Mt CH4 or
around 4 Gt CO2-eq in 2022, despite high
natural gas prices that increased the cost-
effectiveness of methane abatement
technologies.
The scope of CO2 emissions in this report

includes emissions from all uses of fossil fuels
for energy purposes, including the
combustion of non-renewable waste, as well
as emissions from industrial processes such
as cement, iron and steel, and chemicals
production. Non-CO2 greenhouse gas
emissions include fugitive oil, gas, and coal
supply emissions. Methane and nitrous oxide
emissions related to energy combustion are
also evaluated based on typical emissions
factors for the corresponding end uses and
regions.
270
Adapting to a New
Climate in the MENA
Region: An Assessment of
Physical Risk Management and
Climate Adaptation Finance
Understanding and measuring avoidable losses
and damages under likely climate scenarios is
critical to scaling up financing.
Ms. Howaida Mohamed

Political Researcher at the Cabinet’s
IDSC
The report issued by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Finance Initiative,
addresses the risks of climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, the
resulting economic impacts, and how banks are responding to climate risks.
The report analyzes the current state of adaptation finance and discusses the barriers to scaling
up finance for adaptation and resilience. The results of this study involve recommendations to
expand the scope of adaptation finance in the region based on desk-based research, a survey of
regional banks, and interviews with a sample of commercial and development finance institutions.
First: Climate Change Risks in the MENA Region
The MENA region is one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to climate change impacts,
putting human activities and natural systems at risk. It is one of the world’s most water-scarce and
dry regions, with a high dependency on climate-sensitive agriculture. A large share of its population
and economic activity is located in flood-prone urban coastal zones.

- Impact on population and infrastructure:
Temperature rise: Unusual heat extremes have been projected to occur in about 30% of summer
months across most of the MENA region. Temperature rise also leaves the region in acute danger of
wildfire, which is already prevalent.
Precipitation variability: Drought periods are projected to significantly increase in intensity,

particularly in countries along the Mediterranean coast. This most obviously impacts water supply
availability with implications for crops and livestock. It may also accelerate desertification, limit
solar generation potential, and cause erosion and sedimentation that hinder water- and land-based
transport.
Sea level rise: According to the estimates of the World Bank of 2020, sea level may rise by an
average of 0.36 m in a 1.5°C average warming scenario and 0.6 m in a 4°C scenario by 2100 with
accelerated coastal erosion in parts of the region. This is notable as many of the region’s population
and economic activity are in flood-prone urban coastal zones. Seawater can also intrude into coastal
aquifers and wells, salinizing the water and devastating coastal agricultural communities.
272
Figure 1
Sea-level projections for Tangier, Tunis, Alexandria, and Muscat
Tangier Tunis
1.4
1.2
1.0
Sea level (m)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Alexandria Muscat
1.4
1.2
Sea level (m)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080
Time (Year) Time (Year)
Global RCP 8.5 RCP 2.6
Notes:
•Projections were made according to scenarios RCP 2.6 (blue) and RCP 8.5 (green).
•Median estimates are given as full thick lines, and the lower and upper bounds are given as shading.
•Full thin lines are global median sea-level rise with dashed lines as lower and upper bounds.
RCP: The Representative Concentration Pathway reflects future scenarios on the change pathway of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere until 2100.
RCP 8.5: It is the highest baseline emissions scenario and indicates a temperature increase of about 4.3˚C by
2100, compared to the pre-industrial era. This means bigger impacts and costs.
RCP 2.6: It alludes to very low emissions concentration rates and delivers a total warming of about 1.8˚C by
2100.
Source: "Adapting to a New Climate in the MENA Region", United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Finance
Initiative, January 2023, P. 9.

"75% of buildings and infrastructure in the MENA region are considered at
direct risk of climate change impacts such as sea level rise, storm surges,
and increased temperatures."
- Economic impacts associated with climate risks:
Some estimates predict a loss of 0.4% to 1.3% of GDP in MENA countries due to climate change
effects, rising to 14% without appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures. Many of these
economic impacts are linked to projected climate change impacts on the highly interlinked factors of
water security, agricultural productivity, migration, displacement, and urbanization. Vulnerable
groups, such as smallholder farmers and women, are likely to be hardest hit by losses in agricultural
productivity due to climate change.
The potential impacts are exaggerated by other global supply chain challenges due to COVID-19 and
the Ukrainian crisis. The pandemic's indirect consequences can significantly constrain climate
adaptation capacity. Small- and medium-sized companies and banks' climate finance plans were also
compromised.
Second: Adaptation and Mitigation Finance in the MENA Region
A. National plans
Many MENA countries have adopted green growth strategies. However, their progress in aligning
national financial systems with sustainable development needs and goals varies. On the regulatory
front, the UAE, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Morocco have all enacted public-private partnership
(PPP) legislation, which will enable the private sector to play a bigger role in supporting the transition
to a more climate resilient economy by increasing its investment in green and low carbon projects.
274
On the finance practices front, Egypt has addressed climate finance in some of its sustainable
development and green finance policies, strategies, and public spending plans. Some of these
practices are intended to scale climate change mitigation, such as ESG reporting guidelines,
sustainable finance frameworks, and innovative financial products. Others may specifically address
climate adaptation finance and climate risk assessment such as Egypt’s National Strategy for
Climate Change 2050 and the Central Bank of Egypt’s guiding principles for sustainable finance.
Although the MENA countries are mostly advanced in terms of sustainable finance policies at the
level of implementation, climate finance maturity, especially adaptation finance, is poor and
remains largely unaffected by these policies.
Egypt’s national plans: To address climate-induced risks, Egypt launched a dedicated National
Climate Change Strategy. The Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) also issued guiding principles for
sustainable finance, which integrate climate risk management among its six principles. Similarly,
the Egyptian Financial Regulatory Authority recently adopted ESG reporting for publicly listed
organizations and required climate-related risk reporting in line with the Task Force on Climate
recommendations.
Egypt aims at increasing the proportion of green projects in the government’s investment budget
from 14% in 2020 to 30% in 2022 while leveraging public-private partnerships (PPPs). In preparation
for COP27, Egypt announced 85 projects in its portfolio with a total cost of USD 11.9 billion including
both mitigation and adaptation projects. The
government is further pitching for investments for two adaptation projects with budgets of USD
800 million and USD 600 million, respectively. The first project is aimed at increasing the resilience
of crop production in the Nile Valley and Delta. The second project will finance the construction of
six solar-powered desalination plants to reduce dependence on freshwater supplies from the Nile.

In Morocco: Since the 1980s, 140 large dams have been built, and desalination programs are being
explored to provide sufficient water. In 2019, Morocco adopted its National 2030 Climate Plan, which
aims to ensure the adaptability of the most vulnerable sectors including water, agriculture, and
fisheries, and mitigate the effects of greenhouse gas emissions caused by sectors such as power
generation and transport. Implementing the plan will require considerable investment, estimated at
about USD 50 billion for mitigation programs and another USD 35 billion for adaptation projects by
2030. Morocco also adopted the National Charter for Environment as part of its National Sustainable
Development Strategy.
B. Role of International and Local Institutions in Funding Adaptation Projects
Adaptation finance can be accessed through international and national public finance, international
and national private finance, and blended finance, which combines both climate grants and bankable
loans. Public funding, both national and international, has been the main source of financing for
adaptation activities in most developing economies, including the MENA region. This funding is
mostly in the form of climate adaptation grants and funds, as well as both direct and indirect finance
from development banks such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the
World Bank Group, the KfW Development Bank, and the French Development Agency (AFD).
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the
Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), global adaptation finance reached USD
30 billion in 2017-2018. The MENA region’s share was only 6% of global climate finance flows despite
the significant climate risks confronting the region. Over 92% of the flows between 2013 and 2018
have gone to Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, and Tunisia, with roughly 60% to Egypt and
Morocco alone. Meanwhile, the least-developed Arab countries, including Djibouti, Mauritania,
Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen, received only 4.3% of the climate finance support provided to the region.
Figure 2
MENA Climate Finance Distribution 2013–2018
Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco Other

3.7%
92% 4.3%
Least-developed Arab countries
60% 40%
Egypt and Morocco Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Tunisia
276
C. How MENA Banks Address Adaptation
A global survey of banks on their response to a changing climate and financing of climate
adaptation was carried out by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in July 2022. It
indicated that banks were largely focused on addressing short-term risks, while climate risks are
usually more significant in the medium-to-long term. Nevertheless, the majority of banks have
started working on measuring physical adaption to the new climate in the MENA region. Climate
risk management in banks’ portfolios and operations is currently very low at 11%. Over a third of
surveyed banks rely on the number of assets or business activities at risk as their key metric for
assessing and managing material climate risks. This shows a rising maturity in understanding
climate-related financial impacts on their investments and portfolios.
“The low number of banks considering Nationally Determined Contributions

(NDCs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) highlights the disconnection
between governments and banks on the subject of climate finance.”
Figure 3
The sectors to which banks offer funding related to climate adaptation
Commercial and residential real estate
Water supply and treatment
Not applicable
Manufacturing (Including cement)
Transport infrastructure
Power generation
Agriculture
Oil and gas

Land use and forestry
Metals and mining
%21
%14
%12 %12
%10 %10 %10
%7
%2 %2

Third: Barriers to Climate Adaptation Finance in MENA Region
Some financial products and services that are normally offered by banks due to their bankability
indirectly address adaptation. The lack of private sector participation and interest in financing
adaptation may be attributed to the following factors:
▪ There is currently no unified, clear, and industry agreed definition for climate adaptation.
Individual banks adopt different interpretations in the absence of clear standards, metrics, and
methodologies.
▪ Responding to climate change needs has long been perceived as a public good that lacks
profitability and must be funded by national budgets or international grants. This perception has
severely delayed the advancement of adaptation finance in the region.
▪ Banks still perceive that corporations and governments are not aware of the value of investing in
climate resilience.
▪ Banks in the MENA region are not fully equipped with knowledge, clear understanding, and tools
for identifying and assessing material climate risks.
Fourth: Means to Scale up Adaptation Finance in MENA

and Enhance Role of Banks and Banking Institutions
The future of development plans and economic and social resilience in the
MENA region hinges on scaling up finance for adaptation.
The physical impacts of climate change affect all sectors to varying degrees,
so individual investments in adaptation cannot build resilience on their own.
Adaptation, therefore, requires collaboration between a range of
stakeholders, including financial institutions, national and local
governments, businesses, development banks, and civil society
organizations.
278
- Recommended measures to promote the role of banks and the private sector in
funding climate adaptation projects:
▪ Conducting awareness campaigns to highlight the importance and potential benefits of

adaptation finance to all stakeholders.
▪ Designing training and capacity-building programs addressing physical climate risks and
adaptation finance in coordination with central banks and banking institutions.
▪ Launching and promoting climate data platforms to illustrate how information and data can
be used to assess and manage risks related to assets and portfolios.
▪ Coordinating with local government and academics to identify sectors, communities, and
economic activities that can benefit from adaptation finance in line with national plans.
▪ Improving national climate data availability and reliability in partnership with governments,
regulators, and development finance institutions (DFIs).
▪ Integrating adaptation finance knowledge databases and tools with existing systems that
banks rely on in their sector risk and market analysis.
▪ Developing national-level incentives and support mechanisms for banks financing adaptation,
integrating adaptation finance in PPP mechanisms, and creating linkages with national green
investment.
▪ Introducing innovative financial products and services targeting adaptation and resilience and
promoting assurance on ESG.
- Sharm El-Sheikh Banking Declaration (SSBD):
Sharm El-Sheikh Banking Declaration (SSBD), a UNEP FI COP27-initiated initiative, aims at serving
as a coalition and cooperation platform that engages the MENA banking institutions to
collectively act toward a common sustainability agenda. The declaration will also provide a
platform to access UNEP FI support for banks on their transition journey. SSBD’s main focus will
be on climate action, with a focus on climate adaptation to boost the impact of the banking
institutions in the MENA and the wider emerging market. The declaration is, therefore, a unique
opportunity for MENA banks to join forces to tackle the challenges and barriers holding banks
back from integrating climate risks and scaling adaptation finance.

280
Capturing Opportunities:
How Can the World
Transition to Green
Economy?
The transition to a green economy is the

solution to facing the dilemma of climate
change. Where we can switch to a zero-
emissions environment without affecting the
economy, on the contrary, we can seize the
opportunity and take advantage of all the
advantages that this transition offers.
Ms. Dina Helmy

IDSC.
USD 10.3 trillion is the value of the world’s gains when shifting to a green economy and the zero-
emission environment it aspires to reach in 2050. It is equivalent to 5.2% of global GDP that year.
Additionally, a failure to act on the aspired goal could damage global GDP by around 0.5% by 2050.
Surely, the damage is not constrained to economic loss but extends to numerous health and
environmental disasters threatening life on the planet. The last seven years have been the seven
hottest in the planet's recorded history; moreover, extreme climate phenomena aggravated before
us all. Devastating floods in Pakistan affected 33 million of the country’s population.
Unprecedented losses of biodiversity occurred, and ecosystems degraded. The Arctic sea ice is also
disappearing faster than previously thought possible. The cost of weather-related interruptions to
economic activity reached USD 233 billion in 2021, representing 0.24% of world GDP.
Given this catastrophic scenario and the opportunities offered by the shift to a zero-emission
environment, the world’s governments, especially emerging countries, have reached a crossroads.
On one hand, they want to evade these catastrophic consequences; on the other hand, they are
facing several challenges on the transition path. The economic conditions remain the main
daunting obstacle.

In this context, Arup and Oxford Economics issue a report titled “The Global Green Economy:
Capturing the opportunity”. It pinpoints that the transition to the green economy is the solution to
this dilemma. Shifting to a zero-emission environment can occur without prejudice to the
economy; on the contrary, opportunities and advantages of such transition should be seized and
utilized.
282
Toward A Better Understanding of Green Economy
The idea of a green economy is not new. First coined in 1989 in a report to the British government,
the term was fully formed in 2008 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as a
response to global economic downturns. UNEP formally defined it in 2011 as "[An economy] that
results in improved human wellbeing and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental
risks and ecological scarcities.
According to the definition, growth in income and employment should be driven by public and
private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource
efficiency, and prevent biodiversity loss in a green economy. However, there is a need for an
economic definition that governments can use to identify which green industries to develop to
foster green prosperity, which the current taxonomies lack.
Green transition is not a cost but a substantial opportunity and new tool
to help economic policymakers identify opportunities and take the right
action to capture them.
All definitions agree that the main purpose of the green economy is
to achieve environmental objectives, i.e., to reduce the impact of
economic development on the environment. There is an excessive
emphasis on climate change mitigation, while forgetting that a green
economy should potentially impact all aspects of sustainability, be it
environmental, economic, or social. As such, a truly comprehensive
understanding of green economy objectives should encompass the
following:
Environmental objectives: spanning across climate change mitigation

and adaptation, but also circular and sustainable resource
management.
Economic objectives: such as fostering economic prosperity, creating

high-quality jobs, improving standards of living, fueling innovation
and employment, and strengthening global trade competitiveness.
Social objectives: such as poverty reduction and social inclusiveness.

As previously mentioned, the aggregate opportunities presented to industries by the transition to
a net zero emissions environment will be worth USD 10.3 trillion in 2050 of the total global GDP.
Around USD 4 trillion of this opportunity will be captured directly by those enterprises developing
and producing new carbon-neutral goods and services. A further USD 6.3 trillion of value is to be
added to the wider supply chains of those industries.
Creating New Green Markets
To quantify the size of the green economic opportunity, the Net Zero by 2050 (NZE2050) scenario
drawn up by the International Energy Agency (IEA) is relied upon to formulate baseline
projections. The NZE2050 scenario sets out a detailed roadmap of actions required to limit global
warming to 1.5C above pre-industrial levels by 2050. Several new green markets for carbon-neutral
goods and services hold a major stake in the future global economy, such as:
Fear is a compelling reason

to act towards climate
change, but we believe
human ambition can be
another critical driver of
environmental action.
Brice Richard
Arup Global Strategy Skills Leader
284
01 Electric Vehicle Manufacturing:
In 2020, the transport sector accounted for 7.2Gt of CO2 emissions, equivalent to more than 20% of
the global total. This amount must be reduced to 0.7Gt under the NZE2050 scenario through a
combination of modal shifts, energy efficiency improvements, and electric vehicles (EV). To meet
the needs of the IEA net zero scenario, EV production will have to scale rapidly. The electric share of
light-duty vehicle sales will have to rise from around 4% of total vehicle sales in 2020 to more than
60% in 2030 and close to 100% in 2050. The said will directly contribute USD 777 billion to the global
economy by 2030 and USD 1,471 billion by 2050. The EV manufacturing sector will create indirect
economic activity in its supply chain worth USD 993 billion by 2030, rising to USD 1,878 billion by
2050. Therefore, the total economic activity created by this sector by 2050 will amount to USD
3.4 trillion.
Figure 1
Global GVA from EV production, under NZE2050 scenario
USD, billions ( 2020 prices)
4000
3500
3349
3000
2497
2500
2000
1770
1500
1000
500
118
0
2020 2030 2040 2050
Direct impact Indirect impact
Source: Richard. B and James.L. "The Global Green Economy: Capturing the opportunity." Oxford Economics, Arup.
Jan 10, 2023.

02 Renewable Electricity Generation:
The displacement of fossil fuels by low-emissions electricity is one of the most important drivers of
emissions reductions in the NZE2050 scenario, accounting for around 20% of total global emissions
reductions. The share of renewable energy in total global electricity generation will grow from
around 29% in 2020 to 60% by 2030 and nearly 90% by 2050. The majority of this is expected to
come from wind and solar power (35% and 33% of total electricity generation, respectively, in 2050).
Estimates indicate that the green electricity generation and distribution sector will directly
contribute $1.06 trillion to global GDP by 2030, rising to USD 2.03 trillion by 2050. In addition, this
renewable electricity generation will support indirect economic activity in global supply chains
worth USD 1.6 trillion by 2030, rising to USD 3.3 trillion by 2050. The total economic activity created
by this sector will amount to USD 5.3 trillion by 2050.
Figure 2
Global GVA from renewable electricity generation, under NZE2050 scenario
USD, billions ( 2020 prices)
6000
5331
5000
4279
4000
3000
2671
2000
1000 901
0
2020 2030 2040 2050
Source: Richard. B and James.L. "The Global Green Economy: Capturing the opportunity." Oxford Economics, Arup. Jan 10,
2023.
286
03 Clean Energy Equipment:
The zero-emission race requires a dramatic expansion in the energy supply chain across a wide
range of renewable energy sources, including solar, wind, heat pumps, hydro, geothermal, and
marine power. Estimates highlight that clean energy equipment manufacturing activity will directly
account for USD 122 billion of global GDP by 2040. The annual direct gross value added (GVA)
contribution to GDP of this sector will then plateau and fall slightly to USD 101 billion by 2050 as the
need for new capital investment into this infrastructure tails off. The global clean energy
equipment manufacturing sector and its supply chain will be worth roughly USD 316 billion by 2050.
04 Renewable Fuel Production:
Part of the solution to reducing carbon emissions in the transport sector and heavy industry comes
from a substitution of fossil fuels for sustainable alternatives. Bioenergy will play an evolving role in
the net zero transition over the next 30 years. Renewable fuel production will directly contribute
USD 135 billion to global GDP by 2030, rising to USD 295 billion by 2050. An additional USD 495 billion
of economic activity will take place in the supply chain of renewable fuel production by 2030, rising
to USD 837 billion by 2050. Therefore, it is estimated that the total economic activity created by this
sector by 2050 will be equivalent to USD 1.1 trillion.

Figure 3
Global GVA from renewable fuel production, under NZE2050 scenario
USD, billions (2020 prices)
1200
1132
1021
1000
800
628
600
400
200
91
0
2020 2030 2040 2050
The direct value of hydrogen The direct value of Biofuels
The Indirect value of hydrogen The Indirect value of Biofuels
Jan 10, 2023.
05 Green Finance:
Capital investment worth 1.5% of global GDP is required to finance the transition to NZE2050.
A large new capital market must emerge, in which investments to decarbonize the global energy
system are driven by buying and selling equity and debt instruments. A new green financial services
sector is emerging with the purpose of delivering investable returns and environmentally positive
outcomes. Financial tools, such as green bonds and carbon market instruments, incentivize carbon-
reducing investments and discourage environmentally damaging ones. Green finance industry will
make a direct contribution to global GDP of USD 36 billion in 2030, rising to USD 61 billion by 2050.
288
Figure 4
Global GVA from green finance, under NZE2050 scenario
USD, billions (2020 prices)
152
160
140 128
120 102
100
80
60
21
40
20
0
2020 2030 2040 2050
Jan 10, 2023.
How Can Government Capture the Opportunity?
In 20 to 30 years, the green economy will be a significant integral part of the global economy. Thus,
governments must take decisive actions to foster green prosperity. The Net Zero Transformation
scenario assumes that governments introduce policies that encourage private sector investment.
Measures such as R&D tax credits, co-financing, and risk guarantees all have the potential to spur
faster private sector investment. Notably, the best practices adopted by countries in regard to
designing a national plan for a green economy must be considered. The report has put forward a
useful guide for governments to capture green opportunities via a diverse bundle of policy tools
such as:
Incentivizing: Where an incentive structure does not exist, governments may choose from a
selection of fiscal and pricing policies, for example, to spur the uptake of green products and
services.
Enabling: Where there is a missing link to management or sustained action, government may
choose actions to create the enabling conditions necessary for the green economy transition.
Mandating: Facing significant barriers to social acceptability, competitiveness issues, vested

interests, etc., governments may have no choice but to enforce changes in current practices and
behaviors.

A comparison of approaches can be seen in the different routes that France and Norway have taken
to encourage the uptake of electric vehicles. Both countries have developed vehicle taxation
systems, though the results have differed greatly.
In Norway, levels of uptake have been a resounding success; the focus has been on making electric
vehicles cheaper through purchase tax exemptions. In addition to this incentive, Norway has
encouraged the switch to electric vehicles by funding research and development and through the
deployment of a public charging network infrastructure. The country has also created campaigns
and tools to further educate the public. It has been a well-coordinated mix of actions.
The opposite approach has been taken in France, which introduced a pollution tax on traditional
petrol/diesel vehicles. The country has introduced other measures through which the share of
electric car sales in France has increased from 1% in 2015 to only 12% in 2020. In the same period,
Norway saw a jump from 25% to close to 75%. In this context, governments can commence with
numerous areas to promote green economic development:
▪ Governance: Guiding green economy by integrated institutions.
▪ Policy: Setting strategic direction for the green economy,

coherent with existing policies.
▪ Ecosystem: Bringing stakeholders across sectors together to drive

systemic change.
▪ Innovation: Developing new green technologies and business

models, decoupling growth from negative environmental impacts.
▪ Financing: Closing the gap between capital providers and green

projects.
▪ Capabilities: Equipping the workforce with the skills needed for

new green jobs.
▪ Infrastructure: Developing underlying infrastructure and logistics

for green activities.
▪ Market: Encouraging the formation of new markets for a green

economy.
290
The green economy transition will play out differently depending on each country’s unique context.
This is particularly true for emerging markets that face their own set of challenges such as high
vulnerability to climate change, dependence on fossil fuels, and pertaining economic and financial
conditions. The following are some challenges that must be faced during the transition to a green
economy:
Addressing infrastructure development bottlenecks: Major investments are needed to deliver the
green energy transition in emerging markets. Some studies suggest that these markets will have to
account for 70% of the new green infrastructure required globally for a low-carbon transition.
Connecting capital providers with green projects: There are some critical issues for emerging
economies: the funding and financing needed for green projects, the underdevelopment of local
capital markets and the banking sector, and lower credit ratings or creditworthiness scores. In a
situation where money flows can find easily bankable and safer opportunities in developed
economies, there is a need to find better ways to connect capital providers to green projects in
emerging markets.
Finding the right positioning: In the face of competition from advanced economies, that have a
seemingly entrenched comparative advantage in key sectors, emerging markets might question
whether they have what it takes to be a green economy leader. Every economy has a unique
combination of assets on which it can build to develop sustainable competitive advantages.
Therefore, ensuring that growing the green economy does not come at the expense of vulnerable
segments of the population must be a focus of any future action. Policies must be designed in a way
that ensures costs and benefits are equitably distributed, and the pain of transition is eased as
much as possible.

292
Circularity Gap Report
2023
Circular solutions can limit the global abuses of

planetary boundaries, thereby maintaining
thriving ecosystems for water, land, and air and
limiting the global temperature rise to within
2°C.
Ms. Eman Ragab

IDSC
Earth is now home to 8 billion people. The global economy consumes a landmark 100 billion tons of
materials annually to shelter, feed, transport, and cloth these billions. By 2050, material extraction
and use are expected to double relative to 2015 levels, threatening a total breakdown of Earth’s life
support systems. They are already at a breaking point driven by concurrent climate change
disasters, economic vulnerabilities, political instabilities, and ecosystem failures.
A crucial solution to address this challenge is a circular economy. It should not confine to just
recycling. Increases in secondary material use must be matched by a systemic approach to smart
material management that enables doing more with less, using for longer, and substituting with
sustainably managed regenerative materials.
The world’s circularity has shrunk from 9.1% to 7.2% of total material inputs. It is getting worse
annually due to rising material extraction and use trend. The global economy increasingly relies on
materials from virgin sources. In the six years of the Circularity Gap Report, first released in 2018,
the global economy extracted and used more resources than in the entire 20th century. Although
people’s living standards improved, the safe environmental limits of the planet were jeopardized.

The Circularity Gap Report 2023, issued by Stichting Circle Economy Foundation, offers a more
holistic outlook on the circular economy. It provides 16 transformational circular solutions across
four key systems: food systems, built environment, manufactured goods and consumables, and
mobility and transport. They can limit the global abuses of planetary boundaries, thereby
maintaining thriving ecosystems for water, land, and air and limiting the global temperature rise
to within 2°C.
294
Applying Circular Economy’s Principles via 4 Key Strategies:
Total material extraction is on the rise worldwide: it has

more than tripled since 1970. This growth is not solely due
to the global population doubling since 1970, as per-person
material use has increased as well. While virgin material
demand in 1970 was around 7.4 tons per person, it
amounts today to approximately 12 tons. This growth in
per-person material demand has not been evenly
distributed across countries. Material use may outpace
population growth in high-income countries, while the
opposite is true for lower-income countries, generating a
global average that only shows part of the picture.
Thus, the focus must be on getting more value from fewer

materials. Achieving the aims of a circular economy—use
less, use longer, make clean, and use again—can be done
through four key strategies, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Four key strategies to achieve the principle of circular economy
Cycle
4 Use again
Regenerate
3 Make clean
Narrow Slow
1 Use less 2 Use longer
Product design Functional use End-of-life
Source: CIRCLE ECONOMY. " CIRCULARITY GAP REPORT". 2023.

Narrow: Use Less
Using less is a core tenet of the circular economy; thus, it is essential to adopt strategies that
reduce material and energy use. Currently, material use is highly inefficient and ineffective.
Although the threshold for sustainable consumption amounts to 8 tons per person, it is being
surpassed by 1.5 times. Much less should be used, and fossil fuel usage must be phased out. The
focus must be placed on using materials efficiently; for instance, one can ride a bike instead of
driving a car, eat less meat, and live in a space that suits one’s needs.
Slow: Use Longer
Slow strategies aim at keeping materials in use for as long as possible through design for
durability and repairability. A circular economy is also slower: materials, components, and
products—and even buildings and infrastructure—locked in stocks are made to last. Consequently,
material demand will lower in the long run, and non-stop resource flows will be narrowed.
Regenerate: Make Clean
Strategies must be updated to phase out hazardous or toxic materials and processes and
substitute them with regenerative biomass resources. A circular economy aims at mimicking
natural cycles by shifting to more regenerative farming practices, while maximizing the share of
circular biomass that enters the economy. Regeneration can happen both at the systems level
(by designing regenerative processes) as well as at the product level (by switching from
synthetic to organic fertilizers, for example).
296
Cycle: Use Again
Circular strategies aim at reusing materials at their

highest value. They can maximize the volume of secondary
materials re-entering the economy, ultimately minimizing
the need for virgin material inputs and narrowing flows. In
contrast, virgin materials will always be needed to a
degree because all materials degrade and cannot be
cycled infinitely, use energy, and require blending with
virgin materials to maintain strength and functionality.
Moreover, achieving 100% circularity is not feasible. While

the objective may seem to be reaching a ‘fully circular’
economy, this is technically impossible. There is a practical
limit to the volume of materials that can be recirculated.
It is partially due to technical constraints, but also because
some materials are combusted through their use such as
fossil fuels, while others are locked into long-term stocks
for many years, making them unavailable for cycling.
Materials that can be cycled, such as metal, plastic, and
glass, may only be cycled a few times, as each cycle
degrades quality and will require at least some virgin
inputs.

Applying 16 Circular Solutions via Four Key Systems:
If a circular economy was implemented across food, built environment, manufactured goods and
consumables, and mobility and transport systems, virgin material extraction could drop by around
one-third (34%)—from 92.7 billion tons to 61.2 billion tons. GHG emissions could also be reduced
enough to limit global temperature rise to 2°C.
Circular solutions for the food system
The unique properties of the global food trade and the importance of food as a basic human need
and right necessitate a systemic approach to sustainable food production and consumption for a
planet of 8 billion people. Thus, global food production conducted circularly is vital to maintain the
global food system within safe planetary boundaries. Circular solutions can be applied to the food
system through the following:
Put healthier, satiating foods first: Healthy daily Mainstream regenerative agriculture:
calorie intakes are averaged at around 2,600. Regenerative and circular agricultural processes
Thus, satiating and healthy foods with a lower that encourage closed nutrient loops must be
environmental impact must be prioritized, scaled up. This model supports healthy soils and
ideally shifting calories from meat, fish, and ultimately keeps the land arable for far longer
dairy towards cereals, fruits, vegetables, and than typical farming processes.
nuts.
No more avoidable food waste: Food waste must
Go local, seasonal, and organic: The production be abolished along the supply chain and at the
and consumption of local, seasonal, and organic consumer level through better transport and
produce must be prioritized. This can lead to a storage management, more refrigeration and
reduced need for fertilizers, heating fuels, and smart planning, and technology improvement at
transportation and processing services. the consumer and food service levels.
298
Circular solutions for the built environment
The built environment is essential, yet the way

the built-up spaces are designed to deliver
these needs determines the material demand
to follow, thereby either greatly impacting or
benefiting the environment.
The circular solutions demonstrate that a

modern and efficient built environment can be
established with significantly less impact on the
crucial life support systems of the planet
through the following:
Be as energy efficient as possible: From the

design phase, circular strategies should be
utilized to create material- and energy-efficient
buildings, through the ‘passivhaus’ approach,
for example. This can be coupled with clean
energy solutions like low-carbon heating and
Prioritize circular materials and approaches: A
cooling approaches such as heat pumps.
huge range of circular approaches can cut the
Energy-efficient appliances must be a priority;
emissions in buildings: transition to using wood
lower temperatures must be used; and lower
instead of steel and concrete or move to other
thermostat settings by a few degrees should be
locally available materials. Mainstream modular
adjusted. Overall, energy demands must be
construction must be utilized, and lightweight
radically reduced.
frames and structures must be prioritized to
reduce cement and steel use. Green roofs
Make the most of what already exists: There are
should also be used where possible.
already huge amounts of materials locked into
existing buildings; they can be optimally reused,
Reuse waste: The high-value reuse of buildings
repurposed, and renovated with secondary
and components must be maximized where
materials. Where new builds are needed, one
possible. Ideally, construction and demolition
should be as efficient as possible with urban
waste should be a thing of the past. If it cannot
planning solutions that follow circular design
be avoided, as much of it as possible should be
principles so that buildings can be reused,
recycled to avoid the need for virgin materials,
repurposed, or easily disassembled in the
such as sand and gravel.
future.

Circular solutions for manufactured goods Extend the lifetime of machinery, equipment, and
and consumables goods: Maximizing the lifetime of goods that serve

our daily needs can bring a number of environmental
The manufacturing industry is rife with the benefits. The costs to repair, remanufacture,
opportunity to improve by drawing on circular upgrade, and reuse should be reduced through
strategies that boost efficiency, get more circular business models, material substitution, or
from less, minimize pollution, and consider regulations on the minimum guarantee of products.
social justice measures. Extractive and
manufacturing industries will need to continue Buy what you need: The purchases of common
to fuel collective demand for materials and electronic goods, appliances, and other equipment
support the large-scale deployment of should be limited to sufficiency levels. This shift is
renewable energy infrastructure. Circular assumed to be supported by a combination of
solutions can be applied to manufactured policies such as a raw material tax, but also service-
goods and consumables through the following: based circular business models like sharing or pay-
per-use.
Mainstream industrial symbiosis and
efficiency: Improvements must take place in Eschew fast fashion in favor of sustainable textiles:
processes and activities; scrap should be Natural and local textile manufacturing and higher-
transformed; and yield losses should be quality and more durable garments should be
decreased through greater industrial prioritized. All used clothing should go on to be
symbiosis and efficiency. Tighter collaboration reused or, if needed, recycled appropriately. Industry
within and between industries must be shifts to encourage the large-scale deployment of
fostered to deliver powerful material and sustainable production speed this process up.
emissions savings.
Circular solutions for mobility and transport
Transiting transport and mobility towards

sustainability is a multidimensional process and key
to reducing environmental pressures globally.
Emissions from transport and mobility must
decrease sharply in the coming years through
decarbonization and the higher uptake of active
transport modes: walking and biking, where possible.
With circular economy design principles at the core,
healthy and efficient freight and transport systems
can be created for the future with significantly less
impact on the planet through the following:
300
Embrace car-free lifestyles and roads: Car purchases can be swapped for bikes and ride-sharing
initiatives, especially in urban areas. A boost in virtual work reduces the number of kilometers
traveled for commuting. This shift encourages better utilization of spatial assets and former office
spaces in urban settings.
Invest in high-quality public transport: The use of public transport, including bus, tram, and rail
networks, should be boosted. Extra care can also be given to creating safer cycling routes and
pedestrianized city centers, ultimately improving the livability of regions and cities.
Rethink air-travel: One should minimize personal air travel, especially in regions with the most
demand for long-haul air travel, such as North America, Europe, and Asia.
Electrify remaining vehicles: Public transport vehicles should be electrified along with 50% of all
privately-owned cars.
It is sound to say that each country has a different starting point and will progress at a different
pace toward the shared global goal of reversing environmental overshoot, while fulfilling people’s
needs. Bringing these circular solutions to life requires understanding local, national, and trading
contexts. Transformational change does not look the same across the world: some countries need
to radically reduce material extraction and use, while others need to stabilize or develop material
use.
The world’s highest-income (Shift) countries deliver high standards of living but consume the
majority of the world’s materials and massively overshoot many planetary boundaries. These
countries must focus on reducing overconsumption and curbing their impact on the environment.
Middle-income (Grow) countries are rapidly industrializing and have a growing middle class. Their
material consumption has increased in tandem, but some are now reaching saturation points.
These countries should now focus on new ways to stabilize and optimize their material
consumption to maximize societal wellbeing.
Finally, Build countries house the majority of the world’s population that strive to meet basic needs
like education and healthcare. However, they use less than a tenth of the materials of Shift
countries. These countries should focus on the building up of infrastructure and the provision of
wellbeing, even if this requires that they increase their material footprint.

302
Top 10 Sustainable
Business Trends of
2023
There is no path to decarbonization without

major investments in natural capital. If the
climate crisis truly is the largest investment
opportunity in a generation, investing in natural
capital is destined to become core to that
opportunity.
Ms. Doaa Gabr

IDSC,
"Stay the course".

That may be the key message coming out of the convulsing, confounding year that was 2022.
Those 12 months threw at us a still-raging pandemic, a global economic downturn, major supply-
chain choke points, political upheavals, climate-exacerbated natural disasters, and a global energy
crisis spurred by Russia - Ukraine crisis; there's no turning back for sustainability professionals.
Of course, inflation and low economic growth led some companies to tap the brakes, slowing some
sustainability initiatives. But, fortunately, not for long. There’s a general sense that the critical
nature of social and environmental challenges and the risks they pose to companies and society will
keep sustainability a hot-button business issue for the foreseeable future. Notably, some of the
perturbations listed above have had a salutary effect on sustainability. They led to a ramping up of
renewable, homegrown energy sources, notably solar and offshore wind, along with fast-growing
energy storage technologies. Moreover, biodiversity and natural capital are recognized as critical
inputs to business and industry; healthy ocean ecosystems are linked to climate mitigation and
resilience.

In this context, the State of Green Business 2023 report, published by GreenBiz, highlights ten key
trends in 2023, reflecting a broad range of environmental and sustainability topics: micro-mobility,
decarbonization, circular economy, climate technology, sustainable food systems, and renewable
energy.
304
Micro mobility and Transit Pave the Way to Net Zero
The road to decarbonizing transport is looking more promising. Shifting transportation away from
cars toward public transport and micro-mobility options across the world's cities must roughly
double this decade to align with the Paris Agreement. Between 40 to 80 % of global miles traveled
in cities must be from walking, cycling, or public transit, according to the C40 Cities Climate
Leadership Group.
Businesses, governments, and individuals are starting to take this road. Amazon launched its first
fleet e-cargo bike and on-foot delivery program in the UK. One analysis found that if the 50 largest
US cities adopted certain shared mobility services at scale, they could cut 100 million metric tons of
greenhouse gas emissions annually, equating to 40 % of all US transport emissions. During Covid –
19 pandemic, emissions from air, road, maritime, and rail travel have significantly declined, as
shown in Figure (1).
Still, the transition won't be easy. Cities will need to prioritize shifting people away from personal
vehicles; build new bike lanes; expand, electrify, and improve public transit to serve more people,
and create interconnected systems between modes of transportation. The Federal Infrastructure
Investment and Jobs Act provides USD 89.9 billion for public transit.
Figure 1
Emissions from Air, Road, Maritime and Rail Travel Rebounded After a Pandemic-Era Decline
300 million
Rail
Rail
Rail
Rail
Rail
Rail
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
Maritime
Maritime
Maritime
Maritime
Maritime
Maritime
road
road
road
road
road
road
200 million
Tones of CO2e
100 million
0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Scope 3 Scope 2 Scope 1

Source: S&P Global sustainable 1. Data as of November 2022.

Sustainability Gets Schooled at Work
Corporations are starting to invest in educating employees about the relationship between
sustainability and ESG issues to business success and motivating them to incorporate sustainability
at work and home, as shown in Figure (2). Doing that requires a new generation of courses and
delivery systems. Numerous educational offerings related to sustainability and climate have
emerged in the past couple of years, ranging from online learning platforms such as Salesforce’s
Trailhead and Microsoft’s LinkedIn Learning to climate courses from organizations such as
"terra.do" and certificate programs from universities and others.
Jones Lang LaSalle produced a series of short video modules to explain sustainability and ESG, what
the firm is doing in that arena, and why it's important to the company and its clients. In addition,
Avnet took a similar approach. At this early stage, it's not clear how success will be measured. Still,
given many companies' aggressive sustainability goals, employers hope every job can become
sustainable.
Figure 2
Percentage of companies by sector that have environmental policies and provide training for employees to
understand their work's impact on the environment
)%(
75
59.6
56.5
55.5
54.4
54.5
54.3
55.1
52.0
50.8
51.6
50.0
50
25
0
Consumer Staples
Health Care
Industrials
Average Across Sectors
Utilities
Consumer Discretionary
Materials
Information Technology
Energy
Communication Services
Real Estate
Results based on responses from 1,403 companies assessed in the 2022 S&P Global Corporate Sustainability Assessment
that affirmed they have environmental policies.
306
Companies Learn to Measure the Unmeasurable
The past few decades of corporate sustainability have been characterized by countless pledges
and commitments targeting the end of this decade. But as those 2030 deadlines get closer, the
talk has moved to action and impact — and even more so, measuring that impact. Quantitative
goals have been applied to carbon emissions for a long time, such as net-zero emissions and
1.5 Celsius degrees of warming. However, the other factors that contribute to the climate crisis
as well as the embedded social impacts, lack such straightforward numbers. So how does the
adage of "what gets measured gets managed" apply to factors where the assessment is more
subjective? That is the question companies and organizations are starting to unpack.
Understanding companies' impacts and improvements will require innovative and more nuanced
methodologies. For example, tracking biodiversity and nature conservation initiatives requires
transforming qualitative assessments into quantitative metrics. That's no small feat. All nature
is local, making it difficult to create a global metric.
Some work is already being done to help companies measure and track such abstract attributes.
The UN Convention on Biological Diversity met in December 2022 to create the equivalent of
a 1.5 Celsius-degree pathway for nature. But unlike greenhouse gas emissions, the target is not
yet a number but this aspiration: "By 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely
used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits
essential for all people."
Meanwhile, the Science Based Targets Network plans to publish guidance in early 2023 for
setting land and water conservation targets. The companies will be asked to use and report on
quantitative metrics based on five main drivers of nature loss: land-use change; climate change;
pollution; natural resource use and exploitation; and invasive species.

Alternative Protein Beefs Up for the Mainstream
The industry of alternative protein, without animal-based ingredients, has written a tremendous
success story — evidenced not only in supermarket shelves; for example, pant-based meat and milk
share of total retail sales in the US, EU, and China increased in 2020, as shown in Figure (3), but also
by the USD 5 billion in disclosed investments companies secured in 2021, a fivefold increase from
just three years ago.
Alternative protein backers have long extended to include the world’s largest food companies. In
2023, food purveyors will accelerate efforts to capture those consumers. Many of today’s plant-
based foods don’t live up to the taste and texture of the products they’re meant to replace, so the
industry is expanding its toolkit.
Governments also increasingly understand the case for supporting protein research and
manufacturing. Resource-constrained countries such as Singapore have long led the way.
US President Joe Biden signed an executive order to launch a national biotechnology and
biomanufacturing initiative in September 2022 that, among other goals, aims at improving food
security by supporting cultivated meat.
Figure 3
Plant-based Meat and Milk Share of Total Retail Sales in the US, EU, and China in 2020
)%(
25 24.0
20
15.0
15
10.0
10
0.5
5
1.4 1.3
0
U.S. EU China U.S. EU China
Meat Milk
308
Carbon Disclosure Becomes Mandatory
Carbon disclosure is spotlighted internationally, with Belgium, Canada, Chile, France, Japan, New
Zealand, Sweden, and the United Kingdom among those requiring financial disclosures aligned with
the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosure (TCFD). The United States will follow with
the Securities and Exchange Commission's proposed rule, the Enhancement and Standardization of
Climate-Related Disclosures for Investors, which posits that the climate crisis creates financial risks
for companies, requiring them to disclose their emissions and prospects in a climate-changing
world.
Overall, there will be stricter standardization aimed at decreasing the mispricing of climate risk by
investors and ensuring data that companies provide is comparable and “decision-useful.” One
expected development is an increase in companies supporting TCFD, as shown in Figure (4), and
companies hiring professionals and seeking technologies in support of what's called MRV — for
measuring, reporting, and verification — to keep up with the demand by regulators, investors, and
customers for accurate carbon disclosure data.
TCFD and the GHG Protocol, which standardized greenhouse gas reporting, will serve as the
foundational principles for future reporting practices. Key players such as International
Sustainability Standards Board will play an integral role in managing and auditing these standards
to further harmonize climate data outputs.
Figure 4
Number of Companies, By Sector, That Support Climate-Related Financial Disclosures
Year
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Number of Companies
Financials Information Technology Real Estate Other

Industrials Communication Services Utilities Energy
Government Consumer Staples Materials Consumer Discretionary
Analysis based on the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) website list of supporters across sectors
globally. "Support" indicates that an organization believes the TCFD recommendations provide a useful framework to increase
transparency on climate-related risks and opportunities within financial markets

Water Tech Catches a Wave
"Climate change is the problem, but water is the messenger, " observes Jose Ignacio Galindo, co-
founder, and CEO of San Francisco-based Waterplan, an early-stage software firm helping
Amazon and many international companies understand their operational impact on watersheds
where they do business.
Waterplan represents a new generation of “aquapreneurs” focused on industrial and commercial

water applications. From planning tools to advanced wastewater filtering and recycling systems
to freshwater generation technologies, these startups are thirsty for funding and finding more
investors willing to fill their cups as 2030 looms.
Historically speaking, venture capital flowing into water technology has been a trickle rather
than a flood — an estimated USD 470 million in 2021. That’s a mere drop in the bucket compared
with the USD 27 billion invested in climate tech in the first half of 2022 alone. The category
barely rates separate considerations — solutions for stormwater abatement, wastewater
treatment, pipe maintenance, irrigation, and so on are often categorized as ag-tech, urban-tech,
or industrial tech, including non-water technologies.
But money is gushing in particular into digital water technologies, with Bluefield Research -
specialized in providing strategies for utilities, companies, and organizations addressing the
challenges and opportunities in water - predicting global spending for that segment alone to
double to USD 55.2 billion in 2030, from USD 25.9 billion in 2021.
310
Natural Capital Earns Investor Interest
In economic terms, climate change results from a massive externality: an unpriced element in
producing, consuming, and transporting goods and services. Fossil fuels are a primary ingredient in
the eye-popping economic growth of the past two centuries, but the cost of burning them wasn't
originally factored into the equation. Increasingly, that's changing. Institutional investors across the
globe are taking stock of natural capital, which national economies and investors have historically
neglected. Investing in natural capital — the value extracted from soil, air, water, climate, and all the
living things and ecosystem services that make the economy possible — has long made
environmental sense. Examples include advancing sustainable hydroponics, beef alternatives,
biodegradable consumer products, or degraded land restoration.
Investors increasingly see the economic rationale, too. The World Economic Forum estimates that
protecting nature and protecting biodiversity could generate USD 10 trillion annually in business
opportunities, from farming to fashion to finance, creating nearly 400 million new jobs.
There is no path to decarbonization without major investments in natural

capital. If the climate crisis truly is the largest investment opportunity in a
generation, investing in natural capital is destined to become core to that
opportunity.

Carbon Tech Captures
Billions in Funds
Carbon removal technology is capturing

more than just greenhouse gases. It's also
sucking up billions of investor dollars. After
debuting 50 years ago, carbon tech —
technologies that capture, store, and use
emitted carbon; reduce emissions from
other sectors; or monitor physical assets
containing stored carbon — was long
considered too expensive and inefficient to
be a viable climate solution.
But the skyrocketing number of venture

capital (VC) deals in 2022, plus the sobering
reality that eight years remain to halve
global emissions in line with the Paris
Agreement awakened carbon tech funding
from its slumber.
Carbon Tech raised USD 10.7 billion in VC

investments across 517 deals in the first
three quarters of the year, according to
Pitchbook’s 2022 Carbon & Emissions Tech
report. Large oil and gas producers,
including Occidental Petroleum and Talos
Energy, are also financially committing to
the long-term economic potential of
carbon tech. ExxonMobil recently signed a
USD 2.5 billion agreement with Indonesia’s
state-owned energy company to develop a
carbon capture sequestration hub in the
country, supporting its national 2060 net-
zero goals.
312
Business Model Innovation Accelerates Circularity
Supply chain shortages, a hunger for critical minerals, and a planet stretched to its breaking point.
These macro trends have kneecapped whole industries over the past few years. That's leading
companies to rethink how we make, sell and interact with products. Enter the vast opportunity of
business models that can decouple growth from extraction.
For a circular future to become a reality, companies must redesign products and embrace new
customer relationships. That's particularly true in apparel and electronics due to the increased
public awareness about the massive waste in both sectors. While 85% of clothing companies
integrate circular fashion in their business model, fewer have programs to reduce, recycle or reuse
unsold goods, as shown in Figure (5).
Lastly, transitions toward refill and reuse in food packaging and household items, while much
needed, may come more slowly due to the challenge of overcoming convenience biases among
users.
Figure 5
Percentage of companies in the Textile, Apparel and Luxury Goods industry that report using different
programs for circular fashion
Integrate principles of circular fashion in business model 85.0
Allocation of R&D resources toward circular fashion and/or

76.5
cross-industry collaborations
Program to reduce, recycle, or reuse unsold goods to avoid their

58.8
destruction
Program for consumers to repair purchased products 58.8
Program to reduce shedding of plastic microfibers 47.1
Program to educate customers on how to use products more

41.2
sustainably and make them last longer
Program to make products and collections fashionable for

29.4
longer
0 20 40 60 80 100 )%(
Results based on responses from 20 companies in the Textile, Apparel and Luxury Goods industry assessed in the 2022 S&P
Global Corporate Sustainability Assessment R&D research and development

Geothermal Energy Heats Up
If we could capture just 0.1 % of the earth's heat content, we could supply humanity's total energy
needs for 2 million years, according to the US Department of Energy. Yet geothermal currently
accounts for just 0.4 % of total US utility-scale electricity generation. Investments dried up with
the rise of solar and wind, which required less upfront capital and became increasingly
economically attractive.
That trend is set to change. Corporations and localities worldwide are looking to decarbonize
electricity, matching energy demand with clean energy supply — a concept often referred to as
24/7 carbon-free energy. This, coupled with technological advances, has poised geothermal for
growth. Geothermal is catching up with solar, but wind and hydroelectric remain dominant in the
renewable electricity generation mix, as shown in Figure (6).
While wind and solar energies provide the cheapest electricity, they are also intermittent.
Therefore, with the quest for carbon-free energy, geothermal energy as an energy resource not
beholden to weather patterns is worth more than an intermittent power source. Addressing the
technological barriers could catapult geothermal to become upwards of 20 or 30 % of the global
energy mix.
Figure 6
Percentage share of total electricity generation in GWh from different renewable energy sources at
55 electric utilities
Hydroelectric 18.96
Wind 12.65
Other Renewable 6.37
Average 5.99
Solar 4.89
Geothermal 3.43
Biomass 0.99
Landfill 0.59
Tidal 0.00
Non-renewable 46.13
0 10 20 30 40 50 )%(
Results based on responses from 55 companies in the Electric Utilities industry assessed in the 2022 S&P Global Corporate
Sustainability Assessmen GWh = gigawatt hours
314
Climate Finance and
Poverty Reduction
Dilemma in Developing
Countries
Economic development is a pre-condition for
climate resilience and adaptation to mitigate
poverty impacts upon exposure to climate
shocks in developing countries. Technology
transfer to developing countries and green
investments increase with rapid development.
Ms. Shahd Ahmed

Economic Researcher at the
Cabinet’s IDSC.
The world is currently facing a triple crisis: food, energy, and climate. Climate change and its
repercussions do not cease, affecting the world in general and developing countries in particular.
People living in poverty and developing countries are on the frontline, suffering most in a crisis
they did not create.
People living in poverty are the most vulnerable to climate change risks and incur severe losses
when exposed to natural shocks due to their dependence on natural capital, weak social support,
and lack of resilience and resources to adapt, prevent, and manage these risks.
If left unchecked, climate change will push up to 130 million people into poverty by 2030 and may
result in over 200 million climate migrants by 2050, undoing hard-won development gains. Thus, it
is vital to opt for effective climate policies considering poverty and introducing suitable solutions
for each country. Measures to reduce and adapt to poverty, provided for in the development
planning of developing countries, should align with the climate mitigation efforts of the developed
countries.
* Susanna Gable, et al. "A transition approach to poverty reduction and climate finance: The missing link to
implementation", ESCWA, February 2023, https://bit.ly/3MxEyzw

In this context, A Transition Approach to Poverty Reduction and Climate Finance: The Missing Link
to Implementation report was issued by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for
West Asia (ESCWA). It offers a holistic framework to direct finance policies and options toward a
comprehensive green transition, adaptation efforts consolidation, and poverty reduction goals
achievement.
Poverty and Climate: Reciprocal Influence via Economic Growth
Climate change negatively affects growth and poverty reduction: Several simulations suggest a
decline in expected global GDP due to climate change, ranging from a few percentages to 30% in
2100. However, limiting climate change's effects on growth to global GDP hides the climate's actual
effect on poverty at the international level. For instance, Africa generates 3% only of the global
GDP; hence, climate change effects in Africa will be largely invisible in aggregate economic
statistics. It is highlighted in Figure 1 that presents the global change in GDP per country's income.
On the contrary, these effects will be evident in the rates of poverty and well-being concerning the
African people. In addition, natural disasters such as floods, droughts, and severe temperatures are
increasing in frequency and intensity.
316
Figure 1
Global change in GDP per capita (percentage)
+25
Percentage change in GDP per capita
Richest 20% in 2010
From 60% to 80%

-25
-50
-75
Poorest 20% in 2020
2020 2040 2060 2080 2100

Year
Source: Susanna Gable, et al. “A transition approach to poverty reduction and climate finance: The missing link to
implementation.” ESCWA, February 2023.
Poverty is the main driver of aggravating climate change

intensity. It forces short-term decisions that are not
compatible with sustainable green growth. For example,
current expenditure such as increasing employees' incomes is
prioritized over actions for climate resilience enhancement,
long-term green investments, and poverty reduction
mechanisms.
Based on the above, Figure 2 reflects the priority of the

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in developing countries.
It clarifies that goals related to the environment, like climate
change, life below water, responsible consumption, and life on
land, were ranked at the bottom of leaders and citizens'
priorities in developing countries. In contrast, education,
economic growth and jobs, and peace, justice, and strong
institutions are the most important priorities for leaders in
developing countries, followed by health and industry,
innovation, and infrastructure.

Figure 2
Percentage of leaders who identified an SDG as one of their top priorities, 2020
Education 58.1%
Employment 53.8%
Peace and justice 52.7%
Health 40.8%
Industry 38.5%
Poverty 30.6%
Inequality 26.1%
Clean water 26.1%
Gender equality 25.8%
Energy 22.8%
Climate 20.9%
Cities 20.8%
Hunger 18.8%
Life on land 16.6%
Responsible consumption 10.8%
Life below water 4.9%
Climate and Poverty Crisis in Developing Countries and Africa
The African continent is especially vulnerable to the fallouts of climate change for several reasons.
About 23% of Africa's GDP comes from agriculture, where more than 60% of the population works. It
is one of the economic sectors most affected by climate change and extreme weather.
Furthermore, the continent is experiencing a wave of rapid urbanization, leading to severe pressure
on its urban infrastructure and risk management systems. African countries also find themselves
with a greatly reduced fiscal space for investment in adaptation and mitigation after the COVID-19
pandemic. The latter has resulted in depleted savings and the reversal of capital flows, leading Africa
to rank last among continents regarding climate resilience.
When added to the existing development challenges of poverty, food insecurity, and conflict, all these
factors mean that Africa will likely experience higher climate change impacts as a percentage of GDP
than other regions. Some projections indicate that climate change will lead to an equivalent of 2%–
4% annual loss in Africa’s GDP by 2040. Other data suggest that in the absence of climate change
policies, Africa could lose between 2% and 12% of GDP by 2100, compared to less than 1% for the
United States, European Union, and United Kingdom and between 1% and 5% for China.
318
Africa hosts 9 out of 10 countries
most vulnerable to climate
change.

Climate Finance Challenges in
Developing Countries
Transitioning to a green, resilient economy will require

the mobilization of unprecedented capital in a time of
high debt distress levels due to COVID-19 and Russia-
Ukraine crisis:
▪ Getting the world on track for net-zero emissions

requires a surge in annual investment in clean energy
projects and infrastructure to nearly USD 4 trillion by
2030. For developing countries, investments must
increase to USD 776 billion a year. It is over four times
the total global annual amount of official
development assistance (ODA) in 2021
(USD 179 billion).
▪ In addition, investment needs for adaptation in only

40 African countries are estimated at roughly USD 331
billion by 2030. Between USD 1.3 trillion and USD 1.6
trillion will be needed over 2020–2030 to implement
the continent’s climate action commitments and the
nationally determined contributions (NDCs) at an
average of USD 128 billion annually.
Climate financing is increasing, but financial flows to

low-income countries are still limited:
In 2019 and 2020, total global climate finance was USD

632 billion, but only USD 20 billion went to sub-Saharan
Africa, as illustrated in Figure 3. Between 2016 and 2019,
Africa only received about USD 18.3 billion on average,
creating an estimated financing gap of between USD
124.4 billion and USD 155.8 billion per annum if current
trends continue.
320
Figure 3
Total climate finance flows by region for 2019-2020 (Billions of dollars):
Transregional 10
Oceania 9
Middle East and North Africa 16
Sub-Saharan Africa 18 20
South Asia 11 19 31
Central Asia and Eastern Europe 17 15 32
Latin America and the Caribbean 16 19 35
US and Canada 76 83
Western Europe 74 31 105
East Asia and the Pacific 270 22 292
Domestic International
Regarding the climate finance mobilized by developed countries to developing countries, only USD
83 billion of USD 100 billion was provided in 2020. On average, only 8% went to low-income
countries, 43% to lower-middle-income countries, 27% to upper-middle upper-middle-income
countries, and 3% to high-income countries (plus 19% unallocated by income group).
Notably, some consider this figure inflated and does not reflect the actual value of the
total climate finance in 2020. Oxfam estimates between just USD 21-24.5 billion as the true value of
climate finance provided in 2020.1
In terms of instruments, the majority of total climate finance was debt:
Around 61% (USD 384 billion) was raised as debt, of which only 12% (USD 47 billion) was concessional
debt. Equity investments comprised 33% of total climate finance, and grant finance was
USD 36 billion or 6% of total flows.
1ReliefWeb, "Climate Finance Short-changed: The real value of the $100 billion commitment in 2019–2020." October 19, 2022.

Finance Mechanisms for Comprehensive Green Transition
and Poverty Reduction:
Economic development is a pre-condition for climate resilience
and adaptation to mitigate poverty impacts upon exposure to
climate shocks in developing countries. Technology transfer to
developing countries and green investments increase with
rapid development. Economic growth allows the improvement
of technical efficiency in production systems by replacing old
machines with more energy-efficient alternatives, mitigating
external environmental factors.
However, growth alone is not sufficient to strengthen resilience

among vulnerable populations. Although economic
development is vital to reduce poverty, it often negatively
affects climate change. Hence, actions must be taken to reduce
poverty, taking into consideration the environmental aspect
and the just green transition principles. It is necessary to look
at the underlying causes of poverty and inequality and ways to
increase the share of the poorest groups in sustainable
economic growth.
In other words, curbing the effects of climate change on

poverty depends on integrating adaptation, mitigation, and
poverty reduction strategies into countries' development
plans. The main burden of mitigation will be in the hands of
those with resources, who have already caused significant
environmental consequences from which the whole world
suffers; They are the developed countries. Nevertheless, the
main burden of adaptation will be borne by those who have
limited resources for implementation, who are the developing
countries. High-income countries need to take the lead in
mitigation efforts in their countries and acknowledge their
responsibilities to support mitigation and adaptation efforts in
developing countries. Indeed, the economic and climate costs
to catch up are rapidly escalating for the whole world.
322
The report offers recommendations involving a comprehensive financing framework to limit
climate change and poverty:
First: Address the underlying investment environment risks: Improvement in the general
investments climate and policy and institutional development in developing countries are a starting
point for efforts aiming at reducing the high costs per capita and stimulating the flow of green
production investments. This would be reflected in an improved credit rating for the country, and
borrowing costs will decrease. Thus, countries would be able to finance green, inclusive
development affordably.
Second: Get the prices right: Prices must be adjusted along with adapting to market failures to
ensure pricing the activities' actual external effects and social costs. Resources must also be
efficiently allocated from a social standpoint. This ranges from carbon taxes to economic policy
reform to minimize distortions.
Third: Build and align the fundamental institutional financial structure globally, regionally, and
nationally: Changes must take place in the structure and systems of global, regional, and national
financial institutions to align global capital toward climate change investments in developing
countries. This may include improving credit rating systems to better mainstream climate and
inequality risks, establishing country platforms to coordinate investments opportunities and
conduct holistic research concerning capital constraints in developing countries, developing green
domestic capital, financial markets, institutions, and instruments, and enhancing the capacity of
financial institutions and systems regarding climate finance.
Fourth: Scale up the use of financial instruments to catalyze private investment and systemic
change: Some financial instruments and risk management approaches can be used to a much larger
extent than seen so far. In addition to addressing the investment climate and market failures,
encouraging financing flows to developing areas can have indirect impacts through developing
experiences, establishing necessary institutions, and incentivizing change in the economy's
structure. Consequently, high risks in the investment climate could be limited. Increasing the use of
innovative financing instruments, including green, resilience, and blue bonds, carbon markets, debt
for climate swaps, and credit enhancement mechanisms, can play a critical role in scaling up private
climate finance in developing countries, notably for adaptation.

Fifth: Provide more resources for a broadened agenda: There is a growing need for a broadened
agenda given the increasing development challenges worldwide. Further public resources,
capital, and international grants should be mobilized to cover financing gaps in developing
countries. For example, it is important for developed countries to meet their commitment to
mobilize USD 100 billion in climate finance for developing countries. Current ODA commitments
need to be adjusted to levels that can address global poverty and other global challenges such as
climate change.
324
Author Guidelines
Governing Principles of the Journal’s Works
The works of the Policy Paper Journal is governed by a number of principles that reflect IDSC's vision and
strategic directions as follows:
Integrity: Researchers should adhere to the highest level of research ethics and meeting international
standards in terms of good research such as upholding the value of knowledge and reliability, diligent
research, accountability, credibility, innovative thinking, and dedication to work.
Value: Research contributions are essentially oriented towards public policies, usually starting with the
introduction of the topic and its context, then a brief analysis of the issue in question supported by evidence,
along with proposed policies and alternative options.
Quality: The research contribution is based on a well-known problem or issue, aims at answering specific
questions, and adopts an appropriate research methodology for data collection and analysis while providing
an informed analysis of the results in order to put forward visions and policy alternatives that benefit
decision-makers.
Credibility: Highly credible and authentic official data and information sources should be used along with
abiding by logic regarding ideas and insights and citing the results of supporting studies/experiences.
Excellence: The search for distinction and uniqueness from others is an objective of the Journal. All
contributions made to the publication must be authentic; the researcher should not have published or
submitted them to any other party. The rate of plagiarism should not exceed 10%.
Impartiality: Adherence to neutrality and rejection of all prejudices, whether political, religious, ethnic,
ideological, or intellectual, is essential. This is without prejudice to different cultures or any reference to
particular models or behaviors whose analysis is not based on a scientific approach.
Openness: Fair opportunities should be offered to all young researchers, practitioners, and experts —inside
and outside Egypt— to participate in the Journal’ works. This has a positive impact on its scientific
composition, enriching the expertise and knowledge it provides.
Copyrights: IDSC reserves all copyrights for published contributions. Authors may not re-publish them in any
scientific periodicals or publications until they have obtained a prior written consent from IDSC, provided
that it was firstly published in the said Journal.

Contributions
A wide range of academics, experts, and practitioners in different disciplines are needed to analyze the
repercussions of climate change and put forward courses of action to address them. Thus, the editorial
board of "Climate Prospects" welcomes all valuable contributions made to relevant topics, covering the
following categories:
Category I: Policy-oriented Research Papers
▪ Applied research, based on applied scientific analytical foundations and supported by domestic and
international evidence, experience, and expertise to provide the decision-maker with applicable views,
initiatives and measures. This enriches the State's efforts in various aspects of development.
▪ Such papers should focus on the decision-maker's agenda and present valuable results that contribute to
policy development. It should begin with a problem and analyze its dimensions in order to introduce
alternative initiatives and policies to address it for submission before the decision-maker to choose.
▪ All research papers are subject to scientific review by two specialized referees. They are determined
according to the nature of the research subject matter. The personality of both the author(s) and the
referee is obscured to preserve the principle of confidentiality and ensure impartiality.
▪ For guidance, content is usually segmented into 3 - 4 subsections, other than the introduction and
summary section and the recommendations section:
✓ The introduction contains a definition of the problem/issue of concern posed by the paper, presenting
the main definitions used by the author briefly. They are followed by the structure of the
paper/questions and the research methodology.
✓ A section is to be allocated to analyzing the dimensions of the issue of concern based on quantitative or
qualitative methods, corroborated by the most important evidence and data. Then, results are
presented and interpreted. The results of comparative analyses can be utilized.
✓ A bulk of the content is to be allocated to proposing policy alternatives/possible pathways to deal with
the problem/issue of concern while starting a dialogue on them. The supporting grounds for both
applied and research literature should be highlighted.
✓ The paper concludes with a final section to review its main findings and recommendations.
▪ A separate section should not be devoted to the presentation of literature or details of definitions and
terminology, but —instead— the said can be referred to —briefly— within the paper, provided that one
provides a solid addition to the content.
▪ The research paper’s range is 3500-5000 words without margins and references in either Arabic or English,
taking into account proper linguistic norms, and that the content should be logical, clear and concise.
▪ Content could be reinforced with illustrative tools as an addition to its scientific value, including tables,
charts, and effective illustrations, taking into account the guidelines to be outlined later.
326
▪ In case of reliance on analytical models, emphasis is placed on their logic, findings, and significance,
provided that the technical details of the model are mentioned in a technical appendix.
▪ The author(s) should take into account the attachment of an abstract in Arabic and English, each of
which is 250 words.
Category II: Opinion Articles
▪ The opinion article presents an added value to the issue it addresses and a different view of what is
known with informed ideas and visions that can be used by the decision-maker.
▪ It is of an applied research nature, focusing primarily on presenting a major problem, analyzing it

according to the author's point of view while supporting it with evidence and information.
▪ It ranges between 1600-2000 words without the margins and references in either Arabic or English,
taking into account proper linguistic norms and that the content is logical, clear, and concise.
▪ For guidance, content is usually divided into 3-4 subsections other than the introduction; their content
must be balanced in a logical sequence, with the article ending with a concluding paragraph (In
conclusion, …).
▪ To attract the reader's attention, the article can start by a key question, a brief story, or a saying,
provided that it is in harmony with the content.
Category III: Climate Narratives
▪ These narratives seek to present pioneering local, regional, and international experiences in climate
action and coping with extreme weather phenomena to shed light on them and conclude lessons that
inspire decision-makers.
▪ Climate narratives can cover the experiences of countries; regions; cities; governments; public or private
institutions; or initiatives, programs, and projects. It can be formulated according to business narratives
methodology.
▪ It should be an applied article, analyzing the experience according to the author's point of view. It should
be supported with evidence and information.
▪ It ranges between 1600-2000 words without the margins and references, in either Arabic or English,
taking into account proper linguistic norms, and that the content is logical, clear, and concise.

▪ For guidance, content is usually divided into 3-4 subsections other than the introduction; their content must
be balanced in a logical sequence, with the article ending with a concluding paragraph (In conclusion, …).
▪ To attract the reader's attention, the article can start by a key question, a brief story, or a saying, provided
that it is in harmony with the content.
Category IV: Report/Research Review
▪ It aims at utilizing the vast stock of knowledge available in all regions of the world in English, including
studies, applied research, and international reports. It should offer an added value to the decision-maker.
▪ The review ranges between 1600-2000 words in Arabic, taking into account proper linguistic norms and
that the content is logical, clear, and concise.
▪ For guidance, content is usually divided into 3-4 subsections other than the introduction; their content
must be balanced in a logical sequence, with the article ending with a concluding paragraph (In
conclusion, …).
▪ To attract the reader's attention, the article can start by a key question, a brief story, or a saying,
provided it is in harmony with the content.
Methodology
▪ For all categories, the author(s) should send a proposal for the desired contribution to the Journal, within
250 words, with a brief biography to (CJ@idsc.net.eg). The nature and title of the research should be
mentioned.
▪ The team examines the proposals made and expresses their opinion on them. The author(s) is addressed
whether the proposed topic is acceptable, acceptable but needs modifications with clarification, or
rejected.
▪ If the proposal is accepted, the author(s) will finalize the work and send via e-mail with an electronic copy
of the sources on which it is based. This is in addition to completing the author's acknowledgement form
that the content has never been published before and that it has not been submitted for publication at
the present time.
▪ The team reviews the content sent and the rate of plagiarism is checked to ensure that it does not exceed
10%. The author is informed whether the content is definitively acceptable, acceptable but needs
modifications with clarification, or rejected.
328
▪ After receiving the edited version of the content, the team will review and confirm its quality. In the case
of applied research, the scientific review will be conducted until reaching the final edition.
▪ The Journal’ team then proceeds with editing and graphic designing. The team reserves the right to edit
the content provided according to the requirements of publication without prejudice to the text and the
general idea.
▪ IDSC publishes and distributes the Journal’ paper and electronic versions —according to internal working
policies— through different channels and means it deems appropriate.
In any event, a number of objective criteria are relied upon in evaluating the contributions nominated for
publication in the Journal, the foremost of which are:
▪ The importance of the topic for decision-makers, its added value, and the applicable knowledge, ideas,
and measures that can be adopted to enhance development efforts.
▪ Adherence to the scientific methodology of academic writing in research and the scientific
documentation of sources and references.
▪ Consistency and logic of used data, goals and hypotheses, accuracy and objectivity, and quality of content
and ideas.
▪ The clarity, accuracy, and integrity of the language used in writing.
▪ Organization of the overall format of the paper's content and use of explicit tools (tables, graphs and
illustrations).
General Rules of Writing
Basic Data: The title is mentioned on the first page with the full name of the author(s), job title, and the
employer in Arabic and English, except for non-Arabic-speaking participants.
Dedication: If a person is thanked, it is mentioned in a margin on the first page, with triple name and job
title, and the contribution to which he is thanked is briefly mentioned (no more than 40 words).
References: References are documented in the content without margins with all sources mentioned at the
end of the research according to the Chicago Manual Style. They should be arranged alphabetically in Arabic
first and then in English.

Terminology, Abbreviations and Symbols: When technical terms are first mentioned in the content in Arabic,
the Arabic term is mentioned immediately followed by the term in English and its abbreviation in
parentheses. The term is then used in Arabic only.
If the content is in English, the term is first given in full, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses, with the
abbreviation later used.
Please avoid using terminology abbreviations in the heading or sub-headings with research inputs, as well as
in table headings, graphic and illustrative formats.
Page Format:
▪ Write in the MS Word file on the A4 page, with margins of 3 cm in all sides.
▪ Use size 16 Sakkal Magalla font for headings and subtitles, size 14 for metallic, with lines spacing 1.2 cm.
▪ Numbering starts from the title page.
Coordination of Graphic and Illustrative Formats:
▪ They are created within the content; they should not be imported from other programs such as
PowerPoint or Excel and should not be added as a photo.
▪ All information should be mentioned on the graph or the illustrative form, including its number, the title
at the top, the measurement unit, and any notes on the data and the source at the bottom in Sakkal
Magalla font size 12.
▪ The graph or illustrative form is included after it is referred to in the content. No form may precede the
pertaining content, and it shall be also numbered.
▪ In the charts, two-dimensional (2D) shapes are relied upon; three-dimensional (3D) shapes should be
avoided. The type of chart should suit the target data displayed.
Table Coordination:
▪ They are created within the context and not added as a photo, bearing in mind that the number of their
lines is suitable for presentation. In the case of long detailed tables, they can be mentioned in a statistical
appendix.
▪ All the information about the table should be added including its number, its title at the top, the
measurement unit, any notes on the data, and the source at the bottom, in a Sakkal Magalla font size 12.
▪ The table is included after being referred to in the context. No table may precede the pertaining content,
and it should be also numbered.
330
Print
ISSN: 2974-3044
Online
ISSN: 2974-3052

Climate Prospects Journal, Issue 03 - Information and Decision Support Center IDSC, Egyptian Cabinet

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Climate Prospects Journal, Issue 03 - Information and Decision Support Center IDSC, Egyptian Cabinet

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Third Issue

339 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

341 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

Dr. Ramy Magdy Dr. Dalia M. Ibrahiem

Managing Editor Graphic Designer

Ms. Amal Ali Dawood Mr. Muhammad Adel

Edited & Translated by Quality Department Research Team

349 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

Greenwashing: Concept and Solutions

The Goal of Carbon Neutrality as a Constitutional Obligation

Cutting-off Carbon Emissions: Are Carbon Markets the

Urban Climate Change

Carbon Capture and Storage in Egypt:

351 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

Climate Change and Cardamom Plantation in Idukki,

Misr Elkheir: A Pioneering Experience in Climate

CO2 Emissions in 2022

Capturing Opportunities: How Can the World Transition to

Circularity Gap Report 2023

1 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

Dr. Moushira Khattab

She previously served as

States and parties concerned must commit

3 Climate Prospects –Third Issue – May 2023

5 Climate Prospects –Third

1Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment

9 Climate Prospects –Third

11 Climate Prospects –Third

Eng. Mohammad Shaker Being a consultant engineer for electromechanical works, he

13 Climate Prospects –Third

15 Climate Prospects –Third

17 Climate Prospects –Third

Therefore, the Climate Conference (COP27) allowed all parties

In this regard, it should be highlighted that the Egyptian State

19 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

The FAST initiative also aimed at implementing concrete measures

Finally, it should be emphasized that providing concessional and

21 Climate Prospects –Third

23 Climate Prospects –Third

The city of Sharm El-Sheikh was not immune to global climate

The governorate also includes some cities overlooking the Red

In light of the governorate's dependence on preserving the

Agriculture is also considered one of the main pillars of

25 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

Declaring Sharm El-Sheikh a flexible, resilient, smart green city in

27 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

▪ A project to decorate the general site of the streets and squares of

29 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

31 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

About the project

33 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

About the Initiative

About the Project

35 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

About the Project

About the Project

▪ Constructing a bicycle path of 2 meters in width, a pedestrian path of 7 meters in width, in

37 Climate Prospects – Third Issue – May 2023

About the Initiative

▪ Abiding by the City Resilience Program's worldwide standards.

▪ Projects to safeguard Sharm El-Sheikh from flooding have been finished.

About the Project:

▪ There are 24 parking lots planned to be operated, including a temporary one.

▪ Facilitating mobility and cutting carbon dioxide emissions.