Journal of Energy Storage 42 (2021) 103127

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Theoretical study on energy recovery rate of regenerative braking for

hybrid mining trucks with different parameters
Tianlong Han a, Biao Zeng b, Yijie Tong a, *
a
Fair friend institute of intelligent manufacturing, Hangzhou vocational and technical college, Hangzhou 310018, China
b
Continuous Casting and Rolling Plant of Handan Iron and Steel Company, Handan 056001, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Based on the theory of the traditional hydraulic braking system of mining trucks and under the condition of
Hybrid mining truck safety, in order to maximize the regenerative braking energy recovery of hybrid mining trucks, a regenerative
Recovery rate braking force distribution and control strategy for rear wheel parallel hybrid mining truck is proposed in this
Regenerative braking
paper. Influences of charging current, battery state of charge value and braking force distribution on regenerative
Control strategy
braking energy recovery is studied. ADVISOR is used for truck modeling and simulation under typical mining
braking conditions. The results show that the maximum regenerative braking energy recovery rate is 65.01%
when the initial charging current is 10A, 30A, 50A and 70A, respectively. The results indicate that the regen­
erative braking control strategy can solve the problems of braking safety performance and maximize the
regenerative braking recovery rate.

1. Introduction
Long distance braking and starting of mining truck during the
downhill will cost energy waste, low engine efficiency will cause energy
loss and increase wear of mechanical parts. The traditional mining truck
cannot solve the above problems while the hybrid mining truck can
realize the reuse and recovery of regenerative braking energy. There­
fore, the study on hybrid mining truck has become the focus of present
research [1].
Presently, the research on large hybrid mining truck at home and
abroad mainly includes the following aspects: the regenerative braking
energy recovery system effectiveness, the influence of hybrid drive
layout on energy recovery, the stability of regenerative braking energy
recovery system and regenerative control strategy and algorithm. Feng
and Dong [2] introduced a new method to integrate NG diesel dual fuel
compression ignition (CI) engine, hybrid powertrain and optimal pow­
ertrain control. Weiwei et al. [3] studied the optimal control strategy
and driving mode. Feng and Dong [4,5] studied the driving mode of
large trucks and gave a new method on strategy of generating optimal
energy management. Li and his research team [6] proposed three par­
allel hybrid electric vehicle distribution strategies one typical braking.
Based on the information of future truck running state provided by GPS,
Guo and He [7] establishes a local algorithm in predictive vision, and
realizes rolling optimization control by the model prediction method.
Pugi et al. [8] have studied on the development of a full electric vehicle
with four in-wheel drive motor and some references focused on the
research of electrified mining machines [9]. Lv et al. [10] proposed and
feedback and feedforward control methods to coordinate the motor and
hydraulic auxiliary braking system through theoretical and experiment
study, which effectively ensured the response and accuracy of the
auxiliary system. Savitski and his research team [11] proved the
continuous ABS control strategy can shorten 20% of the braking distance
of electric vehicles which compared with the rule-based control strategy
through theoretical and experimental study. Chao and his research team
[12] present a expressway vehicle path prediction method based on
hybrid Markov path prediction model. Zhang et al. [13] applied the
Well-to-Wheel method on compressed natural gas fuel and built up a
optimized hybrid truck model to minimize the performance variation of
the truck. In the applications that need peak power and high charging
and discharging frequency due to the acceleration and deceleration of
electric railcar, supercapacitor becomes the first choice because of its
long lifetime and high power density [14,15]. An innovative layout for
servo-hydraulic vehicle systems fed by a KERS which in order to feed an
efficient on board hydraulic actuation system has been presented and

Abbreviation: ADVISOR, advanced vehicle simulator; ECE, economic commission for Europe; ISG, integrated starter generator; SOC, state of charge.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: 2014010013@hzvtc.edu.cn (Y. Tong).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103127
Received 11 June 2021; Received in revised form 28 July 2021; Accepted 21 August 2021
Available online 31 August 2021
2352-152X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Han et al. Journal of Energy Storage 42 (2021) 103127

adopted into real application in Pugi’s work [16]. The research on

regenerative braking recovery rate has achieved fruitful results in small
trucks [17]. However, there are still some limitations in large mining
trucks, which need further research to adapt to the actual situation.
From the point of view of energy recovery and braking stability, it’s
better to adopt rear wheel parallel drive for hybrid mining truck.
In this paper, taking the rear wheel parallel drive as the research
object and follow the ECE regulations and braking stability re­
quirements, the influences of different parameters on the efficiency of
regenerative braking recovery system are studied base on the actual
mining truck research project. The simulation module is established in
ADVISOR software to simulate and analyze the regenerative braking
recovery rate and battery charge state. The research on different pa­
rameters is of great significance to the development of hybrid mining
truck regenerative braking energy recovery system.

2. Mathematical model of eletromechanical compound braking

2.1. Motor model

During regenerative braking of hybrid mining truck, Integrated
Starter Generator(ISG) motor works as a generator, which converts ki­
netic energy of mining truck into electric energy and stores it in battery
device. It can be seen from the motor characteristic curve that the
generating state of ISG motor is basically the same as that of electric
braking state. During electric braking, when the speed of the motor is
relatively higher than the rated, controller controls the motor to brake
with rated power, and when the speed of the motor is relatively lower
than the rated speed, then the motor will be braked with constant tor­
que, when the motor speed is relatively low, the regenerative braking
energy recovery is invalid, at the same time, the motor is under non-
motion state. The braking force model of the motor is as follows [18]:
⎧ /
⎨ TN ig i0 rηT nmin < n < nmax
Fd = 3600PN /ua ηT n ≥ nmax (1)
⎩
0 nmin
where Fd is the Motor braking energy recovery braking force, TN is the
rated torque of motor, ig and io is the transmission ratio of the trans­
mission and main reducer, respectively, r is the radius of axle, ηT is the
efficiency of energy recovery drive system, PN is the rated power of ISG
motor, ua is the driving speed, n represents the speed of the motor, nmax
is the rated motor speed and nmin means the minimum motor speed when
braking energy is not recovered.
The braking power of ISG motor can be calculated as Eq. (2) and its
generating power can be calculated as Eq. (3).
/ for Europe(ECE) formulated ECE-R13 braking regulations as shown in
Preg = Fd rηT ω ig i0 (2)
Pgen = Preg ηgen (3)
where Preg represents the regenerative power, ωis the speed of the motor
andηgen represents the Generating power.
Fig. 1. Regenerative braking force distribution strategy.
3. Braking force distribution strategy
3.1. Ideal curve of front and rear brake force distribution
In the process of braking, the front and rear wheels lock at the same
time is more favorable to the directional stability and adhesion condi­
tion of the vehicle. In this case, the relationship curve between the front
and rear brake force distribution Fu2 and Fu1 is called the ideal distri­
bution curve of front and rear brake force which is called I curve for
short [19].
[ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ( )]
1 G 4hg LFu1 Gb
Fu2 = b2 + − + 2Fu1 (5)
2 hg G hg
where Fu1 is brake force of front wheels, Fu2 means brake force of rear
wheels, L represents the wheelbase and b means the distance from the
center of mass of mining truck to the center line of rear axle.
3.2. Braking force distribution of front and rear axle of hybrid mining
truck
When the truck is braking, it needs to meet certain braking rate to
ensure directional stability. The United Nations Economic Commission
Fig. 1. The regulations clearly stipulated the front and rear wheel
braking force of two axle trucks should meet the requirement that in the
range of adhesion coefficient Z = 0.2~0.8, the braking strength of the
truck must meet the following requirements shown in Eqs. (6)–(8).
Z ≥ 0.1 + 0.85(ϕ − 0.2) (6)

(z + 0.07) G ( )
Fu1 = ∗ B + Zhg (7)
2.2. Battery model 0.85 l

Fu2 = G ∗ Z − Fu1 (8)

The relationship between the electromotive force, charging power,
battery internal resistance and the charging current during braking is as
follows
Pchg = (Eb − IRb )I (4)
where Eb is electromotive force of the battery the I represents the
charging current and Rb means battery internal resistance. The battery
pack should be able to provide the power required for motor charging
and discharging, protect the safety performance and braking energy
recovery system of hybrid mining truck.
3.3. Braking force distribution of electromechanical brake system
3.3.1. Distribution of friction braking force
Presently the method of electromechanical compound braking of
hybrid mining truck is adding regenerative braking system into the
original system, and there is no adjustment of the friction braking force
of the front and rear axles of the original system which leads to low
regenerative braking energy recovery rate.

2
T. Han et al. Journal of Energy Storage 42 (2021) 103127

Table 1 Table 2
Simulation parameters. Braking energy recovery rate of different control strategies.
Parameters Value Control strategy Recoverable Actual recovered Braking energy
braking energy/KJ braking energy/KJ recovery rate/%
Truck Empty mass(kg) 35,000
parameters Windward area (A/m2) 7.72 Broken line 3591.8 2335 65.01
Rolling resistance coefficient 0.03 OABCD
Wheel rolling radius (mm) 900 Curve I 3591.8 2011 55.99
Gearbox (1–6 gear ratio) 4/2.68/2.01/1.35/1/0.67 Boundary line of 3591.8 1677 46.41
Engine (power / speed) 392KW(2300r/min) ECE regulations
Motor Rated power 30KW
Torque / speed 178Nm/1625r/min
Battery Lithium iron phosphate battery Voltage 384 V/capacity
pack 300Ah Table 3
Similar studies on braking energy recovery rate.
Research Braking energy recovery rate
3.3.2. Distribution of electric braking force
The energy recovery of electric braking is affected by many factors, Deng et al. [23] 51.59%
Wang et al. [24] 40.72%
such as the torque characteristics of the motor and the amount of charge
He et al. [25] 30.37%
and the charging power of the battery [20], the braking force it provided Zhao et al. [26] 16.9%
can be calculated by Eq. (9).
{
Pchg,max
Td,max = min , TN,max (9)
ηchg ηgen ω

where Td,max is the maximum braking force, Pchg,max is the maximum

power of battery charging, ηchg is the efficiency of battery charging, ηgen
represents the efficiency of motor generation and TNmax means the rated
torque provided by the motor brake.

3.3.3. Braking control strategy

Electromechanical compound control needs to provide reasonable
braking force distribution under the condition of safety braking [21].
The research on recovering braking energy under condition of safety
braking has always been one of the critical issues in this field. The
purpose of distribution strategy of braking force is to improve the
braking energy recovery rate of the truck and optimize driver’s braking
feeling. In this study, in order to maximize braking energy recovery
under condition of safety braking, three kinds of braking energy re­
covery curves and the braking recovery strategies are studied in this
paper as follows,
1) The front and rear axle braking force is distributed according to
curve I.
2) The front and rear axle braking force is distributed according to ECE
curve.
3) The OABCD curve allocation between curve I and ECE curve.
The braking force distribution strategy of the OABCD curve is as
follows,
1) When the braking strength Z is smaller than 0.22, the braking force is
completely provided by the rear wheel motor.
2) When the braking strength Z meet the conditions of 0.22≤Z ≤ 0.35,
the rear wheel provides the motor braking force and the front wheel
provides the friction braking force which follow the ECE regulation
curve.
3) When the braking strength Z meet the conditions of 0.35≤Z ≤ 0.5,
the braking force is distributed according to the BC curve equation
which is shown as Eq. (10).
4) When the braking strength Z is bigger than 0.5, the braking force is
distributed according to the curve I and completely provided by the
mechanical friction braking force.
Fu2 = 1.217Fu1 + 131023.2
Fig. 2. Performance of battery SOC with different braking strategies.
3.4. Simulation
In this paper, the software ADVISOR is used for simulation, the
regenerative braking module is developed and embedded in the soft­
ware, the main simulation parameters of hybrid mining trucks are
shown in the Table 1.
3.5. Recovery of braking energy
Different driving conditions and braking conditions of hybrid mining
trucks lead to different energy recovery rate [22]. The CYC-UDDS
driving cycle is selected for simulation, and the results of energy re­
covery in one cycle are shown in Table 2. According to the data in
Table 2, the broken line OABCD control strategy has the largest effect on
braking energy recovery. Compared with the curve I recovery rate, it
increases by 9.02% and the ECE boundary line rate by 18.6%. The best
regenerative braking energy recovery rate is 65.01% which represents a
better result compared to similar studies shown in Table 3 [23–25].
3.6. Change of battery SOC
Regenerative braking recovery can be measured by comparing the
change of SOC value under the same conditions. The larger the decline
slope of SOC value is, the less energy is recovered, it can be seen from
(10)
Fig. 2 that curve I shows the smallest change of SOC value which only
decreased by 13.48% while the SOC value of OABCD curve control
strategy decreased by 15.27% and the ECE curve control strategy
decreased by 18.33%. As a result, the broken line control strategy is
more conducive to buffer battery impact.

3
T. Han et al.
Fig. 3. Regenerative braking force curve with different control strategies.
Fig. 4. Regenerative braking force and mechanical friction braking force in
regenerative braking recovery system.
3.7. ISG motor braking force
ISG motor braking energy recovery is realized by motor reverse
braking. Regenerative braking force is one of the important factors for
energy recovery. The greater the electric braking force and charging
power, the more energy can be recovered [27]. The driving braking
simulation and the variation of the driving curve in a working condition
are carried out in the Fig. 3, when Fd is larger than 0, it will be driven,
otherwise it will be braked. It can be seen from the figure that the
improvement of driving force is almost the same, and the braking force
distribution is between ECE regulation curve and curve I, which in­
dicates it has a good stability.
In a cycle condition, the change regularities of regenerative braking
force and mechanical friction braking force in regenerative braking re­
covery system is shown in Fig. 4, when the braking strength Z meet the
conditions of 0.22 < Z < 0.35, the motor braking force provides 76.93%
of the total braking force, the mechanical friction of front wheels only
accounts for 23.07% of the braking force, when the braking strength Z
meet the conditions of 0.35 < Z < 0.5, the motor braking force provides
58.13% of the total braking force while the mechanical friction of front
wheels only accounts for 41.87% of the braking force.
3.8. Influences of battery charging characteristics on regenerative braking
energy recovery system
Battery is one of the important factors for regenerative braking en­
ergy recovery. The charging characteristics of battery changed by
4
Journal of Energy Storage 42 (2021) 103127
Fig. 5. SOC value curves under different charging current.
internal resistance, temperature and current. Making charging current
of 10, 30, 50 and 70A as initial conditions for simulation. As shown in
Fig. 5, it is concluded that the SOC value decreases the fastest with the
current of 10A while the decreases the slowest with the current of 70A,
due to the protection of the energy recovery system, the current of 50A is
better choice which also has relatively high energy recovery rate.
4. Conclusion
The regenerative braking force distribution and control strategy of
the hybrid electric mining truck are theoretically studied based on the
rear drive parallel hybrid electric mining truck in this paper, the con­
clusions are as follows:
(1) Under the condition of safety and stability, the broken line
braking force distribution strategy is more suitable for regener­
ative braking energy recovery system, and the maximum pro­
portion of regenerative braking force is 76.93%.
(2) The best charging current of regenerative braking energy recov­
ery system is 50A while the energy recovery rate is highest and
the safety of the system is protected.
(3) According to the control strategy of regenerative braking energy
recovery system, the maximum regenerative braking energy re­
covery rate is 65.01% and the influence of different parameters
on regenerative braking energy recovery system can be used for
reference for the future research.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Tianlong Han: Writing – original draft, Data curation, Resources,
Investigation, Conceptualization, Formal analysis. Biao Zeng: Data
curation, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis. Yijie Tong: Writing
– review & editing, Resources, Project administration, Funding acqui­
sition, Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Hangzhou General Scientific Research
Projects of Agriculture and Social Development (No. 20201203B135).
T. Han et al. Journal of Energy Storage 42 (2021) 103127

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