Guide

for the
optical identification
of
some important ore
and gangue minerals

U. Neumann

WS 2015
Copyright:
Udo Neumann, University Tübingen
December 2015
Content

Abbreviations for mineral names .....................................................................................1

Some abbreviations used in this guide ............................................................................2
Arsenopyrite (Arsenkies) .................................................................................................3
Arsenopyrite (Arsenkies) .................................................................................................4
Barite (Baryt, Schwerspat)...............................................................................................5
Barite (Baryt, Schwerspat)...............................................................................................6
"Blaubleibender Covellin" (Spionkopite, Yarrowite) .........................................................7
"Blaubleibender Covellin" - Spionkopite (and Yarrowite) .................................................8
Bornite (Buntkupferkies) ..................................................................................................9
Bornite (Buntkupferkies) ................................................................................................10
Calcite............................................................................................................................11
Calcite............................................................................................................................12
Cassiterite (Zinnstein)....................................................................................................13
Cassiterite (Zinnstein)....................................................................................................14
Chalcopyrite (Kupferkies) ..............................................................................................15
Chalcopyrite (Kupferkies) ..............................................................................................16
Chromite ........................................................................................................................17
Chromite ........................................................................................................................18
Covellite (Covellin).........................................................................................................19
Covellite.........................................................................................................................20
Fahlore (Fahlerz) ...........................................................................................................21
Fahlore (Fahlerz: Tennantit – Tetraedrit) .......................................................................22
Fluorite (Flussspat)........................................................................................................23
Fluorite (Flussspat)........................................................................................................24
Galena (Galenit, Bleiglanz)............................................................................................25
Galena/Galenite (Galenit, Bleiglanz) .............................................................................26
Goethite (Nadeleisenerz)...............................................................................................27
Goethite (Nadeleisenerz)...............................................................................................28
Gold...............................................................................................................................29
Gold...............................................................................................................................30
Graphite.........................................................................................................................31
Graphite.........................................................................................................................32
Hematite (Hämatit) ........................................................................................................33
Hematite (Hämatit, Eisenglanz) .....................................................................................34
Ilmenite ..........................................................................................................................35
Ilmenite ..........................................................................................................................36
Lepidocrocite (Rubinglimmer)........................................................................................37
Lepidocrocite (Rubinglimmer)........................................................................................38
Magnetite.......................................................................................................................39
Magnetite.......................................................................................................................40
Marcasite .......................................................................................................................41
Marcasite .......................................................................................................................42
Pentlandite.....................................................................................................................43
Pentlandite.....................................................................................................................44
Pyrite .............................................................................................................................45
Pyrite .............................................................................................................................46
Pyrrhotite (Pyrrhotin, Magnetkies) .................................................................................47
Pyrrhotite (Pyrrhotin, Magnetkies) .................................................................................48
Quartz............................................................................................................................49
Quartz............................................................................................................................50
Rutile .............................................................................................................................51
Rutile .............................................................................................................................52
Sphalerite (Zinkblende)..................................................................................................53
Sphalerite (Zinkblende)..................................................................................................54
Titanite...........................................................................................................................55
Titanite...........................................................................................................................56
Other gangue minerals ..................................................................................................57
Gangue minerals ...........................................................................................................58
Abbreviations for mineral names
MINERAL NAME ABBREV. gangue gg sanidine sa
actinolite act garnet (group) Grt, gar scapolite (group) scp
albite ab goethite Gth, goe scheelite sch
alkali feldspar Afs graphite gr sericite ser
allanite all grossular grs serpentine (group) srp
almandine alm grunerite gru siderite sd
alunite alu gypsum gy skutterudite skut
amphibole (group) Amp, amph hematite hm solid solution ss
anatase Ant hercynite Hc sphalerite Sp, sl, sph
andalusite and hornblende hbl spinel Spl, spi
andradite adr illite ill stibnite stbn
anhydrite anh ilmenite ilm stilbite stlb
ankerite ank ilvaite ilv strontianite str
anorthite an intermediate ss iss sulfosalts (class) sfs
antimonite= stibnite stbn jamesonite jm talc tlc
apatite (group) ap kaolinite kao tennantite Tnt, tn
arsenopyrite asp, Apy kyanite ky tetrahedrite Ttr, td, tt (?)
augite aug löllingite Lo titanite ttn
azurite az limonite lm tremolite trm
barite Brt, bar linnaeite ln, lin (?) tourmaline Tur
biotite bt, bio maghemite mgh troilite tro
brookite Brk magnesite mgs ulvöspinel Usp
bornite bn magnetite Mag, mt uraninite Urn, ur
boulangerite boul malachite mal wolframite (fb-hub) wf
brucite brc marcasite mrc wollastonite wo
calcite cal mica (group) mic wurtzite Wur
carbonate (group) Cb microcline mc zeolite (group) zeo
carrollite car, carr molybdenite mo zircon Zrn, zr
cassiterite cst, cas monazite mnz
cerussite Cer monosulfide ss mss Combined after Whitney & Evans
chalcocite cct, cc montmorillonite mm (2010) and Fontboté (2006).
chalcopyrite Ccp, cp muscovite ms
chlorite (group) chl nepheline ne
chromite chr nickeline (niccolite) nk
cinnabar Cin, ci olivine (group) ol
clinopyroxene cpx orpiment orp
cobaltite cob orthoclase or
corundum Crn orthopyroxene opx
covellite cv perovskite Prv
cubanite Cbn, cub pentlandite pn
cuprite Cpr, cup phlogopite phl
diamond dia plagioclase plag, Pl
digenite dg proustite pr
diopside Di pseudobrookite Psb
dolomite dol pyrargyrite pyrg
electrum el pyrite py
enargite Eng, enr pyrophyllite prl
epidote ep pyroxene (group) px
fahlore (tn-td) fh pyrrhotite po
fayalite fa quartz qtz, qz
feldspar (group) Fsp, fs realgar Rg, rg
fluorite fl rhodochrosite Rds, rdc
forsterite fo rhodonite rdn
galena gn rutile rt

1
Some abbreviations used in this guide

Aoil Intensity of bireflectance in oil (anisotropic factor)

AExPol Anisotropism with crossed polars:
presence, intensity, and color in oil
AExdejPol Anisotropism with slightly (~ 4°) dejusted polars:
presence, intensity, and color in oil

BR and RPl Bireflection and reflection pleochroism = bireflectance

CI Color impression
EB Exsolution bodies
Simplified mineral formula (abbreviation after Whitney &
Formula (abbr.)
Evans (2010), and Fontboté (2006))
IR Internal reflections:
Occurrence and color in oil

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Reflectivity in air (mainly after CRIDDLE & STANLEY,1993)
R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Reflectivity in oil (mainly after CRIDDLE & STANLEY,1993),
otherwise noted
BR ~ Rpl BR as strong as reflection pleochroism
BR > Rpl BR more pronounced than reflection pleochroism
BR < Rpl BR less pronounced than reflection pleochroism
|| Pol Uncrossed polars
x Pol Crossed polars
VHN Vickers Hardness Number
# Cleavage, or cleavage after …

2
Arsenopyrite (Arsenkies)

1 Arsenopyrite, geocronite Sala/Sweden

Arsenopyrite crystals in galena (grey Obj.: 10x
white) and geocronite (greenish
Polars: II Pol
grey, outer parts of photo). Note the
varying intensity of scratches in the Photo width: 1.4 mm
three minerals due to different Slide: D22_29
polishing hardness.
Section: AS2877

© U. Neumann/TÜ

2 Arsenopyrite Hällefors/Sweden
Anisotropism of arsenopyrite. Obj.: 20x oil
Intensity varies due to
Polars: x Pol
"Felderteilung".
Photo width: 0.5 mm
Slide: 37/23
Section:

© U. Neumann/TÜ

3 Arsenopyrite Hällefors/Sweden
Anisotropism of arsenopyrite. Obj.: 20x oil
Slightly dejusted polars producing
Polars: XPol dej.
yellow and blue color.
Photo width: 0.5 mm
Slide: 37/24
Section:

© U. Neumann/TÜ

4 Arsenopyrite, loellingite Reichenstein, Saxony/Germany

Euhedral crystal of arsenopyrite with Obj.: 10x
core of elongated loellingite (slightly
Polars: II Pol
lighter).
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D12_18
Section: AS1029

© U. Neumann/TÜ

3
Arsenopyrite (Arsenkies)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Arsenopyrite (asp) FeAsS 760-1200 mcl./trc.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ra = 52.3 Rb = 51.9 Rc = 51.9

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ra = 37.6 Rb = 37.3 Rc = 37.2
Color impression (in oil) white tint yellow white tint cream white tint bluish
BR < Rpl (in oil) weak to distinct Aoil = 1

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color very weak with color weak with color
Color in 45° position bluish grey yellow brown – turquoise blue
in other positions grey, bluish reddish brown
Extinction position grey black olive black
Mode of extinction incomplete without color

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode complex (lamellar twinning in two directions; domains)

frequency very common

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, very common as euhedral, rhomb-shaped crystals; no # but abundant cataclastic
cleavage … fractures
Paragenesis Pyrite, native gold, gn, sph, ....
Diagnostic features grain shape, AExPol ("Felderteilung", domain formation), cataclasis

Notes, drafts: Very variable As:S-ratio from 1.22 to 0.82!

As-rich phases are monoclinic, ps.orthorhombic; others: triclinic!

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

4
Barite (Baryt, Schwerspat)

5 Barite, goethite, hematite "Grube Otto" near Schottenhöfe, Schwarzwald/Germany

Plates of barite (medium grey, Obj.: 10x
cleavage) overgrown by hematite
Polars: II Pol
and goethite.
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D69_22
Section: AS 3248

© U. Neumann/TÜ

6 Barite, quartz, sphalerite Prominent Hill, SE Cober Pedy/S-Australia

Barite plates (medium grey) Obj.: 10x
intergrown with sphalerite (light
Polars: || Pol
grey); some quartz grains in
sphalerite. Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D067_13
Section: AS3598

© U. Neumann/TÜ

7 Barite, sph, py, cp Bleiche, Waldshut, Schwarzwald/Germany

Barite plates (dark grey) enclosing Obj.: 20x oil
sphalerite (light grey), pyrite, and
Polars: || Pol
chalcopyrite
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D79_26
Section: DK-14

© U. Neumann/TÜ

8 Barite, limonite "Grube Otto" near Schottenhöfe, Schwarzwald/Germany

Barite plate with younger Obj.: 20x oil
botryoidally limonite (medium grey,
Polars: II Pol
partly with brown IR) and feathery
manganomelane (light grey) Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D69_28
Section: AS3248

© U. Neumann/TÜ

5
Barite (Baryt, Schwerspat)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Barite (bar) BaSO4 ~ 170 o'rh.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ra = Rb = 6.0 Rc = 5.8 calculated from n

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ra = Rb = 0.2 Rc = 0.2 calculated from n
Color impression (in oil) black (but light IR!) black (IR!)
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color not visible not visible
Color in 45° position --- ---
in other positions
Extinction position masked by internal refl.
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color white - colorless

(IR) frequency common

Twinning mode none

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, large, tabular XX,

cleavage … cleavage || (001) perfect
Paragenesis fluorite, qtz, gn, sph, py, hem,
Diagnostic features #, habit, no BR

Notes, drafts:

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

6
"Blaubleibender Covellin" (Spionkopite, Yarrowite)

9 Spionkopite, bornite Kesebol/Sweden

Spionkopite (shades of blue) with Obj.: 20x oil
strong BR and distinct cleavage,
Polars: II Pol
surrounded by bornite (light brown).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D06_08
Section: AS1649

© U. Neumann/TÜ

10 Spionkopite, bornite Kesebol/Sweden

As above with crossed polars. Obj.: 20x oil
Polars: x Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D06_09
Section: As1649

© U. Neumann/TÜ

11 Yarrowite, cp, mt, py Rhum/Scotland

Yarrowite (light blue, with Rmax) with Obj.: 20x oil
magnetite (grey), chalcopyrite (white
Polars: || Pol
yellow).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D25_17
Section: AS1818

© U. Neumann/TÜ

12 Yarrowite, cp, mt, py Rhum/Scotland

As above, 90° rotated. Obj.: 20x oil
Yarrowite now dark blue with faint
Polars: II Pol
violet tint, with Rmin.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D25_16
Section: AS1818

© U. Neumann/TÜ

7
"Blaubleibender Covellin" - Spionkopite (and Yarrowite)
Mineral name Formula VHN Cristal system

Spionkopite Cu39S28 140 hex.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 18.6 Re' = 27.1
R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 6.1 Re' = 12.3

Color impression (in oil) blue grey blue

BR ~ Rpl (in oil) strong Aoil = 67

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars
Anisotropism intensity/color very strong with color very strong with color
Color ... 45° position light orange orange – orange
… in other positions light orange
Extinction position black
Mode of extinction perfect, undulatory

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode Translations

frequency common

Further Observations
small platy- and tabular crystals
Form, habit, textures
lamellae replacement product of chalcocites

Paragenesis covellite, djurleite, chalcopyrite, tennantite, magnetite, Co-pentlandite

Diagnostic features CI, AE||Pol

Notes, drafts: called "Blaubleibender Covellin" (in general a mixture of spionkopite and yarrowite)
Notes, drafts: BR is weak compared with Yarrowite (which has a violet tint)!

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

8
Bornite (Buntkupferkies)

13 Bornite, dig, cp, mt Marmorera, Graubünden/Switzerland

Bornite (orange-brown) with digenite Obj.: 20x oil
(blue) and chalcocite (greyish blue);
Polars: II Pol
magnetite (grey) with chalcopyrite
inclusions. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D03_23
Section: AS3104

© U. Neumann/TÜ

14 Bornite Dognacska (Dognecea), W-Romania

Oleander-leaf shaped twinning of Obj.: 20x oil
bornite.
Polars: x Pol dej.
Photo width: 0.5 mm
Slide: 81/05
Section: AS1064

© U. Neumann/TÜ

15 Bornite, dig Kesebol/Sweden

Myrmecitic intergrowth of bornite Obj.: 20x oil
(brown) and digenite (light blue).
Polars: || Pol
Photo width: 0.5 mm
Slide: D06_22
Section: AS1650

© U. Neumann/TÜ

16 Bornite, cp Dognacska (Dognecea), W-Romania

Tarnishing of bornite; intensity in Obj.: 10x
right grain stronger due to different
Polars: II Pol
composition or orientation (?). Few
tiny chalcopyrite inclusions in Photo width: 1.0 mm
bornite. Slide: 81/01
Section: AS1064

© U. Neumann/TÜ

9
Bornite (Buntkupferkies)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Bornite (bn) α-Cu5FeS4 90-100 o'rh. - ps.tetr.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 21.3

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 10.4
orange brown older sections: tarnishing Æ
Color impression (in oil)
(tint violet) violet brown
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) not visible Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color extremely weak without color weak with faint tint
Color in 45° position grey grey brown – grey black
in other positions grey
Extinction position black grey
Mode of extinction perfect, straight

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---
Twinning mode twisted, oleander-leaf twinning (if high-bornite); rare translation twins
frequency sometimes

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, often anhedral, rounded grains. EB of cp (spindles) or dg.

cleavage … Decomposition into cp, and network of idaite lamellae
Paragenesis Chalcopyrite, chalcocite, covellite, digenite, py, mt, valleriite, sphalerite
Diagnostic features CI, twinning

Notes, drafts:
Solid solution of Cu3FeS3 ----- Cu9FeS6
(no tarnishing) ------ (rapidly tarnishing to violet brown)
β−(high-)bornite >265°C (cubic); between 200 and 265°C: (metastable) "intermediate bornite"

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

10
Calcite

17 Calcite, cp, po Artenberg quarry, Steinach, Schwarzwald/Germany

Calcite with polysynthetic twinning. Obj.: 2,5x
Note strong bireflection! Associated
Polars: II Pol
with chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and
pyrite. Photo width: 4.5 mm
Slide: D03_09
Section: AS3468

© U. Neumann/TÜ

18 Calcite, valleriite, bn, mt Phalabora/RSA

Valleriite (shades of yellowish Obj.: 20x oil
brwon) replaces calcite (dark grey,
Polars: x Pol
black with internal reflections) along
twin bounderies or cleavage planes. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Magnetite (grey) and bornite Slide: D09_13
(orange).
Section: AS1817

© U. Neumann/TÜ

19 Calcite, sph, gn Tara mine, Navan, Co. Meath/Ireland

Co-precipitation (?) of euhedral Obj.: 20x oil
calcite (dark grey) with sphalerite
Polars: || Pol
(grey, groundmass and as inclusion
in cc), and tiny galena (white). Some Photo width: 0.7 mm
quartz crystals (black). Slide: D67_17
Section: AS3596

© U. Neumann/TÜ

20 Calcite, qtz, py, limonite Wasseralfingen, Aalen/Germany

Oolitic iron ore with limonite ooids Obj.: 20x oil
(partly with hematite) and quartz
Polars: II Pol
clasts (dark grey, internal
reflections) in groundmass of Photo width: 0.7 mm
younger calcite (rhombs, BR!) and Slide: D62_17
pyrite (white).
Section: AS3597

© U. Neumann/TÜ

11
Calcite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Calcite (cal) CaCO3 trig.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 6.1 Re = 3.8 calculated from n

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 0.2 Re = 0.0 calculated from n
Color impression (in oil) grey black (IR!) black (but light IR!
BR > Rpl (in oil) very strong Aoil = 133

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color strong without color strong without color
Color in 45° position grey, masked by internal refl. grey - grey, masked by internal refl.
in other positions
Extinction position masked by internal refl.
Mode of extinction masked by internal refl.

Internal reflections color white – colorless – multicolored (Interferenzfarben!)

(IR) frequency common

Twinning mode polysynthetic after one or two direction (occ. bended)

frequency abundant

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, anhedral to euhedral gangue mineral;

cleavage … cleavage perfect.
Paragenesis other gangue minerals, sphalerite, galena, py
Diagnostic features low R, BR, AExPol
Notes, drafts:

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

12
Cassiterite (Zinnstein)

21 Cassiterite Igla Tin mine, Al Baḩr al Aḩmar/Egypt

Cassiterite twin showing strong BR. Obj.: 20x oil
Polars: II Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D69_18
Section: AS3139

© U. Neumann/TÜ

22 Cassiterite Punta Santa Vittoria, Fluminimaggiore, Sardinia/Italy

Zoning in cassiterite due to varying Obj.: 20x oil
iron content.
Polars: x Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D69_17
Section: AS1561

© U. Neumann/TÜ

23 Cassiterite Neves-Corvo/Portugal
Cassiterite (grey) with pyrite and Obj.: 10x
chalcopyrite (yellow). Note the
Polars: || Pol
twinned grain (lower right).
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D09_03
Section: AS2174

© U. Neumann/TÜ

24 Cassiterite, py, gn Potosi/Bolivia

Colloform cassiterite ("Holzzinn") Obj.: 20x oil
around galena (white) and anhedral
Polars: II Pol
pyrite (yellowish white). Both,
cassiterite and galena, are alteration Photo width: 0.7 mm
products of primary teallite (structure Slide: D109_12
relicts of tabular crystals in the upper
and left side of photo). Section: AS1024

© U. Neumann/TÜ

13
Cassiterite (Zinnstein)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Cassiterite (cas) SnO2 1240-1470 tetr.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 10.7 Re' = 12.2

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 1.75 Re' = 2.4
Color impression (in oil) dark grey (lighter) grey
BR > Rpl (in oil) strong Aoil = 32

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color
Color in 45° position
in other positions
Extinction position
Mode of extinction
weak without color weak without color
dark grey, often masked by IR grey – grey, often masked by internal refl.
masked by internal refl.

Internal reflections color brown (Fe-rich) to white (Fe-poor)

(IR) frequency rare to abundant

Twinning mode simple & coarse ((101)"Visiergraupen"); polysynthetic in one direction

frequency frequent; occasional

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, high temp.: coarse, isometric grains; low-temp.; colloform to fibrous ("Holzzinn");
cleavage … zoning often visible by pores and EB (columbite, rutile, wolframite, ….)
Paragenesis col, rt, wolframite, stannite, cp
Diagnostic features twinning, paragenesis, hardness; resembles titanite and other gangue minerals!

Notes, drafts: SnO2 (± Fe, Ta, Nb, Ti)

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

14
Chalcopyrite (Kupferkies)

25 Chalcopyrite, gersd., py.gold Mitterberg/Austria

Pyrite (yellowish white, relief ) and Obj.: 10x
gersdorffite (greyish white) in
Polars: II Pol
groundmass of chalcopyrite. Late
gold impregnation (light yellow) Photo width: 1.4 mm
between fractured gersdorffite Slide: D16_03
grains.
Section: AS143

© U. Neumann/TÜ

26 Chalcopyrite, sph Pfunderer Berg, S-Tirol/Italy

"Chalcopyrite disease": Infiltration of Obj.: 20x oil
Fe-bearing sphalerite by Cu-rich
Polars: || Pol
fluids leading to the formation of tiny
grains of CuFeS2 in ZnS. This is not Photo width: 0.5 mm
a exsolution texture! Slide: D46_21
Section: AS3576

© U. Neumann/TÜ

27 Chalcopyrite W-Sonora, Tucson, AZ/USA

Deformation twins of chalcopyrite Obj.: 10x
visible due to different strong
Polars: || Pol
tarnishing
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D90_04
Section: AS1780

© U. Neumann/TÜ

28 Chalcopyrite Calamita, Elba/Italy

Chalcopyrite with oleander-leaf like Obj.: 20x oil
twinning due to inversion.
Polars: x Pol dej.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D107_06
Section: AS3144

© U. Neumann/TÜ

15
Chalcopyrite (Kupferkies)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Chalcopyrite (cp) Cu1+Fe3+S2 180-200 tetr.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 45

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 34
Color impression (in oil) yellow against gold: yellow green
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) extremely weak to absent Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color very weak with faint tint weak with color
Color in 45° position black grey with brown tint light brown – black brown
in other positions yellow olive - grey with blue tint
Extinction position black tint brown brown black
Mode of extinction incomplete

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode oleander-leaf like {102}; and polysynthetic in 2 directions {112} resp.
frequency rare (inversion twins); and sometimes (deformation twins) resp.

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, very often anhedral; often as inclusion in sphalerite and pyrite
cleavage … EB of cubanite, mackinawite, sphalerite, and stannite; as EB in bornite, stannite
Paragenesis sphalerite, stannite, py, po, cub, mackinawite, cov
Diagnostic features yellow CI, grain form, paragenesis; (selective tarnishing), (twinning)

Notes, drafts: High temperature cp formation from intermediate solid solution iss (Cu,Fe,Zn,Sn)S))
Above 557°C: cubic high-temperature phase.
Cp with unexsolved Cu2S-content: rapid tarnishing!
Chalcopyrite-disease: result of the infiltration of Cu-rich fluids in Fe-bearing sphalerite Æ formation of tiny
anhedral chalcopyrite grains.

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

16
Chromite

29 Chromite, olivine Finero, N-Italy

Anhedral atoll-structured chromite Obj.: 5x
cumulates (medium grey) around
Polars: II Pol
olivine (dark grey).
Photo width: 2.8 mm
Slide: D01_08
Section: AS3529

© U. Neumann/TÜ

30 Chromite, mt Rhum, Scotland

Polygonal chromite aggregates in Obj.: 20x oil
triple-junction configuration. Ilmenite
Polars: x Pol
exsolution bodies and early silicates
in chromite. Between chromite Photo width: 0.7 mm
grains (esp. in triple junctions) Slide: D25_14
enrichment of magnetite (light grey
rims) and PGE-minerals (white): Section: AS1818

© U. Neumann/TÜ

31 Chromite, mt, hem Rzanovo, Kavardaci, Macedonian (FYROM)

Serpentinized podiform chromite Obj.: 10x
deposit with euhedral, cataclastic
Polars: || Pol
grain of spinel. Fractured core of
chromite (grey) is partly corroded, Photo width: 1,4 mm
replaced and rimmed by magnetite Slide: 93/37
(lighter brownish grey).) Late
hematite (light greyish white) in Section: AS109
groundmass (also penetrating and
replacing magnetite).
© U. Neumann/TÜ

32 Chromite Rae Nam mine, N-Thailand

Cataclastic grains of chromite in Obj.: 2,5x
serpentinized ultrabasic rock. Lower
Polars: II Pol
right an atoll-structured chromite.
Photo width: 4 mm
Slide: 82/29
Section: AS1048

© U. Neumann/TÜ

17
Chromite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Chromite (chr) (Fe,Mg)(Cr,Al,Fe)2O4 1300-1800 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 10 to15 depending on chemistry

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 2 to 3 magnesiochromite: 2.5 % spinel s.s.: 0.4 %
Color impression (in oil) dark grey dark grey dark grey
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color in each position dark
Color in 45° position black
in other positions
Extinction position black
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color brown

(IR) frequency rare (and only at rims and fractures)

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, coarse, rounded aggregates, often fractured by cataclasis

cleavage … zoning; commonly rimmed by magnetite; rare EB of ilmenite
Paragenesis magnetite, ilmenite, PGE minerals
Diagnostic features paragenesis, brown IR, no #, hardness

Notes, drafts:

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

18
Covellite (Covellin)

33 Covellite, py, dg Bor, Serbia

Former euhedral crystals of covellite Obj.: 10x
(dark blue, BR!), rimmed by pyrite
Polars: II Pol
(yellowish white) now replaced in
part by digenite (greyish blue). Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D42_11
Section: AS3545

© U. Neumann/TÜ

34 Covellite, py, dg Bor, Serbia

Strong reflection pleochroism of Obj.: 20x oil
covellite in immersion oil with blue
Polars: || Pol
and violet lamellae. Formation of
lamellae due to deformation Photo width: 0.7 mm
("Zerknitterungslamellen"); pyrite Slide: D50_09
(yellowish white), and small
digenites (bluish). Section: AS113

© U. Neumann/TÜ

35 Covellite, py, mal Frankenberg, Hessen/Germany

Pseudomorph of covellite (violet), Obj.: 20x oil
pyrite (yellow), and malachite (dark
Polars: ||Pol
grey, left side of photo) after plant
structure. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D54_20
Section: AS3554

© U. Neumann/TÜ

36 Covellite, py, mal Frankenberg, Hessen/Germany

Pseudomorph of covellite (orange Obj.: 20x oil
AExPol!), pyrite, and malachite
Polars: x Pol
(green internal reflections) after
plant structure. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D54_12
Section: AS3554

© U. Neumann/TÜ

19
Covellite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Covellite (cv) Cu1+S 50-140 hex.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 6.6 Re = 23.7

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 0.9 Re = 9.9
Color impression (in oil) violet grey blue tint violet
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) extremely strong Aoil = 166

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color very strong with color very strong with color
Color in 45° position light orange orange - orange
in other positions light orange
Extinction position black
Mode of extinction perfect, undulatory

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode translations ("Zerknitterungslamellen")

frequency common

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, platy to blade-like forms, often radial aggr.

cleavage … replacing other Cu-sulfides, galena, pyrite. # || {0001}
Paragenesis chalcocite, chalcopyrite, fahlore, bornite, enargite, pyrite
Diagnostic features CI, AE||Pol

Notes, drafts: Covellite accommodates Cu in the 1+ oxidation state by forming S-S bonds!
Covellite without violet CI in oil Æ Yarrowite or Spionkopite ("Blaubleibender Covellin")

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

20
Fahlore (Fahlerz)

37 Fahlore, cp, py, sph Amalie, Staufen-Grunern, Schwarzwald/Germany

Fahlore (greenish grey) enclosing Obj.: 20x oil
chalcopyrite (yellow) with pyrite
Polars: ||Pol
(white) inclusion; all overgrown by
sphalerite (medium grey with brown Photo width: 0.7 mm
IR). Slide: 2g
Section: SFahl1

© S. Staude/TÜ

38 Fahlore, cp, gn Prinzbach, Schwarzwald/Germany

Fahlore I (tetrahedrite, left part of Obj.: 20x oil
photo, grey) overgrown and partly
Polars: ||Pol
replaced by chalcopyrite (yellow).
This is overgrown by fahlore II Photo width: 0.7 mm
(tennantite; grey with greenish tint) Slide: 2k
and galena (whitish grey).
Section: SEH1-3

© S. Staude/TÜ

39 Fahlore, bn, py, cp La Plata mine, Ciriboga/Ecuador

Small grains of anhedral fahlore Obj.: 20x oil
(greenish grey) and euhedral pyrite
Polars: ||Pol
(white) in complex intergrowth of
bornite (brown) with chalcopyrite Photo width: 0.5 mm
(yellow). Slide: 69/18
Section: AS3101

© U. Neumann/TÜ

40 Fahlore, cp, cov, luz Clara mine, Schwarzwald/Germany

Irregular replacement of fahlore Obj.: 20x oil
(grey) by chalcopyrite (yellow).
Polars: ||Pol
Luzonite (brown) is replaced by
covellite (violett-blue). Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D54_06
Section: AS3578

© U. Neumann/TÜ

21
Fahlore (Fahlerz: Tennantit – Tetraedrit)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Fahlore (tnt-td) (Cu,Ag,Fe)12(As,Sb,Bi)4S13 300-380 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) tennantite: ~ 30 tetrahedrite: ~ 32

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) ~ 15 ~ 17
Color impression (in oil) grey tint green grey tint brown(olive)
BR Rpl (in oil) ------- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color in each position dark in each position dark
Color in 45° position black black
in other positions
Extinction position black black
Mode of extinction in each position dark

Internal reflections color red

(IR) frequency absent to common (high As content)

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, mostly anhedral; sometimes as inclusion in galena, sometimes zoned
cleavage … no #
Paragenesis galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, stannite, sulfosalts
Diagnostic features R, CI, paragenesis

Notes, drafts: General formula: [(Cu,Ag)1+20(Fe,Zn,Hg,Ge,Sn)2+4(As,Sb,Bi)3+8]S26

Tetrahedrite: Sb-fahlore, Tennantite: As-fahlore.

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

22
Fluorite (Flussspat)

41 Fluorite, carbonate, hem, cp Olympic Dam, Australia

Euhedral to anhedral crystals of Obj.: 10x
fluorite (dark grey with cleavage pits)
Polars: || Pol
in matrix of carbonate (medium
grey), hematite (lighr grey), and Photo width: 1.4 mm
chalcopyrite (yellow). Slide: D101_22
Section: OD664

© U. Neumann/TÜ

42 Fluorite, galena, quartz Jenigi/Egypt

Fluorite vein (dark grey to black) in Obj.: 10x
galena (greyish white) parting quartz
Polars: || Pol
crystal (medium grey) and cerussite
(light grey). Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D99_20
Section: AS3140

© U. Neumann/TÜ

43 Fluorite, carbonate, hem, cp Olympic Dam, Australia

Clasts of fluorite (with violet rim) in Obj.: 20x oil
matrix of carbonate, hematite (light
Polars: || Pol
grey), and chalcopyrite (yellow).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D102_26
Section: OD662

© U. Neumann/TÜ

44 Fluorite, hem Olympic Dam, Australia

Large fluorite crystal with tiny Obj.: 20x oil
cleavage cracks (NNE-SSW) and
Polars: || Pol
trails of fluid inclusions in the centre
and upper part of crystal. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D102_27
Section: OD662

© U. Neumann/TÜ

23
Fluorite (Flussspat)
Mineral name Formula VHN Cristal system

Fluorite CaF2 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 3.2 calculated from n

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 0.0 calculated from n

Color impression (in oil) grey, black

BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil =

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color isotropic
Color: in 45° position many IR
… in other positions
Extinction position
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color white to violett

(IR) frequency abundant
Twinning mode ---
frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures euhdral to anhedral grains;

cleavage … perfect # || {111}
Paragenesis Barite, quartz, galena, sphalerite, pitchblende
Diagnostic features very low R, isotropic, cleavage

Notes, drafts:

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

24
Galena (Galenit, Bleiglanz)

45 Galena, py, sph Rammelsberg, Harz/Germany

Anhedral relic of galena (greyish Obj.: 20 oil
white) replaced and surounded by
Polars: II Pol
collomorph pyrite (yellow-white) and
sphalerite (grey). Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D67_22
Section: AS3598

© U. Neumann/TÜ

46 Galena Balya/Turkey
Galena with characteristic triangular Obj.: 20x oil
pits along cleavage lines || {111}.
Polars: || Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D32_13
Section: AS156

© U. Neumann/TÜ

47 Galena, py, mrc, sph Tepla/Slovenia

Left side: Galena intergrown with Obj.: 20x oil
pyrite (white yellow). Right side:
Polars: || Pol
Marcasite plates (light yellow)
accompanied with sphalerite Photo width: 0.7 mm
(medium grey). Slide: D58_02
Section: AS3501

© U. Neumann/TÜ

48 Galena, asp, qtz Hällefors/Sweden

Galena (whitish grey, triangular pits) Obj.: 10x
replacing arsenopyrite rhombs
Polars: II Pol
(nearly white) and quartz (grey).
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D69_01
Section: AS101

© U. Neumann/TÜ

25
Galena/Galenite (Galenit, Bleiglanz)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Galena/Galenite (gn) PbS 60-100 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 43.0

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 28.0
Color impression (in oil) greyish white
BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color in each pos. homogeneous dark in each pos. homogeneous dark
Color in 45° position greyish black grey black
in other positions
Extinction position greyish black
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode (only visible after etching)

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, euhedral - anhedral; polishing cleavage ||{100} Æ triangular pits;
cleavage … EB of miargyrite and schapbachite, inclusions of Ag-minerals and sulfosalts
Paragenesis sphalerite, chalcopyrite, marcasite, bravoite, Ag-minerals
Diagnostic features cleavage, low polishing hardness, scratches

Notes, drafts:

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

26
Goethite (Nadeleisenerz)

49 Goethite Ahnet-Mouydir, Hoggar Massif/Algeria

Euhedral crystals of goethite Obj.: 20x oil
showing bireflection and yellow
Polars: II Pol
brown internal reflections.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D34_18
Section: A188/3

© U. Neumann/TÜ

50 Goethite Ahnet-Mouydir, Hoggar Massif/Algeria

Euhedral crystals of goethite Obj.: 20x oil
showing birfection and yellow brown
Polars: x Pol
internal reflections.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D34_20
Section: A188/3

© U. Neumann/TÜ

51 Goethite The Pinnacles, near Broken Hill/Australia

Collomorph goethite with yellow to Obj.: 20x oil
orange brown internal reflections.
Polars: XPol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D01_21
Section: AS3525

© U. Neumann/TÜ

52 Goethite, py Stuhlskopf, Schwarzwald/Germany

Pseudomoph replacement of pyrite Obj.: 20x oil

crystals by goethite (limonite).
Polars: II Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D61_05
Section: FP43-1

© U. Neumann/TÜ

27
Goethite (Nadeleisenerz)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Goethite (goe) α−FeOOH 660-800 o'rh.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Rb = 15.6 Rc = 17.7 Ra = 18.3

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Rb = 4.3 Rc = 5.6 Ra = 6.0
Color impression (in oil) grey tint brown grey tint blue grey
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) strong (only large grains) Aoil = 33

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color distinct without color distinct without color
Color in 45° position grey grey - grey black
in other positions
Extinction position effects often masked by internal refl.
Mode of extinction perfect

Internal reflections color yellow brown; also yellow, brown or orange

(IR) frequency abundant, always visible

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, tabular, platy, concentric shell-like, fine crystalline to colloform, "Glaskopf"
cleavage … aggregates; replacement product of almost all iron minerals
Paragenesis lepidocrocite, hematite, manganomelane, and other Fe minerals
Diagnostic features IR, texture, paragenesis

Notes, drafts:
Opt. features = f (crystallinity, grain size, porosity, polish, H2O- content and composition). Part of limonite
(Brauneisenstein) formed by supergene alteration/weathering/oxidation of all Fe-minerals.
Common fine- to cryptocrystalline (Brauner Glaskopf), and mixed with other Fe-hydroxides; oxidation product of
metallic iron.

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

28
Gold

53 Gold, py Witwatersrand/RSA
Mobilized gold (light yellow) in Obj.: 20x oil
rounded and partly fractured grains
Polars: II Pol
of pyrite (greyish yellow).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D83_09
Section: AS3472

© U. Neumann/TÜ

54 Gold, asp Vietnam

Fractured arsenopyrite (greyish Obj.: 20x oil
tone) with younger gold (light
Polars: || Pol
yellow).
Photo width: 0.5 mm
Slide: 78/06
Section: TR-N1

© U. Neumann/TÜ

55 Gold, emplectite, bismuthinite Stuhlskopf, Schwarzwald/Germany

Small gold grains in between Obj.: 20x oil
emplectite (brownish grey),
Polars: || Pol
bismuthinite (grey), and secondary
Bi-minerals (yellow to reddish- Photo width: 0.7 mm
brown, upper part of photo). Slide: D60_15
Section: Kindler11

© U. Neumann/TÜ

56 Gold, asp, po, cp Boliden/Sweden

Euhedral crystal of arsenopyrite Obj.: 10x
(creamy white) with pyrrhotite
Polars: II Pol
(brownish grey ="tombak"-color),
chalcopyrite (greenish yellow), and Photo width: 1.4 mm
gold (light yellow). Slide: DSCN166
Section: BOL-1145

© Th. Wagner/ETH Zürich

29
Gold
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Gold (Au,Ag) 30-60 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 77.0 Au80Ag20: 84.0

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 71.5 Au80Ag20: 79.4

Color impression (in oil) yellow (Ag-rich: white yellow)

BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color anisotropism due to scratches anisotropism due to scratches
Color in 45° position greenish black due to scratches greenish black
in other positions "Kratzeranisotropie" "Kratzeranisotropie"
Extinction position greenish black
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, anhedral grains, dendritic; rare in large aggregates, i.e. often tiny grains!
cleavage … zoning (Au-Ag)
Paragenesis arsenopyrite, tellurides, stibnite, limonite, clausthalite, pyrite
Diagnostic features high reflectivity and bright yellow color, "Kratzeranisotropie"

Notes, drafts: 6 % Pd reduces RP oil to 50 % .

Compared to gold the other yellow sulfides, like py and cp, appear very dull, greyish-yellow, and dirty yellowish-
green.

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

30
Graphite

57 Graphite, po Kropfmühl, Passau/Germany

Parallel graphite flakes (grey) with Obj.: 20x oil
pyrrhotite. Graphite in position with
Polars: II Pol
highest reflectivity.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D07_10
Section: AS1054b

© U. Neumann/TÜ

58 Graphite, py Skrammelfalsgruvan, Norberg/Sweden

Aligned graphite plates in and Obj.: 20x oil
around pyrite.
Polars: ||Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D46_13
Section: AS3572

© U. Neumann/TÜ

59 Graphite, carbonate, titanite Kropfmühl, Passau/Germany

Two crystals of graphite (arrows) Obj.: 10x
showing its strong bireflection.
Polars: ||Pol
Crystal on the left side is nearly as
dark as carbonate (BR!, twinning). Photo width: 1.4 mm
Elongated grain of titanite (light Slide: D14_08
grey) in the center.
Section: AS1055a

© U. Neumann/TÜ

60 Graphite, molybdenite, py Skrammelfalsgruvan, Norberg/Sverige

Graphite flakes intergrown with Obj.: 20x oil
molybdenite (lighter bluish grey) in
Polars: II Pol
pyrite.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D46_17
Section: AS3572

© U. Neumann/TÜ

31
Graphite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Graphite (gr) C 7-12 hex.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Re = 6 Ro = 26

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Re = 0.5 Ro = 15
Color impression (in oil) dark grey tint brown light grey tint yellow
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) extremely strong Aoil = 187

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color very strong with faint tint very strong with color
Color in 45° position white with yellow tint light yellow – light yellow
in other positions
Extinction position olive black olive black
Mode of extinction straight, undulatory, disperse

Internal reflections color -----

(IR) frequency -----

Twinning mode translations & crumpled lamellae

frequency very common

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, often flaky, platy, tabular; # perfect || (0001)

cleavage …
Paragenesis manifold; often in metamorphic ores
Diagnostic features BR, AExPol, in all positions not transparent Æ no IR!

Notes, drafts: Valleriite is very similar! Molybdenite is much brighter!

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

32
Hematite (Hämatit)

61 Hematite, mt The Pinnacles, near Broken Hill, NSW/Australia

Magnetit (brownish grey) with strong Obj.: 20x oil
martitization (martite; greyish white
Polars: II Pol
lamelae) surrounded and penetrated
by younger goethite (grey). Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D67_07
Section: AS3525

© U. Neumann/TÜ

62 Hematite, mt The Pinnacles, near Broken Hill, NSW/Australia

Same martite under crossed polars. Obj.: 20x oil
Three sets of orientated hematite
Polars: x Pol
lamelae (120°) are easy visible.
Numerous internal reflections of Photo width: 0.7 mm
goethite, but only few red internal Slide: D67_08
reflection of hematite.
Section: AS3525

© U. Neumann/TÜ

63 Hematite Terra Nera, Elba/Italy

Thin tabular hematite showing an Obj.: 10x
ophitic network ("sperriges Gefüge").
Polars: ||Pol
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D50_17
Section: AS3162

© U. Neumann/TÜ

64 Hematite Wadi Mubarak/Egypt

Hematite with typical twinning Obj.: 20x oil
("Jaegerzaun" – trellis-work fence)
Polars: II Pol
due to deformation/ metamorphism.
Twinning lamelae are orientated Photo width: 0.7 mm
appr. 45° to the shistosity of the ore. Slide: D68_02
Section: AS 177

© U. Neumann/TÜ

33
Hematite (Hämatit, Eisenglanz)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Hematite (hm) α-Fe2O3 900 trig.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Re' = 26.4 Ro = 30.0

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Re' = 12.4 Ro = 15.9
Color impression (in oil) white grey white grey
BR > Rpl (in oil) distinct Aoil = 28

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color distinct with faint tint distinct with faint tint
Color in 45° position grey with green tint grey tint green – grey
in other positions
Extinction position black
Mode of extinction perfect

Internal reflections color deep red ("blood red")

(IR) frequency common to rare (depending on grain size)

Twinning mode polysynthetic after more than one direction (trellis-work fence, dt. "Jägerzaun")
frequency rare (in magmatites), common (in metamorphosed ores)

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, tabular; martite pseudomorphism (hm after mt || {111})

cleavage … carries EB of ilmenite (corundum); as EB in ilmenite
Paragenesis magnetite, ilmenite, rutile, goethite
Diagnostic features paragenesis, red IR

Notes, drafts: "cubic hematite" = maghemite (γ-Fe2O3)

Ilmenohematite (Fe2O3 +FeTiO3)ss with RV < 30-26/15-12

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

34
Ilmenite

65 Ilmenite, rutile Neils Valley, Jos plateau, Nigeria

Two large crystals of (hematite-) Obj.: 20x oil
ilmenite in perpendicular orientation
Polars: II Pol
exhibiting the strong bireflectance
(brown, darker vs. grey with Photo width: 0.5 mm
brwonish tint, lighter) and tiny Slide: BR1
exsolution bodies of hematite. In the
lower part of photo large grain of Section: AS134
rutile with very small twinning
lamellae (light grey).
© U. Neumann/TÜ

66 Ilmenite, martite in Rhyolite

Unaltered ilmenite lamellae Obj.: 20x oil
(brownish grey) in martitized
Polars: || Pol
magnetite (grey white)
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D57_01
Section: LW-44

© U. Neumann/TÜ

67 Ilmenite, mt, hem, rt Åmli/S-Norway

Sandwich-type ilmenite-magnetite. Obj.: 20x oil
Ilmenite is partly oxidized into a
Polars: || Pol
mixture of hematite and rutile. Zircon
(dark grey) with pyrite. Note small Photo width: 0.7 mm
exsolution bodies of spinel (dark Slide: D52_14
grey) in magnetite).
Section: AS173

© U. Neumann/TÜ

68 Hematite-ilmenite, rt Radium Hill, Olary Prov./S-Australia

Ilmenite (brownish grey, BR!) with Obj.: 20x oil
exsolution disks of hematite (so
Polars: II Pol
called hematite-ilmenite). Intergrown
with rutile (medium grey). Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D01_31
Section: AS3519

© U. Neumann/TÜ

35
Ilmenite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Ilmenite (ilm) FeTiO3 560-700 trig.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Re' = 16.4 Ro = 19.2

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Re' = 4.9 Ro = 6.7
brown greyish brown
Color impression (in oil)
often only greyish brown or only grey (tint brown )
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) strong Aoil = 31

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color distinct without color distinct without color
Color in 45° position grey grey - grey (tint green)
in other positions
Extinction position grey black grey black
Mode of extinction not perfect, straight

Internal reflections color only due to higher Mn-content (pyrophanite MnTiO3): red
(IR) frequency rare

Twinning mode polysynthetic after more than one direction

frequency rare

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, elongated, lense- or tabular-shaped grains; often as EB in magnetite and hematite;
cleavage … commonly replaced/rimmed by (pseudo)rutile
Paragenesis magnetite, hematite (also as EB), rutile, titanite
Diagnostic features CI, paragenesis

Notes, drafts: Mn-ilmenite Æ pyrophanite, Mg-ilmenite Æ geikielite.

Optical features varying distinct with contents of Fe2O3, MnO, and MgO.

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

36
Lepidocrocite (Rubinglimmer)

69 Lepidocrocite, py, cp, carb Rotgülden mine, Austria

Pyrite and chalcopyrite (upper part) Obj.: 20x oil
in association with lepidocrocite
Polars: II Pol
(varying shades of grey Æ strong
BR!, central part). Carbonate Photo width: 0.7 mm
groundmass. Slide: D22_16
Section: AS3536

© U. Neumann/TÜ

70 Lepidocrocite Rotgülden mine, Austria

As above, with crossed polars. Obj.: 20 x oil
Strong anisotropism of fan-shaped
Polars: x Pol
lepidocrocite with some red internal
reflections! Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D22_18
Section: AS3536

© U. Neumann/TÜ

71 Lepidocrocite, goe Stuhlskopf, Schwarzwald/Germany

Fine grained mixture of goethite and Obj.: 20x oil
lepidocrocite with minor hematite
Polars: || Pol
(light grey). Goethite and
lepidocrocite are difficult to identify Photo width: 0.7 mm
with uncrossed polars (see next Slide: D61_03
photo!).
Section: FP43-1

© U. Neumann/TÜ

72 Lepidocrocite, goe Stuhlskopf, Schwarzwald/Germany

As above, now with crossed polars. Obj.: 20x oil
Lepidocrocite exhibits strong
Polars: x Pol
anisotropism (light grey to white),
whereas anisotropism of goethite is Photo width: 0.7 mm
masked by abundant internal Slide: D61_02
reflections (varying yellow-brown).
Section: FP43-1

© U. Neumann/TÜ

37
Lepidocrocite (Rubinglimmer)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Lepidocrocite (Lepi) γ-FeOOH ~400 o'rh.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) R1 = 11.6 R2 = 18.4

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) R1 = 2.0 R2 = 6.2
Color impression (in oil) dark grey - black (dull) white grey tint blue
BR > Rpl (in oil) extremely strong Aoil = 102

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color strong without color strong without color
Color in 45° position white white - white
in other positions
Extinction position black
Mode of extinction perfect

Internal reflections color brownish red, seldom reddish yellow or brown; not as brilliant red as in hematite
(IR) frequency common

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, thin tablets, tabular, radial aggregates

cleavage … often intergrown with goethite
Paragenesis together with goethite as oxidation product of Fe-sulfides
Diagnostic features BR and AExPol, brownish red IR; less abundant than goethite

Notes, drafts: extensively common, intensively less abundant than goethite.

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

38
Magnetite

73 Magnetite, ilm, spl Krzemianka, Suwalki/NE-Poland

Magnetite with ilmenite (oriented Obj.: 20x oil
lamellae, greyish brown), exsolution
Polars: II Pol
bodies of spinel (dark grey; oriented
lenses in mt and tiny grains oriented Photo width: 0.7 mm
along ilmenite laths), and larger Slide: D25_12
spinel grains (dark grey).
Section: AS198

© U. Neumann/TÜ

74 Magnetite, hem, sid Mamatwan mine, Hotazel/RSA

Banded Iron Formation with primary Obj.: 20x oil
hematite (light grey) and carbonate
Polars: || Pol
(dark grey) overgrown by younger
magnetite. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D17_17
Section: M4

© U. Neumann/TÜ

75 Magnetite, ilm, rt Ganawuri complex, Jos plateau/Nigeria

Magnetite in fayalite granite. Obj.: 20x oil
Magnetite with larger ilmenite
Polars: || Pol
lamelae (right side, partly replaced
by rutile, grey) and tiny trellis-type Photo width: 0.34 mm
exsolution bodies of ilmenite. Slide: D25_20
Section: AS3245

© U. Neumann/TÜ

76 Magnetite, hem, maghemite Lakovica near Bucim/Macedonia

Skarn ore with typical zoned Obj.: 25x oil
magnetite (greyish brown, fine
Polars: II Pol
zoning) partly replaced by hematite
(light grey) and maghemite (blueyish Photo width: 0.4 mm
grey). Slide: 20_16
Section: AS125

© U. Neumann/TÜ

39
Magnetite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Magnetite (mt) Fe3O4 500-550 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 20.7 Ti-Mt: 16 to 17

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 8.2 Ti-Mt: 5 to 6 Mg-Ferrite: 5.9%
grey (often with brown
Color impression (in oil) Ti-Mt: grey with rose tint
or yellow tint)
BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color in each position homogenous dark deformed or Mn-bearing Mt are anisotropic!
Color in 45° position black grey
in other positions
Extinction position black
Mode of extinction perfect

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, euhedral grains common; also martitization; no #

cleavage … EB of ilmenite, ulvite, spinel etc. Zoning with Cr-/Al-/Mg-rich cores
Paragenesis hematite, ilmenite, spinel, chromite, pyrite
Diagnostic features paragenesis, martitization, isotropic, no IR

Notes, drafts: CI/RPl varying with composition.

Visible zoning (higher SiO2 contents; very thin delicate zones!) is typical for mt in pyrometasomatic ores.
"Kenomagnetite": see maghemite

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

40
Marcasite

77 Marcasite, py Tepla/Slovenia
MVT ore with pyrite (yellowish white) Obj.: 20x oil
overgrown by marcasite crystals.
Polars: II Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D57_27
Section: AS3501

© U. Neumann/TÜ

78 Marcasite, py Tepla/Slovenia
Same as above with crossed Obj.: 20x oil
polars..
Polars: x Pol
MVT ore with pyrite (yellowish white)
overgrown by marcasite crystals. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Note the green colors of marcasite Slide: D57_28
with crossed polars.
Section: AS3501

© U. Neumann/TÜ

79 Marcasite, py Tepla/Slovenia
Two grains of marcasite (RPl and Obj.: 20x oil
BR visible) with small inclusion of
Polars: || Pol
pyrite (yellowish white).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D57_31
Section: AS3501

© U. Neumann/TÜ

80 Marcasite, py Tepla/Slovenia
Same as above with crossed Obj.: 20x oil
polars..
Polars: x Pol
Note the undulatory extinction of
marcasite. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D57_33
Section: AS3501

© U. Neumann/TÜ

41
Marcasite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Marcasite (mrc) FeS2 910-1100 o'rh.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) R1 = 49.1 R2 = 56.2

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) R1 = 34.3 R2 = 42.3
Color impression (in oil) white cream tint brown white tint turquoise
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) distinct Aoil = 20

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color distinct with color distinct with color
Color in 45° position yellow green light grey yellow – turquoise
in other positions different shades of green
Extinction position black black
Mode of extinction perfect

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode polysynthetic after one direction; and coarse after (110)
frequency common

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, partly very fine grained, colloidal, tabular crystals
cleavage … not stable above 350°C Æ pyrite; replaces pyrrhotite (bird eyes-formation)
Paragenesis pyrite, pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite
Diagnostic features green AExPol, CI, paragenesis

Notes, drafts:

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

42
Pentlandite

81 Pentlandite, py, cp Kambalda/Australia

Pentlandite (creme, with typical #), Obj.: 10x
partly replaced by pyrite (nearly
Polars: II Pol
white), and chalcopyrite (yellow).
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D91_03
Section: AS3613

© U. Neumann/TÜ

82 Pentlandite, po, py Horbach, Schwarzwald/Germany

Larger flame-like pentlandites Obj.: 20x oil
(cremy white) in pyrrhotite; euhedral
Polars: || Pol
pyrite (yellowish white).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D26_10
Section: AS2562

© U. Neumann/TÜ

83 Pentlandite, po, py Sudbury, Ontario/Canada

Granular and flame-like pentlandite Obj.: 20x oil
exsolution along grain boundaries of
Polars: || Pol
pyrrhotite. Upper part: chalcopyrite.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D26_12
Section: AS1760

© U. Neumann/TÜ

84 Pentlandite, po, cp, violarite Sohland a.d.Spree/Germany

Large pentlandite crystal (almost Obj.: 20x oil
completely replaced by violarite; #
Polars: II Pol
visible) surrounded by pyrrhotite
(brownish creme) and chalcopyrite Photo width: 0.7 mm
(yellow). Slide: D26_20
Section: AS3500

© U. Neumann/TÜ

43
Pentlandite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Pentlandite (pn) (Ni,Fe)9S8 270-290 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 48.9

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 37.2
Color impression (in oil) white creamy (against pyrite: less yellow)
BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color isotropic isotropic
Color in 45° position grey black tint violet grey black tint violet
in other positions
Extinction position
Mode of extinction not complete

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, # after{ 111} distinct; anhedral grains, or flame-like || (0001) in pyrrhotite,
cleavage … excess Fe → mackinawite-EB
Paragenesis pyrrhotite, violarite (FeNi2S4), bravoite, chalcopyrite, millerite
Diagnostic features octahedral #, flames, paragenesis with pyrrhotite!

Notes, drafts: resembles pyrite (but #!!)

Co-pentlandite: (Co,Ni,Fe)9S8

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

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Pyrite

85 Pyrite Brandner vein, Mitterberg/Austria

Small euhedral cube of pyrite, one Obj.: 10x
larger pyrite (cataclasis) together
Polars: II Pol
with gersdorffite (light grey), gold
(light yellow), and quartz (upper right Photo width: 1.4 mm
side, dark grey) in groundmass of Slide: D16_03
chalcopyrite.
Section: AS143

© U. Neumann/TÜ

86 Pyrite, cp, po, sph, cub Zlaté Hory, Okres Jeseník/Czech Republic
Large grain of pyrite with inclusion of Obj.: 20x oil
chalcopyrite (yellow), pyrrhotite (light
Polars: || Pol
brown), sphalerite (dark grey), and
cubanite (light grey). Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D28_25
Section: AS2553

© U. Neumann/TÜ

87 Pyrite, mrk Black Smoker, Pacific ocean

Collomorph intergrowths of pyrite- Obj.: 20x oil
marcasite with younger euhedral
Polars: || Pol
pyrite cubes.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D57_18
Section: AS3283

© U. Neumann/TÜ

88 Pyrite Sebkha Mekkerhane, Hoggar Massif/Algeria

Agglomerates of tiny pyrite cubes in Obj.: 20x oil
organic rich sediment. These more
Polars: II Pol
or less round pyrite concentrations
are called "framboids" indicating Photo width: 0.7 mm
possible bacterial sulphate reduction Slide: D29_05
(BSR) and sulphide precipitation
(starting with mackinawite). Section: A106/1

© U. Neumann/TÜ

45
Pyrite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Pyrite (py) FeS2 1650-2300 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 53.7

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 39.2
Color impression (in oil) white yellow
BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color mostly isotropic sometimes weak with tint
Color: in 45° position bluish black impure colors (olive, yellow ..)
in other positions
Extinction position bluish black
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode ---

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, tend to build euhedral crystals, tiny crystals in "framboid py; locked older minerals
cleavage … (e.g. po, cp) as relics, often replaces po. no #!
Paragenesis "Durchläufermineral"; pyrrhotite (e.g. bird eyes), arsenopyrite, Au, and much more
Diagnostic features often euhedral, cataclasis, many inclusion, hardness

Notes, drafts: one of the most common sulfides in rocks.

Other elements Æ weak anisotropism (Se, As) or different RPl/CI (Co, Cu, Ag; Ni Æ Bravoite).

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

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Pyrrhotite (Pyrrhotin, Magnetkies)

89 Pyrrhotite, ilm, rt, graphite Rimella-Gula, Val Sessia/Italy

Young formation of pyrrhotite Obj.: 10x
(brownish crème, so called "tombak"
Polars: II Pol
color) replacing older Fe-Ti-minerals
and graphite. Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D16_19
Section: AS135

© U. Neumann/TÜ

90 Pyrrhotite, py, asp Calamita, Elba/Italy

Typical alteration of pyrrhotite Obj.: 20x oil
leading to the formation of
Polars: || Pol
pyrite/marcasite (nearly white) plus
Fe-sulfates (dark grey) along cracks Photo width: 0.7 mm
and clevage planes. So called "bird Slide: D14_11
eyes structure". Arsenopyrite (white,
euhedral) and pyrite (yellowish Section: AS3144
white, lower part of photo).

© U. Neumann/TÜ

91 Pyrrhotite, py, mt, asp Rotgülden mine, Salzburg/Austria

Oxidation of pyrrhotite producing Obj.: 20x oil
pyrite plus magnetite (tiny grey
Polars: || Pol
inclusions in pyrite); right side:
arsenopyrite. Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D22_22
Section: AS3536

© U. Neumann/TÜ

92 Pyrrhotite Grythyttan, Västmanland/Sweden

Cleavage planes of pyrrhotite Obj.: 10x
slightly bent due to metamorphism.
Polars: II Pol
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D57_10
Section: AS3558

© U. Neumann/TÜ

47
Pyrrhotite (Pyrrhotin, Magnetkies)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Pyrrhotite (po) Fe1-xS (x = 0.1 - 0.2) 260-410 mcl. / hex.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) R1 /Ro = 36.4 / 36.3 R2/Re = 41.5 / 40.1 mcl. 4C / hex. 11C resp.
R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) R1 /Ro = 23.6 / 23.1 R2/Re = 28.3 / 26.7 mcl. 4C / hex. 11C resp.
Color impression (in oil) white tint brown cream rose so called "Tombak color"
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) distinct (mcl.) and weak (hex.), resp. Aoil = 18/14

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color distinct without color distinct with color
Color: in 45° position grey greyish turquoise – greyish red brown
in other positions greyish brown - green
Extinction position grey black grey with rose tint
Mode of extinction incomplete

Internal reflections color ---

(IR) frequency ---

Twinning mode 1. Translations, 2. due to inversion

frequency rare

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, anhedral aggregates, distinct # after one direction; often as inclusion in pyrite
cleavage … supergene bird eyes-formation, hypogene: Æ mt+py. EB of pentlandite-"flames"
Paragenesis pyrite, marcasite, chalcopyrite, cubanite, mackinawite, pentlandite, magnetite
Diagnostic features CI not easy to describe ("Tombak"), #, paragenesis, bird eyes-formation

Notes, drafts: Troilite (FeS) is more yellow brown

hex. po has slightly weaker BR!
Pyrrhotite and bornite can not coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium!

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

48
Quartz

93 Quartz, limonite, rt Wasseralfingen, Aalen/Germany

Oolitic iron ore with anhedral quartz Obj.: 10x
clasts (note strong relief!) and
Polars: II Pol
limonitic ooids. Some ooids formed
around cores of rutile (light grey, Photo width: 1.4 mm
upper right part) or limonitic clays Slide: D62_32
(medium grey stacks).
Section: AS3597

© U. Neumann/TÜ

94 Quartz, hematite Mt. Mulga Barite mine, Olary Pr./S-Australia

Euhedral quartz crystals partly Obj.: 10x
replaced by hematite (greyish
Polars: || Pol
white).
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D01_26
Section: AS3523
© U. Neumann/TÜ

95 Quartz, fl, gn, cer Jenigi, Egypt

Fluorite (left side and lower part of Obj.: 10x
photo) is overgrown by euhedral
Polars: || Pol
quartz crystals (slightly lighter).
Replacement of galena (white) by Photo width: 1.4 mm
cerussite (medium grey). Slide: D134_16
Section: A3140

© U. Neumann/TÜ

96 Quartz, goethite The Pinnacles, near Broken Hill, NSW/Australia

Goethite crosscutting (not Obj.: 20x oil
replacing!) fractured quartz grains
Polars: II Pol
(grey to black with light IR).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D67_05
Section: AS3525

© U. Neumann/TÜ

49
Quartz
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Quartz SiO2 725 trig.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 4.6 Re = 4.7 calculated from n

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 0.1 Re = 0.1 calculated from n
Color impression (in oil) "black" (but light IR!) "black" (but light IR!)
BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color not visible not visible
Color: in 45° position masked by internal refl. masked by internal refl.
in other positions
Extinction position masked by internal refl.
Mode of extinction ---

Internal reflections color white - colorless

(IR) frequency common

Twinning mode none

frequency ---

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, granular to euhedral, with many fluid inclusions

cleavage … no #,
Paragenesis barite, fluorite …
Diagnostic features low R, no BR, no #; fluid inclusions

Notes, drafts:

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

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Rutile

97 Rutile, ilm, tit, po Rimella-Gula, Val Sessia/Italy

Rutile (grey) with lamellar twinning Obj.: 20x oil
replacing older ilmenite (brownish
Polars: II Pol
grey); younger pyrrhotite.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D16_23
Section: AS135

© U. Neumann/TÜ

98 Rutile, hem, ilm Radium Hill, Olary/S-Australia

Mixture of rutile (medium grey) with Obj.: 20x oil
hematite-ilmenite (brown grains -
Polars: || Pol
BR! - with light grey exsolution
bodies of hematite). Central rutile Photo width: 0.7 mm
shows red internal reflection. Slide: D01_30
Section: AS3519

© U. Neumann/TÜ

99 Rutile, ilm, anatase Neils Valley, Jos Plateau/Nigeria

Ilmenite (brownish grey) crosscuting Obj.: 20x oil
rutile (upper and lower part of
Polars: || Pol
photo). Ilmenite is transformed into a
mixture of fine grained rutile, Photo width: 0.7 mm
anatase, and goethite (so called Slide: D23_19
"leucoxene").
Section: AS134

© U. Neumann/TÜ

100 Rutile, ilm Neils Valley, Jos Plateau/Nigeria

Rutile with small twins (grey – light Obj.: 20x oil
grey) and exsolution lamellae of
Polars: II Pol
ilmenite (brownish grey).
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D23_25
Section: AS134

© U. Neumann/TÜ

51
Rutile
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Rutile (rt) TiO2 900-980 tetr.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 19.7 Re' = 23.1

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) Ro = 6.9 Re' = 9.3
Color impression (in oil) grey light grey (tint blue)
BR ~ Rpl (in oil) strong Aoil = 29

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color weak without color distinct without color
Color: in 45° position grey grey - grey
in other positions
Extinction position often masked by internal refl. ditto
Mode of extinction straight

Internal reflections color white (Fe-poor) – yellow orange – brown red (Fe-rich)
(IR) frequency abundant – common – sometimes

Twinning mode polysynthetic after more than 1 direction; and coarse ("Visiergraupen")
frequency common

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, often anhedral crystals; as fine grained product of ilmenite alteration ("leucoxene");
cleavage … mt/ilm decomposition Æ hematite + rutile (blitz-texture)
Paragenesis ilmenite, hematite, titanite, garnet, biotite, amphibole
Diagnostic features BR, twinning; anatase has Rmin || c-axis

Notes, drafts: Rutile is stable at nearly all p/T-conditions!

In contrast to anatase: rutile has strong BR and Re > Ro Æ Rmax || c.)
Rutile structure: TiO2 to TiO1.983 (O2- - vacancy sites; or solid solution with Ti2O3); isotype with SnO2, and tapiolite
(Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)2O6

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Sphalerite (Zinkblende)

101 Sphalerite I+II, cp Elisabeth mine, Pfunderer Berg, Tyrol/Italy

Aggregate pf sphalerite (grey) with Obj.: 20x oil
"chalcopyrite disease" (left side of
Polars: II Pol
photo). Note the central part of
sphalerite with no chalcopyrite Photo width: 0.7 mm
inclusions and slightly lower Slide: D46_28
reflectivity (iron-poor sphalerite).
Section: AS3576

© U. Neumann/TÜ

102 Sphalerite I+II, cp Elisabeth mine, Pfunderer Berg, Tyrol/Italy

Same as above, now with crossed Obj.: 20x oil
polars.
Polars: x Pol
The central part of sphalerite shows
lighter and much more internal Photo width: 0.7 mm
reflections (due to iron-poor Slide: D46_27
composition) than surrounding
sphalerite. Section: AS3576

© U. Neumann/TÜ

103 Sphalerite, cp, gn Rammelsberg, Harz/Germany

Typical fine-grained ore from Obj.: 20x oil
Rammelsberg with galena (nearly
Polars: || Pol
white), chalcopyrite (yellow) and
sphalerite (grey). Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D37_25
Section: AS3507

© U. Neumann/TÜ

104 Sphalerite, fahlore, py Fort Steel Mining Distr., B.C./Canada

Twinning of sphalerite! Visible only Obj.: 5x
due to differences in polishing
Polars: II Pol
hardness and slightly inclined (!)
mounting of the polished section. Photo width: 2.8 mm
Small vein of fahlore (greenish Slide: D09_06
grey), one pyrite.
Section: AS1744

© U. Neumann/TÜ

53
Sphalerite (Zinkblende)
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Sphalerite (sph) (Zn,Fe)S 200-220 cub.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) 17.0

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) 5.0 13% Fe: 5.4% 2.6% Cd: 4.7%
Color impression (in oil) grey
BR Rpl (in oil) --- Aoil = 0

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color in each position hom. dark
Color in 45° position
in other positions
Extinction position
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color white - yellow green - red brown - dark brown (with raising Fe-content)
(IR) frequency abundant - common - sometimes - rare

Twinning mode polysynthetic twinning (rarely observable on the basis of RP/IR)

frequency common

Further observations

Form, habit, textures, often in anhedral aggregates;

cleavage … chalcopyrite inclusions (chalcopyrite-disease); EB of stannite, pyrrhotite, cubanite.
Paragenesis "Durchläufermineral", galena, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, stannite, pyrite, marcasite
Diagnostic features chalcopyrite-disease, paragenesis

Notes, drafts: R depends on Fe-content (Fe-poor sph has lower R and more light IR).
Sphalerite can be used as geobarometer in paragenesis (!) with pyrrhotite + pyrite.
Chalcopyrite-disease: Tiny inclusion of cp in sph as a result of the infiltration of Cu1+-rich fluids in Fe-bearing
sphalerite.

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

54
Titanite

105 Titanite Selberg, Quiddelbach, Hocheifel/Germany

Euhedral crystals of titanite in Obj.: 20x oil
nephelinite. Large titanite shows
Polars: II Pol
lamellar twinning with displaced
lamellae on the right side of the Photo width: 0.7 mm
crystal. Slide: D07_01
Section: AS1136

© U. Neumann/TÜ

106 Titanite, rt Yudnamutana Gorge, N.Flinders Range/Australia

Large titanite crystal partly replaced Obj.: 20x oil
by rutile (light grey) along cleavage
Polars: || Pol
planes.
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D71_14
Section: JH60

© U. Neumann/TÜ

107 Titanite, rt, ilm, po Rimella-Gula, Val Sessia/Italy

Titanite (grey, maximum reflectivity) Obj.: 20x oil
as replacement product of rutile
Polars: || Pol
(lighter grey, twins), which replaces
older ilmenite (brownish grey, twins); Photo width: 0.7 mm
replacement by younger pyrrhotite Slide: D16_21
(light creme).
Section: AS135

© U. Neumann/TÜ

108 Titanite, mt, hem Kiruna/Sweden

Anhedral grains of magnetite. Obj.: 20x oil
Central part of photo showing titanite
Polars: II Pol
(medium grey) with hematite
inclusion (light grey). Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: D25_03
Section: AS1742

© U. Neumann/TÜ

55
Titanite
Mineral name Formula VHN Crystal system

Titanite (ttn) CaTi[O|SiO4] 700-850 mcl.

Observations with one polar (AE || Pol)

R (air) in % (for 546 nm) R1 = 9.5 R2 = 11.0

R (oil) in % (for 546 nm) R1 = 1.3 R2 = 2.0

Color impression (in oil) black (but IR!) grey black (IR!)

BR > Rpl (in oil) strong Aoil = 42

Observations with crossed polars (AExPol in oil)

Precisely crossed polars Slightly dejusted polars

Anisotropism intensity/color strong without color strong without color
Color: in 45° position grey, masked by internal refl. grey - grey, masked by internal refl.
… in other positions
Extinction position masked by internal refl.
Mode of extinction

Internal reflections color white - yellow - brown (Fe-content)

(IR) frequency abundant – common
Twinning mode polysynthetic after one direction
frequency rare

Further observations

Form, habit, textures lense-shaped grains, replaces ilmenite and rutile;

cleavage … often within biotite or amphiboles/pyroxenes
Paragenesis ilmenite, rutile, anatase
Diagnostic features paragenesis,

Notes, drafts: Similar to cassiterite (which is mostly twinned).

Sections: U. Neumann / TÜ 2015

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Other gangue minerals

109 Amphibole, olivine Urach/Germany

Amphibole crystal (perfect #) and Obj.: 10x
broken olivine (lower left part,
Polars: II Pol
without #)
Photo width: 1.4 mm
Slide: D56_28
Section: ASXeno5

© U. Neumann/TÜ

110 Amphibole Urach/Germany

Amphibole crystal (#) with magnetite Obj.: 20x oil
in groundmass.
Polars: || Pol
Photo width: 0.7 mm
Slide: 53_10
Section: 3-10-2

© U. Neumann/TÜ

111 Garnet, ilmenite, pyrite Grandfontaine, Vosges/France

Large grain of garnet (medium grey) Obj.: 5x
with inclusions of tiny ilmenite
Polars: || Pol
(slightly lighter). Younger vein with
pyrite (colored due to strong Photo width: 2.6 mm
tarnishing). Slide: D52_02
Section: AS2566

© U. Neumann/TÜ

112 Garnet, amphibole Ruwan Doruwa/N-Nigeria

Manganese protore with spessartite- Obj.: 20x oil
rich garnet (grey), amphibole (dark
Polars: II Pol
grey, #) and secondary
manganomelane minerals (greyish Photo width: 0.7 mm
white). Slide: D13_25
Section: AS240

© U. Neumann/TÜ

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Gangue minerals

RL/ROil [%] Optical properties Other properties

Fluorite 3.2/0 darkest gangue mineral; # {111}, many flincs

in part violet
Barite 5.9/0.2 no BR # (001), tabular XX

Quartz 4.6/0 no effects no #; many flincs! VHN

Calcite 6.1-3.8/ strong BR #! polysynth. twinning
0.0 - 0.3
Siderite 9.3 - 5.5/ extreme strong BR #; alteration to iron-hydroxides
0.1 - 1.1
Feldspar 4.8 to 4.3/0 unclear, many IR #, often alterated

Mica 6.7 to 4.7/ BR # one direction,

0 to 0.3 tabular, bladed
Clay minerals 0 to 0.3 often "opaque" very fine flakes
Garnet 9.5 to 6.5/ yellow-brown IR no #, habit, VHN
0.4 to 1.2
Amph/Cpx 6.6. to 5.3/ greenish-brown IR typ. #
0 to 0.3
Olivine 8.2 to 5.9/ colorless, no BR no #,
0.1 to 0.7 partly with spinel inclusions

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