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11 TH PHYSICS MINIMUM MATERIAL (ENGLISH MEDIUM)
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
DERIVED QUANTITIES
• FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
The quantities, which cannot be expressed in
term of any other physical quantities are called
fundamental or base quantities e.g length,
mass, time, temperature, current
• DERIVED QUANTITIES
• Quantities that can be expressed in term of
fundamental quantities are called derived
quantities e.g : area, volume, velocity, force.
2. ACCURACY AND PERCISION
• ACCURACY :
• measurements close to the value.
• All the accuracy values are précised
trap start to slide towards the bottom where
the antlions hide itself.
• Children sliding boards are always inclined just
above the angle of repose. So that children
playing on that slide smoothly. At the same
time, much greater inclined angle may hurt the
sliding children.
8. LAMI’S THEOREM
• If a system of three concurrent and coplanar
forces is in equilibrium, each force is directly
proportional to sine of the angle between the
other two forces.
9. COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (E)
• The ratio of velocity of separation after collision
to the velocity of approach before collision.
• COR values lies between 0<e<1
• For perfect elastic collision e=1.
• For perfect inelastic collision e=0

et
• PRECISION : 10. CENTER OF MASS AND POINT MASS
• Measurements close to each other. • CENTER OF MASS.
• All the précised values are not accurate. • A point where the entire mass of the body

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3. ABSOLUTE ERROR, PERCENTAGE appears to be concentrated.
ERROR AND RELATIVE ERROR • POINT MASS
• the magnitude of difference between true value • A point mass is a hypothetical point which has
and measured value of a quantity is called non-zero mass and no size or shape.
absolute error.(am) 11. MOMENT OF INERTIA AND RADIUS

la
• The relative error expressed in percentage is
called percentage error
∆𝑎
• Percentage error = 𝑚 𝑥 100%
OF GYRATION
• The root mean square (rms) distance of the
sa
𝑎𝑚
particles of the body from the axis of rotation.
• The ratio between mean absolute error to the • 𝐾=√1
𝑟 2 +𝑟22 +𝑟32 +𝑟42 …+𝑟𝑛2
mean value is called relative error or fractional 𝑛

error. 12. NEWTON’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF

GRAVITATION
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4. SCALAR , VECTOR
• A physical quantity which can be described only • The force of attraction between any two bodies
by magnitude is called scalar. e.g : mass, speed, in the universe is directly proportional to the
time, distance product of their masses and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
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• A physical quantity which can be described by

both magnitude and direction is called vector . between them.
𝑚 𝑚
e.g :force velocity, displacement • 𝐹 = 𝐺 12 2
𝑟
5. SYSTEMATIC STEPS ARE FOLLOWED 13. HOOKE’S LAW OF ELASTICITY.
FOR DEVELOPING FBD • The stress is directly proportional to the strain
w.

• Identify the forces acting on the object
• represent the object as a point.
• Draw the vectors representing the forces acting
on the object.
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within the elastic limit of the body. σ α ε
14. PASCAL’S LAW
• If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a
particular point, the change is transmitted to

6. ANGLE OF REPOSE AND ANGLE OF
FRICTION
• The angle of friction is defined as the angle 15.
between the normal force(N) and resultant
force (R) of normal force and maximum friction
force (fsmax). 16.
• The angle of repose is defined as the angle of
the inclined plane at which the object starts to
slide.
7. APPLICATIONS OF ANGLE OF REPOSE
• Antlions make sand traps in such way that its
angle of inclination is made equal to angle of
repose. So that insects enter the edge of the
the entire liquid without being diminished in
magnitude.
POISSON’S RATIO
• The ratio of relative contraction ( lateral strain)
to the relative expansion(longitudinal stain)
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
• Reynold’s number is a dimensionless number,
which is used to find out the nature of flow of
the liquid.
𝜌𝑣𝐷
• Rc =
𝜂
• where ρ – density of the liquid
• v – the velocity of flow of liquid
• D- diameter of the pipe
• η- the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid

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17. TERMINAL VELOCITY
• The maximum constant velocity acquired by a
body while falling freely through a viscous
medium is called the terminal velocity.
18. STREAMLINED FLOW AND
TURBULENT FLOW
• When a liquid flows such that each particle of
the liquid passing through a point moves along
the same path with the same velocity as its
predecessor then the flow of liquid is said to be
a streamlined flow,
• When the speed of the moving fluid exceeds the
critical speed, the motion becomes irregular.
This flow of liquid is called turbulent flow.
19. WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
• Wien’s law states that, the wavelength of
maximum intensity of emission of a black body
radiation is inversely proportional to the
et
absolute temperature of the black body.
𝑏 the liquid 9or) gas.
• 𝜆𝑚 =
𝑇 25.
• Where b=2.898 x 10-3 m K-1
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• b Wien’s constant
20. THREE MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
• Conduction : conduction is the process of direct
transfer of heat through matter due to
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temperature difference.
• Convection : convection is the process in which
heat transfer is by actual movement of
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molecules in fluids such as liquids and gases.
• Radiation : Radiation is a form of energy
transfer form one body to another by
electromagnetic waves.
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21. DEGREE OF FREEDOM
• The minimum number of independent
coordinates needed to specify the position and
configuration of a thermo-dynamical system in
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space is called the degree of freedom of the
system.
• A free particle moving along x-axis needs only
one coordinate to specify it completely. So its
degree of freedom is one.
w.
• Similarly, a particle moving over a plane has two
degrees of freedom.
• A particle moving in space has three degrees of
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freedom.
22. BOYLE’S LAW AND CHARLE’S LAW
• BOYLE’S LAW
• When the gas is kept at constant temperature,
the pressure of the gas is inversely
proportional to the volume.
𝟏
• 𝑷𝜶
𝑽
•
CHARLE’S LAW
•
When the gas is kept at constant pressure, the
volume of the gas is directly proportional to
absolute temperature.
• V𝜶T
23. MEAN FREE PATH AND THE FACTORS
AFFECTING THE MEAN FREE PATH
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• The average distance travelled by the
molecule between collisions is called mean
free path (λ )
𝑲𝑻
• 𝝀= 𝟐
√𝟐 𝝅𝒅 𝑷
• Mean free path increases with increasing
temperature.
• Mean free path increases with decreasing
pressure and diameter of the gas molecules.
24. BROWNIAN MOTION AND THE
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT
• The random (Zig - Zag path) motion of
pollen suspended in a liquid is called
brownian motion.
• The factors affecting the Brownian motion :
• Brownian motion increases with increasing
temperature.
• Brownian motion decreases with bigger
particle size, high viscosity and density of
RESONANCE
• When the frequency of external periodic
agency is matched with natural frequency of
the vibrating body, the body starts to vibrate
with maximum amplitude. This is known as
Resonance.
26. USES OF CAPILLARITY
• Rising of oil in the cotton wick of earthen
lamp.
• Rising of sap from root to plant’s leaves and
branches.
• Absorption of ink by a blotting paper.
• Draining of tear fluid from the eye.
• Absorption of sweat by cotton dress.
27. DOPPLER EFFECT
• When the source an the observer are in
relative motion with respect t each other and
to the medium in which sound propagates,
the frequency of the sound wave observed is
different from the frequency of the source.
This phenomenon is called Doppler Effect.
28. SPRING CONSTANT OR FORCE
CONSTANT OR STIFFNESS
CONSTANT
• Force per unit length of a spring is called
stiffness constant or force constant or spring
constant (k). It is a measure of stiffness of the
spring. Its unit is Nm-1.
• K=-
𝐹
𝑥
29. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
(SHM)
• Simple harmonic motion is a special type of
oscillatory motion in which the acceleration or
force on the particle is directly proportional to
its displacement from affixed point and is
always directed towards that fixed point.
30. INTENSITY OF SOUND AND
LOUDNESS OF SOUND
• The intensity of sound is defined as the power
transmitted per unit area taken normal
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propagation of the sound wave. Its unit is W • FLOATATION OF CLOUDS

m-2. • Hurting of larger raindrops.
• The loudness of sound is defined as the of • Parachute riding.
sensation of sound produced in the ear 40. PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSION ?
perception of sound by the listener. • The principle of homogeneity of dimension
31. WHAT IS MEANT BY AN ECHO ? states that the dimensions of all the terms in a
• An echo is a repetition of sound produced by physical expression should be the same.
the reflection of sound waves from a wall,
mountain or other obstructing surfaces. 3 MARKS QUESATIONS
32. STEFAN BOLTZMANN LAW
• Stefan Boltzmann law states that, the total 1. WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS AND USES OF
amount of heat radiated per second per unit DIMENTIONAL ANALYSIS ?
area of a black body is directly proportional to • LIMITATIONS
the fourth power of its absolute temperature. • It gives no information about the
dimensionless constants like numbers
• E = 𝜎 T4
𝝅, 𝒆. 𝒆𝒕𝒄., in the formula.
• Where 𝜎 = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 Wm-2K-4, Stefan’s
• It cannot decide whether the given quantity
constant. is a scalar or vector.
33. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR
• It is not suitable to derive relations

et
MOMENTUM
involving trigonometry, exponential and
• When no external torque acts on the body, logarithmic functions.
the net angular momentum of a rotating rigid • It cannot be applied to an equation

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body remains constant involving more than three physical
34. ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE quantities.
• It states that when a body is partially or • It can only check dimensional correctness of
wholly immerse in a fluid, it experiences and an equation but not the correctness of the
upward thrust equal to the weight of the fluid equation.

35. la
displaced by it and its up thrust acts through
the center of gravity of the liquid displaced.
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
• USES OF DIMENTIONAL ANALYSIS
• Convert a physical quantity from one
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system of units to another.
• Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of • Check the dimensional correctness of a
loss of heat of a body is directly proportional given physical equation.
to the temperature difference between that • Establish relations among various
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body and its surroundings. physical quantities.

36. BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
• According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of 2. WRITE THE RULES FOR DETERMINING
pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential SIGNIFICANT FIGURS.
energy per unit mass of an incompressible, S. RULE EXAMPLE
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non-viscous fluid in a streamlined flow N (SIGNIFICANT

remains a constant. O FIGURES)
•
𝑃 1
+ 𝑣 2 + 𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1 All non-zero digits 1234 = 4
𝜌 2 are significant
37. SOLDIERS ARE NOT ALLOWED TO MARCH ON 2
w.

All zeros between 2008 = 4

BRIDGE. WHY? two non-zero digits
• When Soldiers march on the bridge, their are significant.
stepping frequency may match on the natural 3 All zeros right to non- 30700. = 5
frequency of the bridge. I it so, the bridge will
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zero digit but left to

vibrate with larger amplitude due to decimal point are
resonance. This may collapse the bridge. significant.
38. APPLICATION OF VISCOSITY? 4 The terminal of 30700 = 3
• Viscosity of liquids helps in choosing the trailing zeros in the
lubricants for various machinery parts. Low number without
viscous lubricants are used in light machinery decimal point are not
parts and high viscous lubricants are used In significant.
heavy machinery parts. 5 All zeros are 30700 m = 5
• As high viscous liquids damp the motion, they significant if the
number given with
are used in hydraulic brakes as brake oil.
measurement unit.
• Blood circulation through arteries and veins
6 If a number is less i) 0.00345 = 3
depends upon the viscosity of fluids.
than 1, the zeros ii) 0.030400 = 5
• Viscosity is used in millikan’s oil-drop method between decimal III) 40.00 = 4
to find the charge of an electron. point and first non-
39. THE APPLICATION OF STOKE’S LAW zero digit are not

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significant but the ⃗𝑨

⃗ . (𝑩 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑪) = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑨. ⃗𝑩⃗ + ⃗𝑨
⃗ 𝑿(𝑩 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑪)
zeros right to last ⃗⃗ . 𝑪
𝑨 ⃗ =𝑨 ⃗⃗ 𝑿 𝑩 ⃗⃗ + 𝑨⃗⃗ 𝑿 𝑪
⃗
non-zero digit are
4 When ⃗𝑨 ⃗ &𝑩⃗⃗ are When 𝑨&𝑩 are ⃗
⃗ ⃗⃗
significant.
7 The number of 1.53 cm, parallel 𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎 parallel 𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎
significant figures 0.0153 m ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑩
(𝑨 ⃗⃗ )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑩
(𝑨 ⃗⃗ )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎
doesn’t depend on 0.00000153 km 5 When ⃗𝑨 ⃗ &𝑩⃗⃗ are When ⃗𝑨 ⃗ &𝑩 ⃗⃗ are
the system of units all have 3 perpendicular 𝜽 = perpendicular
used. significant figures 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑨. 𝑩 ⃗⃗ ) = 𝟎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑨. 𝑩 ⃗⃗ )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑨𝑩𝒏 ̂
3. EXPLAIN THE PROPAGATION OF ERRORS IN 6 Self dot product of a Self dot product
ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION. unit vector is one of a unit vector
• ADDITION: ̂. 𝒏
𝒏 ̂=𝟏 is one 𝒏 ̂. 𝒏̂=𝟎
• ∆A and ∆B be the absolute errors in two 7 Dot product of cross product of
quantities A and B respectively. orthogonal unit orthogonal unit
• Measured value of A =A ±∆A vectors vectors
Measured value of B = B ±∆B ̂=𝒌
𝒊̂. 𝒋̂ = 𝒋̂. 𝒌 ̂ . 𝒊̂ = 𝟎 𝒊̂𝑿𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂
The sum Z = A+B ̂
𝒋̂𝑿𝒌 = 𝒊̂
• The error ∆Z in Z is given by,

et
̂ 𝑿𝒊̂ = ̂𝒋
𝒌
Z± ∆Z = (A±∆A) + (B ±∆B)
Z±∆Z = (A+B) ±( ∆A+ ∆B) 5. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE TRIANGLE LAW OF
Z±∆Z = Z ±(∆A+ ∆B) [Z=A+B] ADDITION.

i.N
∆Z = ∆A + ∆B • TRIANGLE LAW OF ADDITION.
• The maximum possible error in the sum of two If two vectors are represented by two adjacent
quantities is equal to the sum of the absolute rrors sides of a triangle in same order, then the
in the individual quantities. resultant is given by the third side of the triangle
• MULTIPLICATION :

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in opposite order.
• ∆A AND ∆b be the absolute errors in the two
• Let 𝑨⃗⃗ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 ⃗⃗ are two vectors they are
quantities A and B respectively.
inclined at angle 𝜽 between them.
• Measured value of A = A ± ∆A
sa
⃗⃗⃗
𝑹 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
Measured value of B = B ± ∆B
Consider the product Z = A.B ---(1) 𝑹 = ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ + ⃗𝑩
⃗
• MAGNITUDE OF RESULTANT VECTOR :
• The error ∆z in z is given by, FROM ∆ ABN
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𝑨𝑵
Z±∆Z = (A ±∆A).(B ±∆B) COS 𝜽 = ; AN=B COS 𝜽
𝑩
Z±∆Z = AB ± A . ∆B ± B. ∆A ± ∆A . ∆B ----(2)
Divding equation (2) by (1) we get, 𝑩𝑵
SIN 𝜽 = ; BN=B SIN
𝑩
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1 ±∆Z/Z = 1 ± ∆B/B ± ∆A/A ± ∆A/A. ∆B/B 𝜽

As
∆𝐀
And
∆𝐁
Are both smaller values, their
∆𝐀
, FROM ∆ OBN
∆𝐁
𝑨 𝑩 𝑨 𝑶𝑩𝟐 = 𝑶𝑵𝟐 + 𝑩𝑵𝟐
can now be neglected. The maximum
𝑩
w.

fractional error in z is
𝑹𝟐 = (𝑨 + 𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)𝟐 + (𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝟐
∆𝐙 ∆𝐀 ∆𝐁
= + 𝑹 = 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝟐𝑨𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝟐
𝒁 𝑨 𝑩
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⃗⃗ + 𝑩
R =|𝑨 ⃗⃗ | = √𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝟐𝑨𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
• The maximum fractional error in the product of
two quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional errors in the individual quantities. DIRECTION OF RESULTANT VECTAOR :
4. DISCUSS THE PROPERTIES OF SCALAR AND FROM ∆ OBN
𝑩𝑵 𝑩𝑵
VECTOR PRODUCTS. tan 𝜶 = =
𝑶𝑵 𝑶𝑩+𝑨𝑵
S. SCALAR PRODUCT VECTOR
N PRODUCT 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
tan 𝜶 =
O 𝑨+𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
1 C =𝑨 ⃗⃗ . 𝑩
⃗⃗ ⃗ =𝑨
𝑪 ⃗⃗ 𝑿𝑩
⃗⃗
6. EXPLAIN TYPES OF INERTIA.
2 It obeys commutative It does not
The inability of an object to change its state of
law obeys
rest or motion.
⃗⃗ . 𝑩
𝑨 ⃗⃗ = 𝑩 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . 𝑨 commutative law
⃗⃗ . 𝑩
⃗⃗ ≠ 𝑩 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . 𝑨 • Inertia of rest :
𝑨
The inability of an object to change its state of
3 It obeys distributive It obeys
rest is called inertia of rest
law distributive law

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Example : when a bus start to move from rest surface.

position, all the passengers inside the bus 2 Independent of Independent of
suddenly will be pushed back. surface contact. surface contact.
• Inertia of motion : 3 𝝁𝒔 depends on 𝝁𝒌 depends on
• The inability of an object to change its state of the nature of the nature of
motion on its own is called inertia of motion. material in material and
Example : When a bus in motion suddenly mutual contact. temperature of
braked, all the passengers inside the bus will the surface.
move forward. 4 Depends on the Independent of
• Inertia of direction : magnitude of magnitude of
• The inability of an object to change its state of applied force. applied force.
direction on its own is called inertia of direction 5 It takes values It is always equal
Example : When a stone attached to a string is in from 0 to 𝝁𝒔 𝑵 to 𝝁𝒌 𝑵
whirling motion suddenly cut out, the stone will 6 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒔 > 𝝁𝒌 𝝁𝒌 < 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒔
move in the tangential direction of the circle. 7 𝝁𝒔 >𝝁𝒌 𝝁𝒌 < 𝝁 𝒔

7. COMPARISON OF TRANSLATION AND ROTATION 10. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CENTRIPTAL AND

MOTION. CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
S. TRANSLATION ROTATION

et
CENTRIPTAL
N MOTION MOTION. S. CENTRIFUGAL
FORCES
O N FORCES
1 Displacement x Angular O

i.N
displacement θ 1 It is a real force It is a pseudo force
2 Mass m Moment of inertia I given by external or fictitious force
3 Force F= ma Torque 𝝉 = 𝑰 𝜶 agencies like cannot be derived
4 Linear momentum Angular momentum gravitational force, from any external

la
p = m.v L= I.ω tensional force, agencies.
normal force, etc.
5 Work done by force Work done by
2 Acts in both Acts only in non-
w= F.s torque w = 𝝉. 𝛉
sa
inertial and non- inertial frames
6 Kinetic energy Rotational
inertial frames (rotating frames)
K.E = ½ mv2 K.E = ½ Iω2
3 It acts towards the It acts away from
7 Power P = F.v Rotational power P axis of rotation or the axis of rotation
= 𝝉ω center of the or center of the
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circular motion. circular motion.

8. STATE NEWTON’S THREE LAWS. 4 Real force and has Pseudo force but
FIRST LAW : real effects. has real effects.
Every body continues its state of rest or in 5 It originates from It originates from
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uniform motion external force acting on it. interaction of two inertia of the
Example : objects. object.
One’s body movement to the side when a car 6 It is included in It is included in free
makes a sharp turn free body diagram body diagram for
SECOND LAW : for both inertial only non-inertial
w.

The force acting on an object is equal to the rate and non-inertial frames.
of change of its momentum. frames.
Example : 7 Magnitude is equal Magnitude is equal
Acceleration of the rocket is due to the force
ww

to centrifugal to centripetal force.

applied, known as thrust. force.
THIRD LAW :
For every action there is an equal and opposite 11. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONSERVATIVE AND
reaction. NON- CONSERVATIVE FORCE.
Examples: NON-
Rockets move forward by expelling gas S.NO CONSERVATIVE CONSERVATIVE
backward at a high velocity. FORCE FORCE
9. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATIC AND KINETIC
1 It is independent It depends on the
FRICTION
of path. path.
STATIC
KINETIC 2 Work done in a Work done in
S.NO FRICTION
FRICTION round trip is zero. around trip is not
zero
1 It opposes It opposes
3 Work done is Work done is not
initiation of relative motion
completely completely
motion. of the object with
recoverable. recoverable.
respect to the

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4 Total energy Energy dissipated is more than than translation.

remains constant. as heat energy. rotation.
5 Force is the No such relation 2 Relative Relative velocity
negative gradient exist. velocity between point of
of potential between point contact and the
energy. of contact and surface is zero.
the surface is
12. EXPLAIN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEASTIC non-zero.
AND INELASTIC COLLISION. 3 It happens It happens when the
ELEASTIC INELASTIC when the vehicle is start to
S.NO COLLISION COLLISION moving vehicle move on a slippery
suddenly road or in mud.
1 Total momentum is Total momentum stopped on a
conserved is conserved slippery road.
2 Total kinetic energy Total kinetic 16. STATE KEPLER’S LAWS.
is conserved energy is not • Law of orbits : each planet moves around
conserved. the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun
3 Forces involved are Forces involved at one of its foci.
conservative forces. are non- • Law of area : the radial vector sweeps

et
conservative equal areas in equal intervals of time.
forces. • Law of period : the square of the time
4 Mechanical energy Mechanical period of revolution of a planet around

i.N
is not dissipated energy is the sun in its elliptical orbit is directly
dissipated into proportional to the cube of its semi
heat, light , sound, major axis of the ellipse.
etc. 17. POLAR SATELLITE AND GEOSTATIONARY
13. EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM WITH SATELLITE.
SUITABLE EXAMPLES.
S.NO TYPES OF
EQUILIBRIUM la
CONDITIONS
POLAR SATELLITE :
• The satellites which revolve from north
to south of the earth at the height of
sa
1 Translational i) Linear momentum is 500km to 800 km from the earth
Equilibrium constant surface are called polar satellites.
ii) Net force is zero GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE.:
2 Rotational i) angular momentum is • The satellites revolving the earth at the
da

Equilibrium constant height of 36000 km above the equator,

ii) Net torque is zero are appear to be stationary when seen
3 Static i) Linear and angular from earth is called geo-stationary
Equilibrium momentum are zero satellites.
Pa

ii) Net force Net torque 18. WHAT IS MEANT BY BANKING OF TRACKS ?
are zero • When the coefficient of static friction is
4 Dynamic i) Linear and angular not enough on the leveled circular
Equilibrium are momentum is road, the outer edge of the road is
constant slightly raised compared to the inner
w.

ii) Net force and net edge to avoid skidding. It is called

torque are zero banking of tracks.
19. WHAT ARE THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE
14. WRITE DOWN THE KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR SURFACE TENSION OF A LIQUID ?
ww

LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOTION.

S.NO LINEAR ANGULAR CONTAMINATION OF INCREASE SURFACE
EQUATION OF EQUATION OF IMPURITIES - TENSION
MOTION. MOTION • DISSOLVED INCREASE SURFACE
1 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 + 𝜶𝒕 SUBSTANCES - TENSION
ELECTRIFICATION - DECREASE SURFACE
2 𝟏 𝟏 TENSION
𝑺 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝜽 = 𝝎𝟎 𝒕 + 𝜶𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 TEMPERATURE - DECREASE SURFACE
3 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 + 𝟐𝜶𝜽 TENSION
4 𝒖+𝒗 𝝎 + 𝝎𝟎 20. APPLICATIONS OF VISCOSITY
𝑺=( )𝒕 𝜽=( )𝒕 • To select a suitable lubricant for heavy
𝟐 𝟐
and light machinery.
15. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLIDING AND SLIPPING . • The highly viscous liquid is used to damp
S.NO SLIDING SLIPPING the motion of some instruments and is
1 The translation The rotation is more used as brake oil in hydraulic brakes.

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• Blood circulation through arteries and 25. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE LINEAR AND
veins depends on viscosity of the fluid. ANGULAR HARMONIC OSCILLATORS
21. EXPLAIN REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE S.N LINEAR ANGULAR
PROCESS. O HARMONIC HARMONIC
• REVERSIBLE PROCESS : 1 The displacement Measured in terms
A thermo dynamic process, which of the particle is of angular
retrace the path in the opposite direction measured in term displacement 𝜽 ⃗
in such a way that the system and of linear
surroundings pass through the same displacement 𝒓 ⃗
states as in the initial direct process is 2 Acceleration of the Angular
called reversible process. particle is 𝒂
⃗ = acceleration of the
• EXAMPLE : a quasi-static isothermal −𝝎𝟐 𝒓 ⃗ particles 𝜶 ⃗
⃗⃗ = −𝝎𝟐 𝜽
expansion of gas, slow compression and 3 ⃗
Force 𝑭 = 𝒎 𝒂 ⃗ Torque ⃗
𝝉 = 𝑰 ⃗
⃗
𝜶
expansion of a spring. 4 Restoring force ⃗𝑭 = Restoring
• IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS.
−𝑲 𝒓 ⃗ torque𝝉⃗ = −𝒌 ⃗𝜽
A thermodynamic process, which does
5 Angular frequency Angular frequency
not retrace the path in the opposite
direction as like direct process is called 𝝎=√
𝒌
𝒌
irreversible process. 𝒎 𝝎=√

et
𝑰
• EXAMPLE : All natural processes are
irreversible.
26. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN INTENSITY OF SOUND

i.N
AND LOUDNESS.
22. LAWS OF SIMPLE PENDULUM
INTENSITY OF
• Law of length : for a given value of S.NO LOUDNESS
SOUND
acceleration due to gravity, the time
period of a simple pendulum is directly 1 It is sound power It is degree of
proportional to the square root of the transmitted per sensation of sound

• 𝑻 ∝ √𝒍
la
length of the pendulum.

• Law of acceleration : for a fixed length

unit area taken
normal to the
propagation of the
produced in the
ear or the
perception of
sa
sound wave sound by the
the time period of a simple pendulum is listener.
inversely proportional to the square root
2 For a given sound For a given sound
of acceleration due to gravity.
𝟏 source, it is source, it may vary.
da

• 𝑻 ∝ constant.
√𝒈
• Mass of the bob(m) and amplitude of the 3 It does not depend It depends both on
oscillation (a) are not affect the time on observer. intensity of sound
period of the pendulum and observer.
Pa

23. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSVERSE WAVES 27. CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRASSIVE WAVES

AND LOGITUDINAL WAVES • Particles in the medium vibrate about
S.N TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL their mean positions with the same
O WAVES WAVES amplitude.
1 The direction of The direction of • The phase of every particle ranges from
w.

vibration of vibration of particles 0 to 2𝝅

particles of the of the medium is • No particle remains at rest permanently.
medium is parallel to the During wave propagation, particles come
perpendicular to direction of to the rest position only twice at the
ww

the direction of propagation of waves. extreme points.

propagation of • Transverse progressive waves are
waves. characterized by crests and troughs
2 The disturbances The disturbances are whereas longitudinal progressive waves
are in the form of in the form of are characterized by compressions and
crests and compressions and rarefactions.
troughs rarefactions. • When the particles pass through the
3 Transverse Longitudinal waves mean position they always move with the
waves are are possible in all same maximum velocity.
possible in types of media (solid, • The displacement, velocity and
elastic medium. liquid and gas) acceleration of particles separated from
each other by n λ are the same, where n
24. DEFINE THE COP is an integer, and λ is the wavelength.
• Ratio of heat extracted from the cold 28. APPLICATION OF PASCAL’S LAW
body (sink) to the external work done by • Hydraulic lift and hydraulic break
the compressor W
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• Hydraulic lift use to lift a heavy load with ▪ d =

𝑽𝒙𝒕
𝟐
small force.
• It is a force multiplier.
2. FIND OUT THE

EXPRESSION OF TIME PERIOD OF SIMPLE

• A small piston B large piston. A1,A2 cross
sectional areas of the piston (A1>A2)
• Increase in Pressure of the liquid under the
piston A due to downward force F.
• P = F1/A1. This increased pressure P is
transmitted equally in all directions
undiminished.
PENDULUM AND CENTRIPETAL FORCE USING
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
EXPRESSION OF TIME PERIOD OF SIMPLE
PENDULUM
▪ T 𝜶 𝒎𝒂 𝒍𝒃 𝒈𝒄
▪ T = 𝒌 𝒎𝒂 𝒍𝒃 𝒈𝒄 -------(1)
▪ Here k is dimensional constant, applying
dimensions on both sides, we get,
▪ [T]1 = [𝑴]𝒂 [𝑳]𝒃 [𝑳𝑻]−𝟐𝒄

et
• Upward force on piston B due to this ▪ [M0 L0 T1] = = [𝑴]𝒂 [𝑳]𝒃+𝒄 [𝑻]−𝟐𝒄
pressure. ▪ Comparing the powers of m,l,t on both sides,
A=0,b+c=0,-2c=1
• F2 = P x A2 , F2 = F1/A1 x A2

i.N
▪ Solving it, we get a=0, b=1/2, c=-1/2
• F2 = (A2/A1) x F1 here (A2/A1) ▪ From equation (1)
mechanical advantage of the lift. T = 2𝝅𝒎𝟎 𝒍𝟏/𝟐 𝒈−𝟏/𝟐
5 MARKS QUESTIONS 𝒍
1. WRITE A NOTE ON TRIANGULATION METHOD AND ▪ T = 2 𝝅√
𝒈

TRIANGULATION METHOD :
la
RADAR METHOD TO MEASURE LARGER
DISTANCES. CENTRIPETAL FORCE USING DIMENSIONAL
ANALYSIS
sa
▪ Let AB = h be the height of the tree or ▪ F 𝜶 𝒎𝒂 𝒗 𝒃 𝒓 𝒄
tower. ▪ F = 𝒌 𝒎𝒂 𝒗𝒃 𝒓𝒄 ----(1)
▪ Let c be the point of observation at ▪ Here k is dimensional constant. applying
distance x from B. dimensions on both sides, we get,
da

▪ Place a range finder at c and measure the ▪ [M L T-2] = [M]a[LT-1]b[L]c

angle of elevation, ACB = θ as shown in ▪ [M L T-2] = [M]a[Lb+c] T-b
figure.
▪ From ABC , tan θ = AB/BC = h/x
▪ Comparing the powers of m,l,t on both
▪ h= x tan θ
Pa

sides,
▪ Knowing the distance x, the height h can
a=1, b+c=1,-b=-2
be determined.
▪ Solving it, we get a=1, b=2, c=-1
▪ from equation (1) F = m1v2r-1
𝑚𝑣 2
▪ F=
w.

3. KINEMATIC EQUATION OF MOTION FOR

CONSTANT ACCELERATION:
ww

▪ Consider an object moving along a straight

line with uniform or constant acceleration
‘a’
▪ Let ‘u’ be the initial velocity at time t=0 and
RADAR METHOD : ‘v’ be the final velocity at time t.
▪ Let’s’ be the displacement.
▪ The word radar stands for radio detection
1) Velocity -time relation:
and ranging.
▪ Acceleration a
▪ In this method, radio waves are sent from 𝑑𝑣
transmitters which after reflected from the 𝑎=
planet are detected by the receiver. 𝑑𝑡
dv = a dt
▪ Bu measuring the time interval between the ▪ By integrating both sides, we get,
instants the radio waves are sent and 𝑣 𝑡
received. The distance of the planet (d) can ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
be determined as, 𝑣
𝑢
𝑡
0
▪ Distance = speed of radio waves x time taken, ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎[𝑡]𝑡0
𝑢 0

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𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑎[𝑡]𝑡0 B) TIME OF FLIGHT :

The time of flight (tf) is the time taken by the
𝑣 =𝑢+𝑎𝑡 projectile to hit the ground after thrown.

2) Displacement - time relation : 𝟐𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

𝑻𝒇 =
𝑑𝑠 𝒈
▪ Velocty, v =
𝑑𝑡
ds = v dt = (u +at) dt [v =u +at] C) HORIZONTAL RANGE. :
▪ By integrating both sides, we get, The horizontal range (R) is the maximum
𝑆 𝑡
horizontal distance distance between the point of
∫ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0 0
projection and the point where the projectile hits
𝑆 𝑡
∫0 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑢 ∫0 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎 ∫0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 the ground.
1 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 𝑅=
2 𝑔
𝑢2
3) Velocity - displacement relation : THE MAXIMUM RANGE IS R =
𝑔
▪ Acceleration,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = =𝑣 5. PROVE THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 MOMENTUM.

et
1
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 • If there is no external force acting on the
𝑎
▪ By integrating both sides, we get, system, the total linear momentum of the
𝑆 𝑣
1 1 𝑣2
𝑣 system is always a constant vector.

i.N
∫ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = [ ] • When two particles interact with each
0 𝑢 𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑢
other,F12 and F21 are the forces exerted by
1 the particle 2 on 1 and by the particle 1 on
𝑆= (𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 )
2𝑎 2 respectively.
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑆 • According to Newton’s 3rd law,

la
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = −𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟐𝟏 -------(1)
• According to Newton’s 2rd law,
sa
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒅𝒑𝟏 and 𝑭𝟏𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒅𝒑𝟏
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
4) Displacement - average velocity relation : • here p1 and p2 are the linear momentum
▪ Final velocity of particle 1 and 2.
𝑣 =𝑢+𝑎𝑡 • substituting equation (2) on (1), we get,
da

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒑𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−𝒅𝒑𝟐
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑢 ------(1) • =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒑𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒑𝟐
▪ We know displacement, • + =𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
1 •
𝒅
Pa

𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 ⃗ 𝟏+𝒑
(𝒑 ⃗ 𝟐)=𝟎
𝒅𝒕
2
▪ Substituting equation (1) we get
1 • ⃗ 𝟏+𝒑
𝒑 ⃗ 𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑣 − 𝑢) 𝑡
2 Hence the total linear momentum (𝒑 ⃗ 𝟏+
1 1
⃗ 𝟐) of the system is a constant vector.
w.

𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑡 𝒑
2 2

(𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡 6. THEORY OF WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY.

𝑆=
2 • Work energy theorem :
ww

The work done by the force on the body

4. EXPRESSION IN THE EVENT OF ANGULAR changes the kinetic energy of the body.
PROJECATION OF PROJECTILE WITH THE • consider a body of mass m at rest on a
HORIZONTAL (A) MAXIMUM HEIGHT B) TIME OF frictionless horizontal surface.
FLIGHT C)HORIZONTAL RANGE. • The work(W) done by the constant force
(F) for a displacement (s) in the same
(A) MAXIMUM HEIGHT : direction is,
The maximum vertical distance travelled by the W = F s -----(1)
projectile during its journey is called maximum • The constant force is given by,
height. • F = m a ----(2)
𝒖𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 • The 3rd equation of motion can be written
𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = as,
𝟐𝒈
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑆
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑎=
2𝑠

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• substituting ‘a’ value in to the equation • For a satellite of mass M to move in a

(2) we get, circular orbit, centripetal force must be
𝑣 2 −𝑢2 acting on the satellite. This centripetal
𝐹 = 𝑚( ) -----(3)
2𝑠 force is provided by the earth’s
• Substituting 3 into (1) gravitational force.
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 𝑴𝒗𝟐 𝑮𝑴𝑴𝑬
𝑊 = 𝑚( )𝑠 • =
2𝑠 (𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉) (𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉)𝟐
𝑮𝑴𝑬
1 1 • 𝟐
𝒗 =
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2 (𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉)
2 2
• As the right hand side of the equation
𝑮𝑴𝑬
represents chang in kinetic energy (∆K.E) • 𝒗𝟐 = √
(𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉)
of the body, then we can write,
𝑊 = ∆ 𝐾. 𝐸
Special cases :
• If the work done by the force on the body • TIME PERIOD OF THE SATELLITE :
is positive then its K.E increases. • The distance covered by the satellite
• If the work done by the force on the body during one rotation in its orbit is equal to
is negative then its K.E decreases. 2π (RE +h) and time taken for it is the time
• If the no work done by the force on the period t. Then

et
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 2𝜋 (𝑅𝐸 +ℎ)
body then there is no change in its K.E • speed v= = ---(1)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑇
7. DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR ESCAPE SPEED 𝑮𝑴𝑬 2𝜋 (𝑅𝐸 +ℎ)
• The minimum speed required to throw a • √ (𝑹 =
𝑬 + 𝒉) 𝑇

i.N
body to escape from the gravitational pull 3
2𝜋 (𝑅𝐸 +ℎ)2
is called escape velocity. • 𝑇= ----(2)
√𝐺𝑀𝐸
• Consider an object of mass m thrown up
• squaring both sides of the equation (2) we
with an initial speed vi. 4𝜋2
• The initial total energy of the object = get 𝑇 2 = (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)3

la
𝐺𝑀𝐸
kinetic energy + potential energy. 4𝜋2
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑴𝑬 • = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑐 ,
• 𝑬𝒊 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 − ---(1) 𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝟐 𝑹𝑬 • 𝑇 = 𝑐(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)3
2
---(3)
sa
• Where ME -mass of the earth. RE -radius of • Equation (3) implies that a satellite orbiting
the earth the Earth has the same relation between
• when the object reaches infinity distance, time and distance as that of kepler’s law of
gravitational potential energy is zero planetary motion. For a satellite orbiting
da

U(ꚙ)= 0 and kinetic energy is also zero. near the surface of the earth, h is
• Therefore final total energy of the object neglibible compared to the radius of the
become zero Ef =0 4𝜋2
earth 𝑅𝐸 . Then 𝑇 2 = (𝑅𝐸 )3
• According to the law of energy 𝐺𝑀𝐸
4𝜋2
conservation Ei = Ef ------- (2) • 𝑇2 =
Pa

𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑅𝐸
• substituting equation 1 in to 2 𝑅𝐸 2
1 𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸 4𝜋2 𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑚𝑣 2𝑖 − =0 • 𝑇2 = 𝑅𝐸 since =𝑔
2 𝑅𝐸 𝑔 𝑅𝐸 2
1 𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸
𝑚𝑣 2𝑒 = Where ve is the escape
w.

2 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
speed • 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
•
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑣 2𝑒 = (𝐺𝑀𝑒 = 𝑔 𝑅𝑒2 )
𝑅𝐸
ww

9. THE EXPRESSION FOR MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A

• UNIFORM ROD.
𝑣 2𝑒 = 2 𝑔 𝑅𝐸

𝒗 𝒆 = √ 𝟐 𝒈 𝑹𝑬

• Escape speed depends on i) Acceleration

due to the gravity ii) radius of the earth
• it is independent of the mass of the earth
and direction thrown.
• escape speed of the earth= 11.2 kms-1
8. DERIVE THE ORBITAL VELOCITY AND TIME
PERIOD OF SATELLITE ORBITAL THE EARTH. • consider a uniform rod of mass M and
• Satellites revolve around the earth just length’ l’ as shown in figure.
like the planets revolve around the sun. • let us consider the rod is along the x-axis
and the moment of inertia of the rod is

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found about the axis, which passes 𝑩

modulus of air. 𝑽 = √ the speed of sound
through center of mass of the rod ‘O’. 𝝆
• now the moment of inertia of an
infinitesimal small mass ‘dm’ of length dx in air is 𝑽𝑻 = √
𝑩𝑻 𝑷
= 𝑽 = √ ---(3)
𝝆 𝝆
of the rod, which is at a distance ’x’ from
O can be expressed as, • Since p is the pressure of air whose value
dI = (dm)x2------(1) at NTP is 76 cm of mercury, we have
• the moment of inertia(I) of the entire rod • P =(0.76 x 13.6 x 103 x9.8) nm-2
can be found by integrate in the equation • P=1,293 kg m-3
(1) as,
=(𝟎.𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑿𝟗.𝟖)
• 𝑽=√ = 𝟐𝟕𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝑙 𝟏.𝟐𝟗𝟑
I = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 2 − − − −(2)
2
−𝑙 • But the speed pf sound in air at 00c is
2 experimentally observed as 332 ms-1
which is close up to 16% more than
• If 𝜆 is linear mass density the small mass
theoretical value
dm can be written as,
𝑀 • LAPLACE’S CORRECTION :
dm = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 • Laplace assumed that when the sound
𝑙
• substituting the ‘dm’ value in equation (2) propagates through a medium, the

et
we get particles oscillate very rapidly such that
𝑙
𝑀 2 the compression and rarefaction occur
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ ( 𝑑𝑥) 𝑥 2 very fast.
−𝑙 𝑙
• Since, temperature is no longer

i.N
2
𝑙
𝑀 2 considered as a constant here, sound
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 2 (𝑑𝑥) propagation is an adiabatic process. By
𝑙 −𝑙
2 adiabatic considerations, the gas obeys
𝑙
𝑀 𝑥 3 2 poissson’s law which is

la
𝐼= [ ] • 𝑷𝑽𝜸 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 ---(4)
𝑙 3 −𝑙 𝑪
2 • Where 𝜸 = 𝑷 , which is the ratio between
𝑪𝑽
𝑀 𝑙3 𝑙3
𝐼= [ + ] specific heat at constant pressure and
sa
𝑙 24 24 specific heatat constant volume.
𝑀 𝑙3 • 𝑽𝜸 𝒅𝑷 + 𝑷(𝜸𝑽𝜸−𝟏 𝒅𝑽) = 𝟎
𝐼=2 [ ]
𝑙 24 • 𝑷𝜸 = −𝑽 𝑩𝑨
𝒅𝒑
𝒅𝒗
da

1 • Where ba is the adiabatic bulk modulus of

𝐼= 𝑀 𝑙2 𝑩
12 air. V =√ The speed of sound in air is va
𝝆
𝑩𝑻 𝑷𝜸
=√ 𝑽 = √ = √ 𝜸 𝑽𝑻
Pa

10. DESCRIBE NEWTON’S FORMULA FOR VELOCITY OF 𝝆 𝝆

SOUND WAVES IN AIR AND ALSO DISCUSS THE • Va= 331ms-1

LAPLACE’S CORRECTION. 11. WRITE DOWN THE FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED OF
• NEWTON’S FORMULA : SOUND IN GASES.
• Newton assumed that when sound • Effect of pressure : for a fixed
w.

propagates in air the formation of temperature, speed of sound is

compression and rarefaction takes place independent of pressure.
in a very slow manner so that the process • Effect of temperature : the speed of sound
is isothermal in nature. is directly proportional to square root of
ww

• Heat produce during compression temperature in kelvin. 𝒗 𝜶 √𝑻

(pressure increases volume decreases), • Effect of density : the speed of sound is
and heat lost during rarefaction inversely proportional to square root of
(pressure decreases, volume increases) density. 𝒗 𝜶
𝟏

occur over a period of time such that the √𝝆

temperature of the medium remain • Effect of moisture or humidity : the speed

constant .
• Obey boyle’s law PV=constant ----(1)
• Differentiating equation (1) we get
𝒅𝑷
• PdV +VdP = 0 or 𝑷 = −𝑽 = 𝑩𝑻 − − −
𝒅𝑽
(𝟐) where bt is an isothermal bulk
of sound increases with rise in humidity.
• Effect of wind : the speed of sound
increases in the direction of wind blowing
and it decreases in opposite direction of
wind blowing
12. STATE AND PROVE PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM.
• Statement:
• The moment of inertia of a body about
any axis I equal to the sum of its
moment of inertia about a parallel axis

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through its center of mass and the
product of the mass of the body and
the square of the perpendicular
distance between the two axes.
• Proof:
• Let us consider a rigid body as shown
in figure.
• Consider a plane laminar object of
negligible thickness on which; the origin O
lies. The mutually perpendicular axes X
and Y are lying on the plane and Z-axis is
perpendicular to plane as shown in figure.

• Let IC be the moment of interia of the

body about an axis AB, which passes

et
through center of mass.
• Consider i is the moment o interia of the
body; to be found about an axis DE, which
• Let us consider a point mass P of mass m
, which is at a distance r from origin O.
•

i.N
is parallel to AB,and d is the The moment of inertia of the point mass
perpendicular distance between DE and about the Z-axis is ,
AB. d IZ = m r 2
• Let P be the point mass of mass m, which • The moment of inertia of the whole body
is located at a distance x from its center of about the z-axis is

la
mass. IZ = ∑ m r2
• The moment of inertia o fth epoint mass • Here r2 = x2 + y2 so that
about the axis DE is , • 𝐼𝑍 = ∑ 𝑚(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
sa
dI =m(x + d)2 • 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝑚𝑦 2
•
• BUT ∑ 𝑚𝑥 2 = 𝐼𝑌 the moment o finertia of
• The moment of inertia of the wole body the body about the Y-axis and ∑ 𝑚𝑦 2 = 𝐼𝑥 ,
about the axis DE is, THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE BODY
da

𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚(𝑥 + 𝑑)2 ABOUT THE X-AXIS

• THEREFORE, 𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝑥
𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚(𝑥 2 + 𝑑 2 + 2𝑥𝑑) 𝑰𝒁 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒀
𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑑 2 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑚
Pa

14. EXPLAIN THE VARIATION of g WITH LATTITUDE

2 2
𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 + ∑ 𝑚𝑑 + 2𝑑 ∑ 𝑚𝑥
• Here,
∑ 𝑚𝑥 2 = 𝐼𝐶 , the moment o finertia of the
w.

body about the center of mass and

∑ 𝑚(𝑥) = 0
• The moment of inertia of the whole body
about the DE can be expressed as,
ww

I = 𝐼𝐶 + ∑ 𝑚 𝑑 2
• But ∑ 𝑚 = 𝑀, mass of the whole body.
Thus
I = IC + M d2
• objects in rotating frames, we must take
• Hence the parallel axis theorem is proved.
13. STATE AND PROVE PERPENDICULAR AXIS
THEOREM.
• Statement :
The moment of inertia of a plane laminar
body about an axis perpendicular to its
plane is equal to the sum of moments of
inertia about two perpendicular axes lying
in the plane of the body such that all the
three axes are mutually perpendicular
and concurrent.
• Whenever we analyze the motion of
into account the centrifugal force.
• Even though we treat the earth as an
inertial frame, it is not exactly correct
because the earth spins about its own
axis.
• So when an object is on the surface of the
earth, it experiences a centrifugal force
that depends on the latitude of the object
on earth.

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• If the earth were not spinning, the force

on the object would have be mg.
• However, the object experiences an
additional centrifugal force due to
spinning of the earth.
• This centrifugal force is given by 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝑹′
• 𝑹′ = 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝀 ------(1)
• Where 𝜆 is the latitude. The component of
centrifugal acceleration experienced by the
object in the direction opposite to g is
• 𝑎𝑐 = 𝜔2 𝑅′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝝀
• 𝑎𝑐 = 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝝀 since 𝑹′ = 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝀
• 𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝝀 • consider a particle of mass m at a depth
• From the expression (2) we can infer that at ‘d’
equator, 𝝀 = 𝟎 𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅. • acceleration due to gravity at depth d is
The acceleration due to gravity is minimum. 𝐺𝑀 ′
• at poles 𝝀 = 𝟗𝟎 𝑔′ = 𝑔. 𝑔′ =
(𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)2
It is maximum. At the equator ,g’ is minimum

et
15. EXPLAIN THE VARIATION of g WITH ALTITUDE
AND DEPTH FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE
𝑀 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢 (𝑅𝑒− 𝑑)
• density of earth 𝜌 is constant.
𝑀

i.N
𝜌=
𝑉
𝑀′ 𝑀 ′ ′ 𝑀
′ = 𝑀 = 𝑉 𝑋 ( )
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

𝑀 4
𝑀′ = [ ] ( 𝜋(𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)3 )

la
4 3 3
𝜋𝑅
3 𝑒
𝑀
𝑀′ = [ 3 ] (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)3
sa
𝑅𝑒

𝐺 𝑀
• consider a particle of mass m at a 𝑔′ = 2
[ 3 ] (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)3
(𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑) 𝑅𝑒
• height ‘h’ from the surface of earth.
da

• acceleration experienced by the object 𝐺𝑀 𝑑

due to earth 𝑔′ = [ 3 ] 𝑅𝑒 (1 − )
𝐺𝑀 𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
𝑔′ = 𝑔′ = [
𝐺𝑀
] (1 −
𝑑
) thus
(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2 2
Pa

𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
𝐺𝑀 𝑑 𝐺𝑀
𝑔′ = 𝑔′ = 𝑔(1 − ) (𝑔 = )
ℎ 𝑅𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 )2
𝑅𝑒2 (1 + )2
𝑅𝑒
𝐺𝑀 ℎ • here 𝒈′ < 𝑔 as depth increases
𝑔′ = 2 (1 + )−2 𝒈′ 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔
w.

𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
• h<<Re using binomial expansion,
16. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.
neglecting the higher orders, we get
𝐺𝑀 ℎ 1) YOUNG’S MODULUS
𝑔′ = 2 (1 − 2 ) 2) BULK MODULUS
ww

𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒 3) SHEAR OR RIGIDITY MODULUS

ℎ
′
𝑔 = 𝑔(1 − 2 ) 1) YOUNG’S MODULUS :
𝑅𝑒 • The ratio of longitudinal stress to the
it is found 𝒈′ < 𝑔 as altitude increases, g longitudinal strain is known as young’s
decreases. modulus
• DEPTH FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• Y=
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
• 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑡 =
∆𝐴
∆𝐿
• 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∈𝑡 =
𝐿

𝐹
𝜎𝑡 ∆𝐴
𝑌= =
∈𝑡 ∆𝐿
𝐿

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• Kinetic energy of the liquid at A,

1
𝐹 ∆𝐿 𝐾. 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣𝐴 2
𝑌= 𝑋 2
∆𝐴 𝐿
• Total energy of the liquid at A,
𝑃 1
EA= 𝑚 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑣𝐴 2 + m g hA
𝜌 2
2) BULK MODULUS :
• The ratio of the volume stress to the • similarly total energy at B
𝑃 1
• EB= 𝑚 𝐵 + 𝑚𝑣𝐵 2 + m g hB
volume strain is called bulk modulus. 𝜌 2

𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• K= = • from law of conservation of energy
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
EA =EB
• 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑛 = = ∆𝑃 •
𝑃 1 𝑃 1
𝑚 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑣𝐴 2 + m g hA = 𝑚 𝐵 + 𝑚𝑣𝐵 2 +
∆𝐴 𝜌 2 𝜌 2
∆𝑉 m g hB
• 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∈𝑣 =
𝑉
𝑃 1
•
𝐹
𝜎𝑛 ∆𝐴 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑣 2 + m g h =constant
𝐾= =− ∆𝑉
𝜌 2
∈𝑛
𝑉

∆𝑃 𝑉
•

et
𝐾=− ∆𝑉 K = - ∆𝑃𝑋 ( ) 18. DERIVE MEYER’S RELATION FOR AN IDEAL GAS.
∆𝑉
𝑉
• MEYER’S RELATION
3) Rigidity modulus: • Consider 𝝁 mole of an ideal gas in a

i.N
• The ratio of shearing stress to the container with volume v, pressure p and
temperature t.
shearing strain is called rigidity modulus. • When the gas is heated at constant
𝜂𝑅 =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 volume the temperature increases by 𝒅𝑻.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Asno work is doneby the gas, the heat that

𝑥
la 𝜎𝑠 =
𝐹𝑡
Δ𝐴
flows into the system will increase only
the internal energy.
• Let the change in internal energy be 𝒅𝑼.
sa
𝜖𝑠 = = 𝜃 • If cv is the molar specific heat capacity at
h
𝜎𝑠 𝐹𝑡 constant volume,
𝜂𝑅 = = 𝒅𝑼 = 𝝁 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 ----(1)
𝜖𝑠 Δ𝐴 𝜃
• Suppose the gas is heated at constant
da

pressure so that the temperature increase

17. STATE AND PROVE BERNOULLI’S THEOREM by 𝒅𝑻. If ‘q’ is the heat supplied in this
process and ‘𝒅𝑽′ the change in volume of
the gas. 𝑸 = 𝝁𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻 -----(2)
Pa

• If w is the work done by the gas in this

process, then 𝑾 = 𝑷𝒅𝑽 ----(3)
• But from the first law of thermodynamics,
𝑸 = 𝒅𝑼 + 𝒘 ---(4)
• 𝝁𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻 = 𝝁𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 + 𝑷𝒅𝑽 --- (5)
w.

• For mole of ideal gas, the equation of state

is given by 𝑷𝑽 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻
• 𝑷𝒅𝑽 + 𝑽𝒅𝑷 = 𝝁𝑹𝒅𝑻
• Since the pressure is constant, 𝒅𝑷 = 𝟎
ww

• BERNOULLI’S THEOREM : • 𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻 = 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 + 𝑹𝒅𝑻

• the sum of pressure energy, kinetic • 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 + 𝑹 or 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹
energy, potential energy per unit mass of • This relation is called meyer’s relation.
an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a
streamlined flow remains a constant. 19. WRITE DOWN THE POSTULATES OF KINETIC
• Proof : THEORY OF GASES.
• A,B terminals of the pipe • All the molecules of a gas are identical,
• aA, aB cross sectional area of the pipe elastic spheres.
• hA, hB height of the terminals • The molecules of different gases are
• vA, vB velocity of the liquid at A,B different.
• PA,PB liquid pressure at A,B • The number of molecules in a gas is very
• Pressure energy of the liquid at A, large and the average separation
𝑃 between them is larger than size of the
EPA = PAV = 𝑚 𝐴 gas molecules.
𝜌
• Potential energy of the liquid at A, • The molecules of a gas are in a state of
PEA= m g hA continuous random motion.
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• The molecules collide with one another

and with the walls of the container.
• These collisions are perfectly elastic so
that there is no loss of kinetic energy
during collisions.
• Between two successive collisions, a
molecule moves with uniform velocity.
• The molecules do not exert any force of
attraction or repulsion on each other
except during collision. the molecules do
not possess any potential energy and the • Consider a sphere of radius r which falls
energy is wholly kinetic. freely through a highly viscous fluid of
• The collisions are instantaneous. coefficient of viscosity𝜂.
• These molecules obey newton’s laws of • 𝜌 − density of the sphere
motion even though they move randomly. • 𝜎 − density of the fluid.
20. STATE AND EXPLAIN NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING. • Gravitational force acting on the sphere.
4
• STATEMENT : • Fg= m g = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔(downward force)
3
• The rate of loss of heat of a object is 4
• Up thrust U = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔(Upward force)

et
directly proportional to the difference in 3
the temperature between that object and • viscous force at terminal velocity vt
its surroundings. • 𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑡
•
𝒅𝑸 • the net downward force is equal to the net up

i.N
𝜶 − (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
𝒅𝒕 ward forces.
• PROOF : • Fg= U + F F = Fg - U
• Consider an object of mass m, specific 4 4
• 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔 − 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑡
heat capacity s at temperature T, TS be 3 3
2𝑟 2 (𝜌− 𝜎)𝑔
the temperature of the surroundings. If = 𝑣𝑡

la
9𝜂
the temperature falls by a small amount 𝑣𝑡 𝛼 𝑟2
𝒅𝑻 in time 𝒅𝒕, then the amount of heat lost
is,
•
sa
Terminal speed of the sphere is directly
• 𝒅𝑸 = 𝒎𝒔 𝒅𝑻 ---(1) proportional to the square of the radius.
• DIVIDING BOTH SIDES OF THE ABOVE
EQUATION BY 𝒅𝒕 *********************
𝒅𝑸 𝒎𝒔𝒅𝑻
= ------(2)
da

𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
• From newton’s law of cooling
𝒅𝑸
• 𝜶 − (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
𝒅𝒕
Pa

𝒅𝑸
• = −𝒂(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ) ---=(3)
𝒅𝒕

𝒎𝒔𝒅𝑻
• −𝒂(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ) =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑻 −𝒂𝒅𝒕
• =
w.

(𝑻−𝑻𝑺 ) 𝒎𝒔

• Integrating the bove equation on both

sides
ww

𝒅𝑻 −𝒂𝒅𝒕
• ∫ =∫
(𝑻−𝑻𝑺 ) 𝒎𝒔
−𝒂 𝒕
• 𝒍𝒏 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ) = + 𝒃𝟏
𝒎𝒔
𝒃𝟏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
• Taking exponential on both sides, 𝑻 =
𝒂
𝑻𝑺 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒆−𝒎𝒔𝒕

• 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒆𝒃𝟏 = constant

21. EXPRESSION FOR TERMINAL VELOCITY OF A

SPHERE MOVING IN A HIGH VISCOUS FLUID USING
STOKE’S FORCE.

A.ABIDHA BEGUM (PG ASST) GGHSS, PUGALUR, KARUR Page 15

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