POLITICAL MODERNISATION : THE CONCEPT, CONTOURS AND DYNAMICS

Author(s): Mohammad Abid

Source: The Indian Journal of Political Science , Oct.-Dec., 2004, Vol. 65, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec.,
2004), pp. 590-602
Published by: Indian Political Science Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856078

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The Indian Journal of Political Science
Vol. LXV, No. 4, Oct.-Dec., 2004

POLITICAL MODERNISATION : THE CONCEPT,

CONTOURS AND DYNAMICS

Mohammad A bid

The Concept

Modernisation, as it is commonly understood is an act or

process of developing or unfolding. It implies advancement through
progressive changes and political modernisation signifies a definite
change in the polity, structured functioned and ideological. The old
values are replaced by new moorings, the feudal set up is replaced by
democratic and secular ones, affecting the entire social fabric.
The term political modernisation stands for the transformation
political culture in response to the changes in social and physical
environments in view of this essential fact that political change "is
intricately related to a wide spectrum of social economic factors."1 S.P.
Huntington describes it as "a multifaceted process involving change in
all areas of human thought and activity."2 It refers to change in Political
culture and political institutions as a result of the process of
modernisation. "The development of complex and differentiated political
infrastructure, either to accommodate or to control such a new awareness
and articulation, is typical of modern political system, whether
authoritarian or democratice."3 In a modern Political System, people are
closely involved in politics; they communicate their demands and views
to government regularly; they express their approval to government
policies; and the government in turn relies on legitimacy in order to enlist
support and cooperation of people.4 A traditional system in contrast to
modern system is largely concerned with the collection of taxes,
maintenance of law and order and defence. The modern political system
plays an active role in improving the quality of life of its citizens apart
from performing the conventional functions of government. Again, in
traditional system people are not involved in politics; the government
only exercises power over them.5

A Brief History

Modernisation is a western concept. It is said that after

the second World War, the levei of attainment made by Western Europe

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 591

in its polity (liberal democracy), in its economy (ca

in its culture (ethical values) is called modernisation
of attainment made by the USA in her polity, eco
called westernisation. Modernisation and westerni
interchangeably. It is said that modernisation or w
movement, by which Britain and America aimed to
of polity, economy and culture in the Asian and Afri
to prevent communist insurrection.
Political modernisation as a movement has its own reasons. In

first quarter of twentieth century, the liberal and populist current in

America were the most optimistic product of the enlightenment faith, and
it was believed that democracy and its institutional and ethical properties
could become the central theme of political science. Non democratic
systems could be examined in terms of their deviation from democratic
ideological norms or by comparison with the two historic versions of
stable democracy-British and American models. Communism and Fascism
were viewed as temporary disorders of political pathologies. Dictatorship
was presented as an error and democracy as truth and political health.
The conception of democratic progress became untenable in the
period after the Second World War. For this three factors were primarily
responsible : 6
(i) National explosion in the Middle East, Africa and Asia. The
emergence into statehood-with varieties of cultures and social
institutions, and political organisations,
(ii) the loss of the domination of the nations of the Atlantic
community; the diffusion of international power and influence
into former colonial and semi colonial areas,
(iii) the emergence of communism as a powerful competitor in the
struggle to shape and structure of national polities and of the
international political system.

Political Systems and their Modernisation

A study of political modernisation shows its interconnection

with social mobilisation - "a process by which major clusters of old social
economic and psychological commitments are eroded or broken down
and the people become available for new pattern of socialisation and
behaviour"7

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 592

A highly backward social system of the world

responses, customs and rituals still carry the au
Authority remains where it has been and no serious
direction of political mobilisation, socialisation and r
to participate in deciding, both in the institutions o
the limited number of voluntary associations is
members of particular kinship and lineage groups o
to religious or caste communities.8
There is a dichotomy of tradition and moderni
of the world where people have lived under the co
European power. A cross-cultural phenomena de
masters imposed their political culture successfull
political structures of the countries under their do
During the days of freedom struggle, these tr
and influences "tended to be submerged in the unit
common goal of national independence. Once i
achieved, the traditional pressure reasserted t
becoming the basis for interest groups and political
a complex mixture of the traditional and modern, co
modern institutions resting on a traditional base w
under the impact of increasing pressure of in
urbanisation.9 Two things are important in this reg
of political modernisation become rapid, the facto
thoroughly eroded by the factor of modernity. Le
concluded that it is misleading to regard political
which must be destroyed or replaced, they need t
the new institutions and pattern of behaviour.10
Second, no break with the past can be com
though far-reaching, and fundamental changes
element of continuity remains.1 1 While the
modernisation, socialisation, and recruitment is
cultivate blind faith in the social and political philos
with the result that they are deified and the state
rank of a religion.12
To shills, the second best form of political syst
to observe the norms and values of democracy on the
known for having political democracy.13

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 Political Modernisation S93

The British and American p

the best systems. Shills has des
through representative institut
In British and American s
educated, urbanised and socie
arrangements are such that th
the people at large, or are lega
those who are representative
dominant characteristic of the authoritative decisions in these states is

that they are democratically based.15

There may be some non-democratic institutionalised features
that affect the decision making process in these social systems as
hierarchical nature of party organisations, with much centralisation of
power at the top, nevertheless the general degree of commitment to
democratic form "is great and the corresponding feeling of involvement
in social and political sphere among the population make it unlikely, that
decisions will for very long go unchallenged."'6

Pattern of Political Modernisation

S.N. Eisentadt associated modernisation with a highly

differentiated political structure and the diñusion of political power and
authority into all spheres of society.
Political modernisation includes changing the legitimate source
of authority, differentiating political structures and expanding participation
in politics.17
Centralisation of Authority: Modernisation replaces the smaller
feudal realms, values and rigid class structure and weakening of
aristocracy with the rise of new groups. In addition, there was a rapid
growth of state bureaucracies and public services.
The British pattern of modernisation in political institutions was
similar in nature to that on the continent. The church was subordinated
to the state, authority was centralised, legal or political institutions
differentiated, sovereignty asserted within the country as well as between
countries and bureaucracies expanded, rationalisation of authority - the
source of national power became people, not the queen, and parliament
became the central authority.18
Rationalisation of Authority: The nation state replaced

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The Indian Journal of Political Science §94

fundamental law as the source of political auth

state, a single authority replaced the many sep
previously existed. The doctrine of absolute sove
interest of the state both helped political mod
legitimacy for the concentration of authority a
older system of several authorities.
Differentiation of Structure: In Europe, t
authority centralisation of authority, and the cen
accompanied by differentiation in the func
institutions and the development of more s
bodies. The developments were the result of th
society and the increasing demands upon gove
In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen
government evolved a system of concen
differentiation of functions. In America, by c
divided, power was separated and a complex
balances was created to ensure equal division of
of each different function to a separate institutio
of modernisation. Such a functional differe
ofcourse, in the constitutional monarchies, but
seen in almost all modern governments.
Political Participation: Modern political
consequences of largely unique and irrever
changes.19 These changes affect political syste
increase the capability of political system to t
society, both by increasing such resources a
potential for effective operation of political adm
both (a) the need for coordinated social actio
problems, and (b) there is likelihood of increas
and political demands from the society. The nee
action stem from many sources. The greater pop
living creates collective needs for increased reg
The U.S. pioneered in popular participation
only by expanding the member of people who
officials, but also the number of public officials
the people. In Europe people normally voted on
councils and of the lower house of national
elections were widely practiced on the nationa

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 Political Modernisation 595

Military: The foreign war

modernisation by creating military
strength required national unity,
opposition, expansion of armies a
in state revenues. Thus, the need f
to centralise and rationalise their
influence toward state building.

Phases of Modernisation

C.E. Black (1966) described phases of modernisation as (i) the

challenge of modernity to traditional society, (ii) consolidation of
modernising leadership as traditional leaders decline in significance, (iii)
the transformation of economy and society from rural and agrarian to
urban and industrial, and (iv) the integration of society.21
S.P. Huntington in Political Order in Changing Societies,
( 1 968) placed emphasis on stability in the face of rapid social and political
changes that accompany modernisation. Modernisation implies
industrialisation, economic growth, increasing social mobility, and political
participation. He advocated control and regulation of the process of
modernisation by constraining new groups from entering into polities,
limiting exposure to mass media and access to higher education, and
suppressing the mobilisation of the masses. Preferring the status to the
uncertainty of instability and revolution. Huntington focussed on the
issue of political decay. Political decay is a reflection of instability,
corruption, authoritarianism, and violence and is the result of the failure
of development, which is defined as enhancing the capacity to sustain
the continuous transformation necessitated by the challenge of
modernisation and order, thereby enhancing capacity, may result in
repression, whereas an excessive increase in demands leading to greater
participation may lead to decay and instability.22
David Apter in The Politics of Modernisation , (1965)
distinguishes between development and modernisation. "Development",
observes Apter, results from the proliferation and integration of functional
roles in a community. Modernisation is a particular case of development.
Modernisation implies three conditions - a social system that can
constantly innovate without feeling apart. . differentiated, flexible social
structures; and a social framework to provide the skills and knowledge

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 596

necessary for living in a technologically

Industrialisation, a special aspect of modernisatio
the period in a society in which the strategic fun
to manufacturing."23 He identifies two models:
pluralistic systems and 'Sacred Collectivity' or mo
secular liberation model is represented by the m
system, characterised by diversified power and
and conpromise as exemplified by a liberal democ
States. The sacred collectivity model is repres
mobilisation system, characterised by persona
leadership, political religiosity, and the organisation
under Mao and Egypt under Nasser are examples o
Apter conceded that reconciliation systems do not
new nations; many parties, for example, tend to f
political order. The mobilisation system tends to
and demonstrations; involvement in a single par
voters to engage in tangible, albeit largely symbo
To deal successfully with modernisation, a po
be able, first to innovate or create policy, that is
political reforms by state action. Reform in this
changing of traditional values and behaviour pat
communication and education, the broadening of
village and tribe to nation, the separation of relig
rationalisatipn of authority, the specialisation
functions, the adoption of achievement stand
distribution of material and human resources. The
be able to absorb new social groups created by m
achieve a new social awareness. Eventually these
participation in the political system. The system e
participation in ways that are harmonious with t
existence, or it alienates the groups from the sys
or concealed civil war. Traditional social forces, i
institutions are deeply rooted in many countries.
these traditional forces requires the concentration
promote modernisation. Modernisation involves a
of power within the political system; the breakdo
racial and other power groupings, and the centrali

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 Political Modernisation 597

national political institutions

concentrated power structures
rapidly that those with more d
cities rapid economic and pop
concentration of power in smal
dispersal of power among many
civic growth.25 The overthrow
mobilisation of new social grou
requirement of a modernising s
system, the new social forces
important is the capacity of the
groupings that acquire polit
modernisation.

Socialist View

Marion J. Ley, Jr. in his Modernisation and Structure of

Societies , (1966), known for his Neo-Parsonian Structural Functional
Frame Work reflects the contrasting approaches of modernisation. In one
of his approaches Stage Theoiy and Modernisation , he says, after the
Second World War the interest of the western capitalist nations in the
poorer nations is not only on profits extraction of raw material and new
markets, but on the assumption that massive financial and technical
assistance would transform the agricultural subsistence societies into
modern industrial societies.26 Western scholars described this
transformation in terms of development stages. Through change higher
level of order may be achieved, change continuously and necessarily
occurs through a sequence of stages and towards certain qualities
characteristic of Western Europe, and change emanates from uniform
causes. The most influential proponent of this theory was the U.S.
economic historian Walt W. Rostow, who in his Stages of Economic
Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (I960) outlined five stages: (i)
traditional society, (ii) pre-conditions for takeoff, (iii) takeoff, (iv) drive
towards maturity, and (v) age of high mass consumption.27 The takeoff
stage is especially relevant to new nations, when growth becomes a
reality. A decade later Rostow added "the search for quality" as a sixth
stage in his Treaties on Politics and the Stages of Growth (¡971)
Rostows Stage Theory has been adopted by many political scientists.

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 598

V.l. Lenin, in his Imperialism: The Highest Sta

(1916) had postulated that in the international
capitalism had chosen the under developed countrie
their exploitation. Lenin had therefore exhorted th
countries to asstime the role of proletariat in t
capitalism in the contemporary context.28
The basic tenet of the neo-Marxist theory of u
is that, underdevelopment of the third world count
symptom of their domination by the capitalist world
societies of the west have throughout been respons
and political underdevelopment of the third world.
Industrially advanced countries, invest their capi
colonies and use them as supplier of raw material a
away prices and as potential markets for manufact
market price. Thus the former metropolitan countr
economic profits as earlier without incurring t
colonialism
Liberal theory shows to the third world countries a way to
escape from poverty by linking their economies with industrially advanced
nations. The neo Marxists consider it an illusion and argue that if the
under developed nations keep their native economies open to free trade
and international competition, this will benefit only the rich countries
and widen the gap between the rich and the poor countries.
It was believed that political modernisation as a movement aimed
at anti Communist and pro- American political stability. It was expected
that with economic development and setting up of representative
institutions, political stability, a non ideological approach and pro-
American foreign policy would automatically develop in these countries.
It was further expected that with the better communication, a
transformation of values and political culture, and development of specific
institutional sectors like political parties and bureaucracy, the third world
could be prevented from falling into the communist trap.
The Executive Committee of American Political Science
Association 1969 held that the purpose of political science should be to
serve the poor, oppressed and underdeveloped people at home and
abroad against the established hierarchies and elite institutions of
manipulations. It aimed to know the urgent social problems and to protect

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 Politicai Modernisation 599

human values of civilisation. The r

the goal of society and to divert it

perhaps to strengthen American
political direction in the Asian and

Modernisation: Model Norm

E.A. Shills in Political Developm

British and American Political Sys
modernisation with the following
(a) It has a legislature as the fo
organised on the basis of un
entrusted with the work of le
the initiative of the sovereign
House. It exercises control on t
conduct of the ministers or by
by scrutinising the work of ad
(b) Political parties constitute an
they form governments an
programmes and try to fulfil th
(c) power is held for comparati
under the conditions laid down
(d) freedom of dissent or opposit
check on the abuse of power;
(e) independence and impartiali
(f) people exercise democrati
constitutional means to correc
(g) people are expected to devel
(h) there is a trained and orga
decisions of the legislators ch
(i) adequate police and armed f
and order; and
(j) people are committed to the
order.
Political Modernisation as a movement had also influenced
framers of the Indian Constitution. To make India a modern nation, they
devised a partly British and partly American model foť Indian Political
System, its structure and functioning. But fifty years of rule since

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 600

independence give a different experience of the

class obeys no discipline, no rule, no principle of
no sense of public awareness and shows no con
Corruption is regarded as the hallmark of our l
drifting away from the people and falling pre
power brokers and influence peddlers - A n
psychophants prove their loyality by virulence
attacks on the critics of the leader. There is direc
political parties, state legislatures and parliame
use of anti social forces for mobilisation o
management of elections, for organising of me
legitimate grievances are not redressed, the pa
and violence is more substantial. Small groups ca
by adopting an aggressive posture. The governm
to deal with anomic trends to such an extent that its threats to handle

agitation and strikes with a firm hand even with a stringent penalties, are
met laughter from those organising them. Widening of opportunities has
benefited only a few. Unofficial civil war among castes and classes have
beset the country side. Communalism has become more militant which is
evident from the demolition of Babri masjid or the Gujarat pogrom.
Religious and caste fundamentalism have caused social cleavages,
emerging in the forms of political parties confined to petty self-interests.
Even political participation is no more rational or voluntary. It is guided
by caste, community and regional factors. Too many political parties have
reduced the chances for major parties to make a single party government.
It rather paves way to smaller parties to make coalition government,
usually unstable.
Thus, the state of affairs is such that political structures have
been clogged, political process are in disorder; political actions are
confused; the agencies of political socialisation have become weak, the
instrument of political change have lost all vitality; hooligans and
hoodlums are gaining control of public life and prowling in search of
prey or plunder. The vision of the founding fathers has been thwarted.
Their dreams have been reduced to rubble. The major challenge for the
elites is to carryout democratic transformation in social, cultural, economic
and political spheres.

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 Political Modernisation 601

REFERENCES :

1. Morton R. Davies and Vaughan A. Lewis, Models of Poli

System , Vikas, Delhi, 1971, p.98.
2. Huntington SP., cited in Verma SP., Modern Political Theo
Vikas, Delhi, 1975, p.303.
3. Almond G.A. and Powell G.B., Comparative Politics: A
Developmental Approach , Amerind, Delhi 1977, p.27.
4. Ganba O.P., An Introduction to Political Theory ; Macmillan,
Delhi, 1999, p.397.
5. Ibid.

6. Almond G.A. And Powell G.B., Op. Cit.,

7. Deutsch Karl W., "Social Mobilisation and Political
Development" in American Political Science Review, Vol. LV,
September 1 96 1 , p.494.
8. Morton R. Davies and Vaughan A. Lewis, Op. Cit., p.93.
9. Rush Michael and Althoff Philip, An Introduction to Political
Sociology, Nelson, London, 1971, p.64.
10. Vine L. Robert, "Political Socialisation and Cultural Change",
cited in Johari JC., Comparative Politics, Sterling, Delhi, 1980,
p. 127.
11. Rush Michael and Althoff Philip, Op. Cit., p.68.
12. Apter David, "Politicai Religion in New Nations" in Clifford
Greetz ed., Old Societies in New States, Harper and Row, New
York, 1963, pp.57-104.
13. Shills E.A., cited in Johari J.C., Op. Cit., p. 129.
14. Ibid.

15. Davies R. Morton and Lewis A. Vaughan, Op. C

16. Ibid.

17. Huntington Samuel P., Political Order in Changi

Vakil, Feffer & Simons, Bombay, 1975, p.67.
18. Ibid., p.69..
19. Ibid., p.79.
20. Eisentadt S.N., The Political Systems of Empires, Free Press of
Glencose, New York, 1962, Chapter 1, p.3.
21. Black C.E., cited in Chilcote Ronald H., Theories of Comparative
Politics: The Search for a Paradigm Reconsidered, Westview
Press, Colorado, 1994, p.223.

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 602

22. Ibid., p.224

23. Ibid., p. 225
24. Ibid.

25. Huntington S.P., Op. Cit., p.86.

26. Chilcote Ronald H., Op. Cit., 1962, p.48.
27. /tó/., p.223.
28. Gauba O.P., Op. Cit., p.398.
29. From the April 1969 Manifesto of the Executive Committee for
the Caucus for a new Political Science.

30. Shills E.A., Political Development in New States, Mounton and

Co. Hague, 1962, p.48.

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