Physics Class XI

PHYSICS CLASS XI NOTES
CONTEXTS
1 – 8 --- MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
9 – 20 – MOTION IN A PLANE
21- 33 – LAWS OF MOTION
34- 41 – WORK POWER AND ENERGY
42 – 50 – CENTRE OF MASS AND
ROTATIONAL MOTION
51 – 58 --- GRAVITATION
59 – 67 – MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS
68 – 77 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
LIQUIDS
78 – 88 – THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
89 – 94 – THERMODYNAMICS
95 – 100 – KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
101 – 106 – OSCILLATIONS
107 – 116 – WAVES
Motion in a Straight Line Class 11 Notes Physics
Chapter 3
• Introduction
Motion is one of the significant topics in physics. Everything in the universe moves. It might
only be a small amount of movement and very-very slow, but movement does happen. Even
if you appear to be standing still, the Earth is moving around the sun, and the sun is moving
around our galaxy.
“An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time”.
The concept of motion is a re’ live one and a body that may be in motion relative to one
reference system, may be at rest relative to another.
There are two branches in physics that examine the motion of an object.
(i) Kinematics: It describes the motion of objects, without looking at the cause of the motion.
(ii) Dynamics: It relates the motion of objects to the forces which cause them.
• Point Object
If the length covered by the objects are very large in comparison to the size of the objects, the
objects are considered point objects.
• Reference Systems
The motion of a particle is always described with respect to a reference system. A reference
system is made by taking an arbitrary point as origin and imagining a co-ordinate system to
be attached to it. This co-ordinate system chosen for a given problem constitutes the
reference system for it. We generally choose a co-ordinate system attached to the earth as the
reference system for most of the problems.
• Total Path Length (Distance)
For a particle in motion the total length of the actual path traversed between initial and final
positions of the particle is known as the ‘total path length’ or distance covered by it.
• Types of Motion
In order to completely describe the motion of an object, we need to specify its position. For
this, we need to know the position co-ordinates. In some cases, three position co-ordinates are
required, while in some cases two or one position co-ordinate is required.
Based on these, motion can be classified as:
(i) One dimensional motion. A particle moving along a straight-line or a path is said to
undergo one dimensional motion. For example, motion of a train along a straight line, freely
falling body under gravity etc.
(ii) Two dimensional motion. A particle moving in a plane is said to undergo two
dimensional motion. For example, motion of a shell fired by a gun, carrom board coins etc.
(iii) Three dimensional motion. A particle moving in space is said to undergo three
dimensional motion. For example, motion of a kite in sky, motion of aeroplane etc.
• Displacement
Displacement of a particle in a given time is defined as the change in the position of particle
in a particular direction during that time. It is given by a vector drawn from its
initial position to its final position.

• Factors Distinguishing Displacement from Distance
—> Displacement has direction. Distance does not have direction.
—> The magnitude of displacement can be both positive and negative.
—> Distance is always positive. It never decreases with time.
—> Distance ≥ | Displacement |
• Uniform Speed and Uniform Velocity
Uniform Speed. An object is said to move with uniform speed if it covers equal distances in
equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals of time may be.
Uniform Velocity. An object is said to move with uniform velocity if it covers equal
displacements in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals of time may be.
• Variable Speed and Variable Velocity
Variable Speed. An object is said to move with variable speed if it covers unequal distances
in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals of time may be.
Variable Velocity. An object is said to move with variable velocity if it covers unequal
displacements in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals of time may be.
• Average Speed and Average Velocity
Average Speed. It is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding time
interval.
Or
The average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
• Instantaneous Speed and Instantaneous Velocity
Instantaneous Speed. The speed of an object at an instant of time is called instantaneous
speed.
Or
“Instantaneous speed is the limit of the average speed as the time interval becomes
infinitesimally small”.
Instantaneous velocity
The instantaneous velocity of a particle is the velocity at any instant of time or at any point of
its path.
or
“Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as
the time interval Δt becomes infinitesimally small.”
• Acceleration
The rate at which velocity changes is called acceleration.
• Uniform Acceleration
If an object undergoes equal changes in velocity in equal time intervals it is called uniform
acceleration.
• Average and Instantaneous Acceleration
Average Accelerating. It is the change in the velocity divided by the time-interval during
which the change occurs.
Instantaneous Acceleration. It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time-
interval Δt goes to zero.
• Kinematical Graphs
The ‘displacement-time’ and the ‘velocity-time’ graphs of a particle are often used to provide
us with a visual representation of the motion of a particle. The ‘shape’ of the graphs depends
on the initial ‘co-ordinates’ and the ‘nature’ of the acceleration of the particle (Fig.)
The following general results are always valid

(i) The slope of the displacement-time graph at any instant gives the speed of the particle at
that instant.
(ii) The slope of the velocity-time graph at any instant gives the magnitude of the acceleration
of the particle at that instant.
(iii) The area enclosed by the velocity-time graph, the time-axis and the two co-ordinates
at ,time instants t1 to t2 gives the distance moved by the particle in the time-interval from t1 to
t2.
• Equations of Motion for Uniformly Accelerated Motion
For uniformly accelerated motion, some simple equations can be derived that relate
displacement (x), time taken (f), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v) and acceleration (a).
Following equation gives a relation between final and initial velocities v and u of an object
moving with uniform acceleration a: v = u + at
• Suppose a body is projected vertically upward from a point A with velocity u.
In some problems it is convenient to take the downward direction as positive, in such case all
the measurements in downward direction are considered as positive i.e., acceleration will be
+g. But sometimes we may need to take upward as positive and if such case acceleration will
be -g.
• Relative Velocity
Relative velocity of an object A with respect to another object B is the time rate at which the
object A changes its position with respect to the object B.
—> The relative velocity of two objects moving in the same direction is the difference of the
speeds of the objects.
—> The relative velocity of two objects moving in opposite direction is the sum of the speeds
of the objects.
• IMPORTANT TABLES
anuary 19, 2024 by Bhagya
Motion in a Plane Class 11 Notes Physics

Chapter 4
• Motion in a plane is called as motion in two dimensions e.g., projectile motion, circular
motion etc. For the analysis of such motion our reference will be made of an origin and two
co-ordinate axes X and Y.
• Scalar and Vector Quantities
Scalar Quantities. The physical quantities which are completely specified by their magnitude
or size alone are called scalar quantities.
Examples. Length, mass, density, speed, work, etc.
Vector Quantities. Vector quantities are those physical quantities which are characterised by
both magnitude and direction.
Examples. Velocity, displacement, acceleration, force, momentum, torque etc.
• Characteristics of Vectors
Following are the characteristics of vectors:
(i) These possess both magnitude and direction.
(ii) These do not obey the ordinary laws of Algebra.
(iii) These change if either magnitude or direction or both change.
(iv) These are represented by bold-faced letters or letters having arrow over them.
• Unit Vector
A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction. It is used to
specify the direction only. Unit vector is represented by putting a cap (^) over the quantity.
• Equal Vectors
• Zero Vector
• Negative of a Vector
• Parallel Vectors
• Coplanar Vectors
Vectors are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane or they are parallel to the same
plane, otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar vectors.
• Displacement Vector
The displacement vector is a vector which gives the position of a point with reference to a
point other than the origin of the co-ordinate system.
• Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

If two vectors, acting simultaneously at a point, can be represented both in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the resultant
is represented completely both in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through that point.
• Triangle Law of Vector Addition

If two vectors are represented both in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle
taken in the same order, then the resultant of these vectors is represented both in magnitude
and direction by the third side of the triangle taken in the opposite order.
• Polygon Law of Vector Addition
If a number of vectors are represented both in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
polygon taken in the same order, then the resultant vector is represented both in magnitude
and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the opposite order.
• Properties of Vector Addition
Vector addition has following properties:
• Resolution of Vectors
It is a process of splitting a single vector into two or more vectors in different directions
which together produce the same effect as is produced by the single vector alone.
The vectors into which the given single vector is splitted are called component of vectors. In
fact, the resolution of a vector is just opposite to composition of vectors.
If the components of a given vector are perpendicular to each other, then they are called
rectangular components.
• Position Vector
• Multiplication of Vectors
(i) Scalar product (Dot product). Scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of smaller angle between them.
• Properties of Scalar Product

• Properties of Cross Product
• Lami’s Theorem
Lami’s theorem states, “If a particle under the simultaneous action of three forces is in
equilibrium, then each force has a constant ratio with the sine of the angle between the other
two forces.”
• Projectile Motion
The projectile is a general name given to an object that is given an initial inclined velocity
and which subsequently follows a path determined by the gravitational force acting on it and
by the frictional resistance of the air. The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
Equation of projectile motion. The general case of projectile motion corresponds to that of an
object that has been given an initial velocity u at some angle 8 above (or below) the
horizontal. The horizontal and vertical displacements x and y are given by
• Angular Displacement
Angular displacement of the object moving around a circular path is defined as the angle
traced out by the radius vector at the centre of the circular path in a given time.
θ (angle) = arc/radius
θ —> the magnitude of angular displacement. It is expressed in radians (rad).
• Angular Velocity
Angular velocity of an object in circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of its
angular displacement.
• Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration of an object in circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of
its angular velocity.
• Uniform Circular Motion

When a body moves in a circular path with a constant speed, then the motion of the body is
known as uniform circular motion.
The time taken by the object to complete one revolution on its circular path is called time
period. For circular motion, the number of revolutions completed per unit time is known as
the frequency (v). Unit of frequency is 1 Hertz (1 Hz). It is found that
• Centripetal Acceleration
To maintain a particle in its uniform circular motion a radially inward acceleration should be
continuously maintained. It is known as the centripetal acceleration.
Law of Motion Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 5

• Dynamics is the branch of physics in which we study the motion of a body by taking into
consideration the cause i.e., force which produces the motion.
• Force
Force is an external cause in the form of push or pull, which produces or tries to produce
motion in a body at rest, or stops/tries to stop a moving body or changes/tries to change the
direction of motion of the body.
• The inherent property, with which a body resists any change in its state of motion is called
inertia. Heavier the body, the inertia is more and lighter the body, lesser the inertia.
• Law of inertia states that a body has the inability to change its state of rest or uniform
motion (i.e., a motion with constant velocity) or direction of motion by itself.
• Newton’s Laws of Motion
Law 1. A body will remain at rest or continue to move with uniform velocity unless an
external force is applied to it.
First law of motion is also referred to as the ‘Law of inertia’. It defines inertia, force and
inertial frame of reference.
I here is always a need of ‘frame of reference’ to describe and understand the motion of
particle, lhc simplest ‘frame of reference’ used are known as the inertial frames.
A frame of referent, e is known as an inertial frame it, within it, all accelerations of any
particle are caused by the action of ‘real forces’ on that particle.
When we talk about accelerations produced by ‘fictitious’ or ‘pseudo’ forces, the frame of
reference is a non-inertial one.
Law 2. When an external force is applied to a body of constant mass the force produces an
acceleration, which is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass
of the body.
Law 3. “To every action there is equal and opposite reaction force”. When a body A exerts a
force on another body B, B exerts an equal and opposite force on A.
• Linear Momentum
The linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of the mass of the body and its
velocity.
• Impulse
Forces acting for short duration are called impulsive forces. Impulse is defined as the product
of force and the small time interval for which it acts. It is given by
Impulse of a force is a vector quantity and its SI unit is 1 Nm.

— If force of an impulse is changing with time, then the impulse is measured by finding the
area bound by force-time graph for that force.
— Impulse of a force for a given time is equal to the total change in momentum of the body
during the given time. Thus, we have
• Law of Conservation of Momentum

The total momentum of an isolated system of particles is conserved.
In other words, when no external force is applied to the system, its total momentum remains
constant.
• Recoiling of a gun, flight of rockets and jet planes are some simple applications of the law
of conservation of linear momentum.
• Concurrent Forces and Equilibrium
“A group of forces which are acting at one point are called concurrent forces.”
Concurrent forces are said to be in equilibrium if there is no change in the position of rest or
the state of uniform motion of the body on which these concurrent forces are acting.
For concurrent forces to be in equilibrium, their resultant force must be zero. In case of three
concurrent forces acting in a plane, the body will be in equilibrium if these three forces may
be completely represented by three sides of a triangle taken in order. If number of concurrent
forces is more than three, then these forces must be represented by sides of a closed polygon
in order for equilibrium.
• Commonly Used Forces
(i) Weight of a body. It is the force with which earth attracts a body towards its centre. If M
is mass of body and g is acceleration due to gravity, weight of the body is Mg in vertically
downward direction.
(ii) Normal Force. If two bodies are in contact a contact force arises, if the surface is smooth
the direction of force is normal to the plane of contact. We call this force as Normal force.
Example. Let us consider a book resting on the table. It is acted upon by its weight in
vertically downward direction and is at rest. It means there is another force acting on the
block in opposite direction, which balances its weight. This force is provided by the table and
we call it as normal force.
(iii) Tension in string. Suppose a block is hanging from a string. Weight of the block is
acting vertically downward but it is not moving, hence its weight is balanced by a force due
to string. This force is called ‘Tension in string’. Tension is a force in a stretched string. Its
direction is taken along the string and away from the body under consideration.
• Simple Pulley
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 tied at the ends of an in extensible string, which
passes over a light and friction less pulley. Let m1 > m2. The heavier body will move
downwards and the lighter will move upwards. Let a be the common acceleration of the
system of two bodies, which is given by
• Apparent Weight and Actual Weight
— ‘Apparent weight’ of a body is equal to its ‘actual weight’ if the body is either in a state of
rest or in a state of uniform motion.
— Apparent weight of a body for vertically upward accelerated motion is given as
Apparent weight =Actual weight + Ma = M (g + a)
— Apparent weight of a body for vertically downward accelerated motion is given as
Apparent weight = Actual weight Ma = M (g – a).
• Friction
The opposition to any relative motion between two surfaces in contact is referred to as
friction. It arises because of the ‘inter meshing’ of the surface irregularities of the two
surfaces in contact.
• Static and Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction
The frictional forces between two surfaces in contact (i) before and (ii) after a relative motion
between them has started, are referred to as static and dynamic friction respectively. Static
friction is always a little more than dynamic friction.
The magnitude of kinetic frictional force is also proportional to normal force.
• Limiting Frictional Force

This frictional force acts when body is about to move. This is the maximum frictional force
that can exist at the contact surface. We calculate its value using laws of friction.
Laws of Friction:
(i) The magnitude of limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal force at the contact
surface.
(ii) The magnitude of limiting frictional force is independent of area of contact between the
surfaces.
• Coefficient of Friction
The coefficient of friction (μ) between two surfaces is the ratio of their limiting frictional
force to the normal force between them, i.e.,
• Angle of Friction
It is the angle which the resultant of the force of limiting friction F and the normal reaction R
makes with the direction of the normal reaction. If θ is the angle of friction, we have
• Angle of Repose
Angle of repose (α) is the angle of an inclined plane with the horizontal at which a body
placed over it just begins to slide down without any acceleration. Angle of repose is given by
α = tan-1 (μ)
• Motion on a Rough Inclined Plane

Suppose a motion up the plane takes place under the action of pull P acting parallel to the
plane.
• Centripetal Force
Centripetal force is the force required to move a body uniformly in a circle. This force acts
along the radius and towards the centre of the circle. It is given by
where, v is the linear velocity, r is the radius of circular path and ω is the angular velocity of
the body.
• Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force is a force that arises when a body is moving actually along a circular path,
by virtue of tendency of the body to regain its natural straight line path.
The magnitude of centrifugal force is same as that of centripetal force.
• Motion in a Vertical Circle

The motion of a particle in a horizontal circle is different from the motion in vertical circle. In
horizontal circle, the motion is not effected by the acceleration due to gravity (g) whereas in
the motion of vertical circle, the motion is not effected by the acceleration due to gravity (g)
whereas in the motion of vertical circle, the value of ‘g’ plays an important role, the motion
in this case does not remain uniform. When the particle move up from its lowest position P,
its speed continuously decreases till it reaches the highest point of its circular path. This is
due to the work done against the force of gravity. When the particle moves down the circle,
its speed would keep on increasing.
Let us consider a particle moving in a circular vertical path of radius V and centre o tide with
a string. L be the instantaneous position of the particle such that
Here the following forces act on the particle of mass ‘m’.

(i) Its weight = mg (verticaly downwards).
(ii) The tension in the string T along LO.
We can take the horizontal direction at the lowest point ‘p’ as the position of zero
gravitational potential energy. Now as per the principle of conservation of energy,
From this relation, we can calculate the tension in the string at the lowest point P, mid-way
point and at the highest position of the moving particle.
Case (i) : At the lowest point P, θ = 0°
When the particle completes its motion along the vertical circle, it is referred to as “Looping
the Loop” for this the minimum speed at the lowest position must be √5gr
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics
Chapter 6
• Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through a
certain distance in the direction of applied force.
It is measured by the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force,
i.e., W = F-S
• If an object undergoes a displacement ‘S’ along a straight line while acted on a force F that
makes an angle 0 with S as shown.
The work done W by the agent is the product of the component of force in the direction of
displacement and the magnitude of displacement.
• If we plot a graph between force applied and the displacement, then work done can be
obtained by finding the area under the F-s graph.
• If a spring is stretched or compressed by a small distance from its unstretched configuration,
the spring will exert a force on the block given by
F = -kx, where x is compression or elongation in spring, k is a constant called spring constant
whose value depends inversely on unstretched length and the nature of material of spring.
The negative sign indicates that the direction of the spring force is opposite to x, the
displacement of the free-end.
• Energy
The energy of a body is its capacity to do work. Anything which is able to do work is said to
possess energy. Energy is measured in the same unit as that of work, namely, Joule.
Mechanical energy is of two types: Kinetic energy and Potential energy.
• Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as its kinetic energy.
For an object of mass m and having a velocity v, the kinetic energy is given by:
K.E. or K = 1/2 mv 2
• Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or condition is known as its potential
energy.
There are two common forms of potential energy: gravitational and elastic.
—> Gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of
its position above the surface of the earth.
It is given by
(U)P.E. = mgh
where m —> mass of a body
g —> acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth. h —> height through which the
body is raised.
—> When an elastic body is displaced from its equilibrium position, work is needed to be
done against the restoring elastic force. The work done is stored up in the body in the form of
its elastic potential energy.
If an elastic spring is stretched (or compressed) by a distance Y from its equilibrium position,
then its elastic potential energy is given by
U= 1/2 kx2
where, k —> force constant of given spring
• Work-Energy Theorem
According to work-energy theorem, the work done by a force on a body is equal to the
change in kinetic energy of the body.
• The Law of Conservation of Energy

According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of an isolated system does
not change. Energy may be transformed from one form to another but the total energy of an
isolated system remains constant.
• Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed.
• Besides mechanical energy, the energy may manifest itself in many other forms. Some of
these forms are: thermal energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, visual light energy,
nuclear energy etc.
• Equivalence of Mass and Energy
According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter-convertible. That is, mass can be converted
into energy and energy can be converted into mass.
• Collision
Collision is defined as an isolated event in which two or more colliding bodies exert
relatively strong forces on each other for a relatively short time.
Collision between particles have been divided broadly into two types.
(i) Elastic collisions (ii) Inelastic collisions
• Elastic Collision
A collision between two particles or bodies is said to be elastic if both the linear momentum
and the kinetic energy of the system remain conserved.
Example: Collisions between atomic particles, atoms, marble balls and billiard balls.
• Inelastic Collision
A collision is said to be inelastic if the linear momentum of the system remains conserved but
its kinetic energy is not conserved.
Example: When we drop a ball of wet putty on to the floor then the collision between ball and
floor is an inelastic collision.
• Collision is said to be one dimensional, if the colliding particles, move along the same
straight line path both before as well as after the collision.
• In one dimensional elastic collision, the relative velocity of approach before collision is
equal to. the relative velocity of separation after collision.
• Coefficient of Restitution or Coefficient of Resilience

Coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation after
collision to the relative velocity of approach before collision.
• Elastic and Inelastic Collisions in Two Dimensions
• Non-conservative Forces
A force is said to be non-conservative if the work done in moving from one point to another
depends upon the the path followed.
Let W, be the work done in moving from A to B following the path 1. W2 through the path 2
and W3 through the path 3. Fig. (i).
Examples of non-conservative forces are :

(i) Force of friction (ii) Viscus force
Low of conservation of energy holds goods for both conservative and non-conservative
forces.
January 19, 2024 by Bhagya
Systems of Particles and Rotational Motion Class

11 Notes Physics Chapter 7
• A rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape. The distances
between all pairs of particles of such a body do not change.
• Centre of Mass
For a system of particles, the centre of mass is defined as that point where the entire mass of
the system is imagined to be concentrated, for consideration of its translational motion.
If all the external forces acting on the body/system of bodies were to be applied at the centre
of mass, the state of rest/ motion of the body/system of bodies shall remain unaffected.
• The centre of mass of a body or a system is its balancing point. The centre of mass of a two-
particle system always lies on the line joining the two particles and is somewhere in between
the particles.
• Motion of centre of Mass

The centre of mass of a system of particles moves as if the entire mass of the system were
concentrated at the centre of mass and all the external forces were applied at that point.
Velocity of centre of mass of a system of two particles, m1 and m2 with velocity v1 and v2 is
given
by,
• If no external force acts on the body, then the centre of mass will have constant momentum.
Its velocity is constant and acceleration is zero, i.e., MVcm = constant.
• Vector Product or Cross Product of two vectors
• Torque
Torque is the moment of force. Torque acting on a particle is defined as the product of the
magnitude of the force acting on the particle and the perpendicular distance of the application
of force from the axis of rotation of the particle.
• Angular Momentum
The angular momentum (or moment of momentum) about an axis of rotation is a vector
quantity, whose magnitude is equal to the product of the magnitude of momentum and the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of momentum from the axis of rotation and its
direction is perpendicular to the plane containing the momentum and the perpendicular
distance.
• Axis of Rotation
A rigid body is said to be rotating if every point mass that makes it up, describes a circular
path of a different radius but the same angular speed. The circular paths of all the point
masses have a common centre. A line passing through this common centre is the axis of
rotation.
• A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium if under the action of forces/torques, the body
remains in its position of rest or of uniform motion.
For translational equilibrium, the vector sum of all the forces acting on a body must be zero.
For rotational equilibrium, the vector sum of torques of all the forces acting on that body
about the reference point must be zero. For complete equilibrium, both these conditions must
be fulfilled.
• Couple
Two equal and opposite forces acting on a body but having different lines of action, form a
couple. The net force due to a couple is zero, but they exert a torque and produce rotational
motion.
• Moment of Inertia
The rotational inertia of a rigid body is referred to as its moment of inertia.
The moment of inertia of a body about an axis is defined as the sum of the products of the
masses of the particles constituting the body and the square of their respective perpendicular
distance from the axis.
It is given by .
• Radius of Gyration
The distance of a point in a body from the axis of rotation, at which if whole of the mass of
the body were supposed to be concentrated, its moment of inertia about the axis of rotation
would be the same as that determined by the actual distribution of mass of the body is called
radius of gyration.
If we consider that the whole mass of the body is concentrated at a distance K from the axis
of rotation, then moment of inertia I can be expressed as I = MK2
• Theorem of Parallel Axes

According to this theorem, the moment of inertia I of a body about any axis is equal to its
moment of inertia about a parallel axis through centre of mass, Icm, plus Ma2 where M is the
mass of the body and V is the perpendicular distance between the axes, i.e.,
I = Icm + Ma2
• Theorem of Perpendicular Axes
According to this theorem, the moment of inertia I of the body about a perpendicular axis is
equal to the sum of moments of inertia of the body about two axes at right angles to each
other in the plane of the body and intersecting at a point where the perpendicular axis passes,
i.e.,
• Rolling Motion
The combination of rotational motion and the translational motion of a rigid body is known
as rolling motion.
• Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum

According to the law of conservation of angular momentum, if there is no external couple
acting, the total angular momentum of a rigid body or a system of particles is conserved.
Gravitation Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 8
• Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Johannes Kepler formulated three laws which describe planetary motion. They are as follows:
(i) Law of orbits. Each planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one
of the foci of the ellipse.
(ii) Law of areas. The speed of planet varies in such a way that the radius, vector drawn from
the sun to planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
• Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Newton’s law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe attracts every other
particle with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The direction of the force is along
the line joining the particles.
• Universal constant of gravitation G is numerically equal to the force of attraction between
two particles of unit mass each separated by unit distance.
• Important Characteristics of Gravitational Force
(i) Gravitational force between two bodies is a central force i.e., it acts along the line joining
the centres of the two interacting bodies.
(ii) Gravitational force between two bodies is independent of the nature of the intervening
medium.
(iii) Gravitational force between two bodies does not depend upon the presence of other
bodies.
(iv) It is valid for point objects and spherically symmetrical objects.
(v) Magnitude of force is extremely small.
• Principle of Superposition of Gravitation
• Acceleration Due to Gravity

The acceleration produced in a body on account of the force of gravity is known as
acceleration due to gravity. It is usually denoted by ‘g’. It is always towards the centre of
Earth.
If a body of mass ‘m’ lying on the surface of the earth, the gravitational force acting on the
body is given by
• Mass and Mean Density of Earth

Mass and Mean density of Earth is given in the following manner.
• Variation of Acceleration Due to Gravity

The value of acceleration due to gravity changes with height (i.e., altitude), depth, shape of
the earth and rotation of earth about its own axis.
(a) Effect of Altitude. As one goes above the surface of Earth, value of acceleration due to
gravity gradually goes on decreasing. If gh be the value of acceleration due to gravity at a
height h from the surface of Earth, then
• Gravitational Field
The space around a body within which its gravitational force of attraction is experienced by
other bodies is called gravitational field.
• Intensity of Gravitational Field
The intensity of the gravitational field of a body at a point in the field is defined as the force
experienced by a body of unit mass placed at that point provided the presence of unit mass
does not disturb the original gravitational field.
• Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential at a point in the gravitational field of a body is defined as the
amount of work done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point.
Gravitational potential at a point situated at a distance r from a body or particle of mass M is
given by
• Gravitational Potential Energy

The work done in carrying a mass ‘m’ from infinity to a point at distance r is called
gravitational potential energy.
The gravitational potential energy of the system is given by
i.e., Gravitational potential energy = gravitational potential x mass of the body.
It is a scalar quantity and measured in joule.
• Escape Velocity
The minimum velocity required to project a body vertically upward from the surface of earth
so that it comes out of the gravitational field of earth is called escape velocity.
• Satellite
A satellite is a body which is revolving continuously in an orbit around a comparatively much
larger body.
The orbit may be either circular or elliptical. A man-made object revolving in an orbit around
a planet is called an artificial satellite.
• Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of a satellite is the minimum velocity required to put the satellite into a given
orbit around earth.
• Geostationary Satellite
The satellite having the same time period of revolution as that of the earth is called
geostationary satellite. Such satellites should rotate in the equatorial plane from west to east.
The orbit of a geostationary satellite is called ‘parking orbit’. These satellites are used for
communication purposes.
A geostationary satellite revolves around the earth in a circular orbit at a height of about
36,000 km from the surface of earth.
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes
Physics Chapter 9
• Inter molecular Force
In a solid, atoms and molecules are arranged in such a way that each molecule is acted upon
by the forces due to the neighbouring molecules. These forces are known as inter molecular
forces.
• Elasticity
The property of the body to regain its original configuration (length, volume or shape) when
the deforming forces are removed, is called elasticity.
• The change in the shape or size of a body when external forces act on it is determined by
the forces between its atoms or molecules. These short range atomic forces are called elastic
forces.
• Perfectly elastic body
A body which regains its original configuration immediately and completely after the
removal of deforming force from it, is called perfectly elastic body. Quartz and phospher
bronze are the examples of nearly perfectly elastic bodies.
• Plasticity
The inability of a body to return to its original size and shape even on removal of the
deforming force is called plasticity and such a body is called a plastic body.
• Stress
Stress is defined as the ratio of the internal force F, produced when the substance is
deformed, to the area A over which this force acts. In equilibrium, this force is equal in
magnitude to the externally applied force. In other words,
• Stress is of two types:

(i) Normal stress: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surface
of the body. Normal stress is of two types: tensile stress and compressive stress.
(ii) Tangential stress: When the elastic restoring force or deforming force acts parallel to the
surface area, the stress is called tangential stress.
• Strain
It is defined as the ratio of the change in size or shape to the original size or shape. It has no
dimensions, it is just a number.
Strain is of three types:
(i) Longitudinal strain: If the deforming force produces a change in length alone, the strain
produced in the body is called longitudinal strain or tensile strain. It is given as:
(ii) Volumetric strain: If the deforming force produces a change in volume alone, the strain
produced in the body is called volumetric strain. It is given as:
(iii) Shear strain: The angle tilt caused in the body due to tangential stress expressed is called
shear strain. It is given as:
• The maximum stress to which the body can regain its original status on the removal of the
deforming force is called elastic limit.
• Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that, within elastic limits, the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain
produced is a constant. This constant is called the modulus of elasticity. Thus
• Stress Strain Curve

Stress strain curves are useful to understand the tensile strength of a given material. The
given figure shows a stress-strain curve of a given metal.
• The curve from O to A is linear. In this region Hooke’s Proportional limit law is obeyed.
• In the region from A to 6 stress and strain are not . proportional. Still, the body regains its
original dimension, once the load is removed.
• Point B in the curve is yield point or elastic limit and the corresponding stress is known as
yield strength of the material.
• The curve beyond B shows the region of plastic deformation.
• The point D on the curve shows the tensile strength of the material. Beyond this point,
additional strain leads to fracture, in the given material.
• Young’s Modulus
For a solid, in the form of a wire or a thin rod, Young’s modulus of elasticity within elastic
limit is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. It is given as:
• Bulk Modulus
Within elastic limit the bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress and
volumetric strain. It is given as:
– ve indicates that the volume variation and pressure variation always negate each other.
• Reciprocal of bulk modulus is commonly referred to as the “compressibility”. It is defined
as the fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure.
• Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
It is defined as the ratio of the tangential stress to the shear strain.
Modulus of rigidity is given by
• Poisson’s Ratio
The ratio of change in diameter (ΔD) to the original diameter (D) is called lateral strain. The
ratio of change in length (Δl) to the original length (l) is called longitudinal strain. The ratio
of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
• Elastic Fatigue
It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic
under the action of repeated alternating deforming forces.
• Relations between Elastic Moduli
For isotropic materials (i.e., materials having the same properties in all directions), only two
of the three elastic constants are independent. For example, Young’s modulus can be
expressed in terms of the bulk and shear moduli.
• Breaking Stress
The ultimate tensile strength of a material is the stress required to break a wire or a rod by
pulling on it. The breaking stress of the material is the maximum stress which a material can
withstand. Beyond this point breakage occurs.
Hence, the elastic potential energy of a wire (energy density) is equal to half the product of its
stress and strain.
Mechanical Properties of Fluids Class 11 Notes
Physics Chapter 10
• Fluids are the sustances which can flow e.g., liquids and gases. It does not possess definite
shape.
• When an object is submerged in a liquid at rest, the fluid exerts a force on its surface
normally. It is called thrust of the liquid.
• Pressure
The thrust experienced per unit area of the surface of a liquid at rest is called pressure.
• When a liquid is in equilibrium, the force acting on its surface is perpendicular everywhere.
The pressure is the same at the same horizontal level.
• The pressure at any point in the liquid depends on the depth (h) below the surface, density
of liquid and acceleration due to gravity.
• Pascal’s Law
According to Pascal’s Law, the pressure applied to an enclosed liquid is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the liquid and the walls of the containing vessel.
• Hydraulic system works on Pascal’s law. Force exerted to area, ratio will be same at all
cross¬sections.
Note: A large force is experienced in larger cross-section it a smaller force 4cross is applied
in smaller by the relation section.
• A column of height h of a liquid of density p exerts a pressure P given
• If Pa be the atmospheric pressure then pressure in a liquid at a depth h from its free surface
is given by P = Pa+ hρg. Relation is true for incompressible fluids only.
• The gauge pressure (Pg), is the difference of the absolute pressure (P) and the atmospheric
pressure (Pa).
Absolute pressure (P) = Gauge pressure (Pg) + Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
Pg=P-Pa
• Archimedes Principle
When a body is partially or completely immersed in a liquid, it loses some of its weight. The
loss
in weight of the body in the liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
immersed
part of the body.
• The upward force excerted by the liquid displaced when a body is immersed is called
buoyancy. Due to this, there is apparent loss in the weight experienced by the body.
• Law of Floatation
“A body floats in a liquid if weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed portion of the
body is equal to the weight of the body.”
. When a body is immersed partially or wholly in a liquid, then the various forces acting on
the body are
(i) upward thrust (T) acting at the centre of buoyancy and whose magnitude is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced and
• (ii) the weight of the body (W) which acts vertically downward through its centre of gravity.
(a) When W > T, the body will sink in the liquid;
(b) When W = T, then the body will remain in equilibrium inside the liquid;
(c) When W < T, then the body will come upto the surface of the liquid in such a way that the
weight of the liquid displaced due to its immersed portion equals the weight of the body.
Thus the body will float with only a part of it immersed inside the liquid.
• The flow of a liquid is said to be steady or stream line flow if such particle of the fluid
passing
through a given point travels along the same path and with same speed as the preceding
particle passing through that very point.
• If the liquid flows over a horizontal surface in the form of layers of different velocities, then
the flow of the liquid is called laminar flow.
• The flow of fluid in which velocity of all particles crossing a given point is not same and the
motion of fluid becomes irregular or disordered is called turbulent flow.
• Equation of Continuity
According to equation of continuity, if there is no fluid source or sink along the length of a
pipe, then mass of the fluid crossing any section of the pipe per unit time remains constant.
i.e„ a1 v1ρ1 = a2v2 ρ2
For incompressible liquids (i.e., fluids) ρ1 = ρ2 and hence the equation is given as
a1v1=a2v2
– It means that speed of flow of liquid is more where the pipe is narrower and speed of flow
is less
where the cross-section of pipe is more.
• Energy of a liquid
A liquid can possess three types of energies: (i) kinetic energy, (ii) potential energy and (iii)
pressure energy
The energy possessed by a liquid due to its motion is called kinetic energy i.e., 1/2mv2.
The potential energy of a liquid of mass m at a height h is given by P.E. = mgh
The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure is called pressure energy. Pressure
energy of liquid in volume dV = PdV
Pressure energy per unit mass of the liquid
• Bernoulli’s Theorem
For an incompressible, non-viscous, irrotational liquid having streamlined flow, the sum of
the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit mass is a constant i.e.,
• For steady flow of a non-viscous fluid along a horizontal pipe, Bernoulli’s equation is
simplified as
• Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of the fluid (liquid or gas) by virtue of which an internal frictional
force comes into play when the fluid is in motion in the form of layers having relative
motion. It opposes the relative motion of the different layers. Viscosity is also called as fluid
friction.
• The viscous force directly depends on the area of the layer and the velocity gradient.
• Coefficient of Viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is equal to the tangential force required to maintain a unit
velocity gradient between two parallel layers of liquid each of area unity.
The SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is poiseuille (Pl) or Pa – s or Nm-2 s or kg m-1 s-1 .

Dimensional formula of q is [ML-1T-1].
• Stoke’s Law
According to Stokes’ law the backward dragging force acting on a small spherical body of
radius r moving with a velocity v through a viscous medius of coefficient of viscosity ή is
given by
F = 6πή r
• Terminal Velocity
It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the body while falling freely in a viscous
medium. This is attained when the apparent weight is compensated by the viscous force.
It is given by
where p be the density of the material of the body of radius r and o be the density of the
medium.
• Poiseuille’s Equation
According to Poiseuille, if a pressure difference (P) is maintained across the two ends of a
capillary tube of length ‘l’ and radius ‘r’, then the volume of liquid coming out of the tube per
second is directly proportional to the pressure difference (P).
(ii) directly proportional to the fourth power of radius (r) of the capillary tube.
(iii) inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity (ή) of the liquid.
(iv) inversely proportional to the length (i) of the capillary tube.
It is given as
• Reynold’s Number
Reynold number Re is a dimensionless number whose value gives an approximate idea
whether the flow of a fluid will be streamline or turbulent. It is given by
where p = density of fluid flowing with a speed u, d stands for the diameter of the pipe and q
is the viscosity of the fluid. Value of Re remains same in any system of units.
• It is observed that flow is streamline or laminar for Re <= 1000 and the flow is turbulent for
Re >= 2000. The flow becomes unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000. The critical value of
Re , at which turbulence sets, is same for the geometrically similar flows.
• Re may also be expressed as the ratio of inertial force (force due to inertia i.e., mass of
moving fluid or due to inertia of obstacle in its path) to viscous force i.e.,
• Critical Velocity
The critical velocity is that velocity of liquid flow, upto which its flow is streamline and
above which its flow becomes turbulent.
It is given by
where K is a dimensionless constant, q is coefficient of viscosity of liquid, p is density of

liquid and r is the radius of tube.
• Surface Tension
It is the property of the liquid by virtue of which the free surface of liquid at rest tends to
have minimum area and as such it behaves as a stretched elastic membrane.
• The force acting per unit length of line drawn on the liquid surface and normal to it parallel
to the surface is called the force of surface tension.
It is given by
The SI unit of surface tension is Nm-1 and its dimensional formula is [MT-2],
• Surface Energy
Energy possessed by the surface of the liquid is called surface energy. Change in surface
energy is the product of surface tension and change in surface area under constant
temperature.
• The height to which water rises in a capillary tube of radius r is given by
where T is the surface tension of the liquid and 0 is the angle of contact.
Due to surface tension there is excess pressure on the concave side of a surface film of a
liquid over
the convex side and is equal to 2T/r . For a soap bubble the excess pressure is 4T/r where, r
denotes the radius of the surface.
• Angle of Contact
The angle which the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact makes with the solid
surface inside the liquid is called angle of contact.
• Intermolecular force amongst molecules of the same material is called the force of cohesion.
However, force amongst molecules of different materials is called the force of adhesion.
• Torricelli’s Theorem
According to this theorem, velocity of efflux i.e., the velocity with which the liquid flows out
of on orifice {i.e., a narrow hole) is equal to that which a freely falling body would acquire in
falling through a vertical distance equal to the depth of orifice below the free surface of
liquid.
The velocity is given by
V = √2gh
• Magnus Effect
When a ball is given a spin when it is in a streamline of air molecules, it will follow a curved
path which is convex towards the greater pressure side. This idea is the basis of the ball from
spin bowlers getting a lift and areodynamics.
Thermal Properties of Matter Class 11 Notes
Physics Chapter 11
• Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature difference. The SI unit of heat energy transferred is
expressed in joule (J).
In CGS system, unit of heat is calorie and kilocalorie (kcal).
1 cal = 4.186 J and 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4186 J.
• Temperature of a substance is a physical quantity which measures the degree of hotness or
coldness of the substance. The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K) and °C is a commonly
used unit of temperature.
• A branch of science which deals with the measurement of temperature of a substance is
known as thermometry. A device used to measure the temperature of a body is called
thermometer.
• A thermometer calibrated for a temperature scale is used to measure the value of given
temperature on that scale. For the measurement of temperature, two fixed reference points are
selected. The two convenient fixed reference points are the ice point and the steam point of
water at standard pressure, which are known as freezing point and boiling point of water at
standard pressure.
• The two familiar temperature scales are the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius
temperature scale. The ice and steam point have values 32°F and 212°F respectively, on the
Fahrenheit scale and 0°C and 100°C on the Celsius scale. On the Fahrenheit scale, there are
180 equal intervals between two reference points, and on the Celsius scale, there are 100.
• If tc and tF are temperature values of a body on Celsius temperature scale and Fahrenheit
temperature scale respectively, then the relationship between Fahrenheit and Celsius
temperature is given by
• An ideal gas obeys the following law. That is PV = gRT, where P,V and T are the pressure,
volume and temperature of the gas respectively, g is the number of moles in an ideal gas and
R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1 is known as universal gas constant. The equation, PV – gRT is known as
ideal gas equation.
• The absolute minimum temperature for an ideal gas, inferred by extrapolating the straight
line P – T graph is found to be – 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute zero. Absolute
temperature scale (T) and Celsius scale are related by
t° C = T – 273.15
• Thermal Expansion
The increase of size of a body due to the increase in the temperature is called thermal
expansion. Three types of expansions can take place in solids viz. linear, superficial and
volume expansion,
(i) Linear Expansion: The increase in the length of a solid on heating is called linear
expansion.
If the temperature of a rod of original length l is raised by a small amount Δt, its length
increases by Δl. Then the linear expansion is given by
Δl = l ∞ Δt
where a is the coefficient of linear expansion of the given solid. The unit of α is per degree
Celsius (°C-1) in the CGS and per kelvin (K-1) in the SI system.
(ii) Superficial or Area Expansion: The increase in surface area of the solid on heating is
called superficial expansion.
If A0 is the area of a solid at 0°C and A( its area at t°C then At = A0(l + βt)
where β is known as the coefficient of superficial expansion. Unit of β is °C-1 or K-1.
(iii) Volume Expansion: The increase in volume of the solid on heating is called volume
expansion.
The change in the volume of a solid with a change in temperature Δt is given by Δv = Vγ Δt
where y is the coefficient of volume expansion.
• The relation among coefficients of linear expansion (α), superficial expansion (β) and
volume expansion (γ) is given as
• For a given solid, the three coefficients of expansion α , β, γ are not constant. Their values
depend on the temperature range.
• Liquids have volume expansion only. If we do not take into account the expansion of solid
container, then the expansion of liquid is called apparent expansion. On the other hand, if we
take into account the expansion of solid too, it is referred as the real expansion of liquid. It is
found that γr = γa + γg, where γr= real expansion coefficient of liquid, γa = apparent expansion
coefficient of liquid and γg = volume expansion coefficient of container vessel (glass).
• Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour. It contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C but
expands on heating beyond 4 °C. Thus, specific volume of water is minimum at 4 °C or
density of water is maximum at 4 °C. This property of water has an important environmental
effect.
• Thermal Stress
When a rod is held between two fixed supports and its temperature is increased, the fixed
supports do not allow the rod to expand, which results in a stress which is called thermal
stress.
Thermal stress in the rod is given by
where Y is the Young’s modulus for the material of the rod, A is the area cross-section of the
rod, a is the coefficient of linear expansion and F is the developed force in the rod.
• Thermal Capacity
The thermal capacity of a body is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the
whole of the body through a unit degree. It is measured in calorie per °C or joule per K.
If Q be the amount of heat needed to produce a change in temperature (Δt) of the substance,
then thermal capacity of the substance is given by
Dimensional formula of heat capacity is [ML2T -2K-1 ],
• Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity (also referred to as specific heat) of a substance is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance through 1 °C. It is measured
in cal g-1(°C)-1 or J kg-1 K-1.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is given by
where m is mass of substance and Q is the heat required to change its temperature Δt.
• Molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 mole of the substance by 1°C.
It is given by
The unit of molar specific heat capacity is J mole-1 K-1 in SI system and Cal mol-1 °C-1 in CGS
system.
The dimensional formula of molar specific heat capacity is [ML2T-2 K-1 mole-1].
• Calorimetry
Calorimetry is concerned with the measurement of heat, the basic apparatus for this purpose
being called the calorimeter.
When two bodies at different temperatures are ‘mixed’, heat ‘flows’ from the body at a
higher temperature to the one at a lower temperature, until a common ‘equilibrium’
temperature is reached. Assuming this ‘heat exchange’ to be confined to the two bodies alone
(i.e, neglecting any heat loss to the surroundings) we have, from the law of energy
conservation:
Heat gained by one body = heat lost by the other.
• Transition of matter from one state (solid, liquid and gas) to another is called a change of
state.
• The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting and from liquid to solid is called
fusion. It is observed that the temperature remains constant until the entire amount of the
solid substance melts i.e., both the solid and liquid states of the substance co-exist in thermal
equilibrium during the change of state from solid to liquid.
• The temperature at which a solid melts is called its melting point. The value of melting
point of a solid is characteristic of the substance and depends on pressure also.
• Melting of ice under increased pressure and refreezing on reducing the pressure is called
regelation.
• The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation. The temperature at
which the liquid and vapour states of a substance co-exist is called its boiling point.
• The change from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid state is called
sublimation.
• The Basic Heat Formula
The heat Q required to raise the temperature of a mass m of a substance of specific heat
capacity s through t degrees is given by
i.e., Heat required = mass x specific heat x change in temperature

• Latent Heat
Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to change the state of unit
mass of the substance from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas/vapour without any change in
temperature.
• The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from
solid into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of vaporisation (L v) is
the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from liquid to vapour state without
change in temperature and pressure.
• Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three different methods, namely,
conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction usually takes place in solids, convection in
liquids and gases, and no medium is required for radiation.
(i) Conduction: According to Maxwell, conduction is the flow of heat through an unequally
heated body from places of higher temperature to those of lower temperature. Rate of heat
transfer is given by
where K is called Thermal Conductivity and A is area of cross-section.
(ii) Convection: Maxwell defines convection as the flow of heat by the motion of the hot
body itself carrying its heat with it.
(iii) Radiation: Radiation is the mode of heat transfer in which heat travels directly from one
place to another without the agency of any intervening medium.
• Thermal conductivity is defined as heat energy transferred in unit time from unit area
having a unit difference in temperature over unit length. It is expressed in Js-1 m-1 °C-1 or W-1 K-
1
• Thermal Resistance
The thermal resistance of a body is a measure of its opposition to the flow of heat through it.
It is defined as
• Newton’s Law of Cooling

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat of a body is directly proportional
to the difference in temperature of the body and the surroundings, provided the difference in
temperature is small, not more than 40 °C.
– ve sign implies that as time passes, temperature T decreases.
When an object at temperature T1 is placed in a surrounding of temperature T2 the net energy
radiated per second is,
• Black Body Radiation

(i) Emissive Power: The amount of heat energy rediated per unit area of the surface of a
body, per unit time and per unit wavelength range is constant which is called as the ’emissive
power’ (eλ) of the given surface, given temperature and wavelength. Its S.I. unit is Js-1 m-2 .
(ii) Absorptive Power : When any radiation is incident over a surface of a body, a part of it
gets reflected, a part of it gets refracted and the rest of it is absorbed by that surface.
Therefore, the ‘absorptive power’ of a surface at a given temperature and for a given
wavelength is the ratio of the heat energy absorbed by a surface to the total energy incident
on it at a certain time. It is represented by (aλ). It has no unit as it is a ratio.
(iii) Perfect Black Body: A body is said to be a perfect black body is its absorptivity is 1. It
neither reflects nor transmits but absorbs all the thermal radiations incident on it irrespetive of
their wavelengths.
(iv) Wein’s Displacement Law : This law states that as the temperature increases, the
maximum value of the radiant energy emitted by the black body, move towards shorter
wavelengths. Wein found that “The product of the peak wavelength ( λm) and the Kelvin
temperature (T) of the black body should remain constant.” λm x T= b
Where b is constant known as Wein’s constant. Its value is 2.898 x 10-3 mk.
(v) Stefan’s Law : This law states that the thermal radiations energy emitted per second from
the surface of a black body is directly proportional to its surface area A and to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature T.
Emission coefficient or degree of blackness of a body is represented by a dimensionless
quantity ε, 0 < ε < 1. If ε = 1 then the body is perfectly black body. Hence
Let us consider an object at absolute temperature T and To be the temperature of the
surroundings.
• H1 = Rate of energy emitted by the body
(vi) The Solar Constant: The average energy emitted from the surface of the sun, absorbed
per unit area, per minute by the earth is constant which is called as solar constant which is
represented by S whose value is 8.135 jm-2 min-1.
Let the earth be moving in a circular path of radius r taking sun as its centre.
Taking sun as perfectly black body, the energy radiated per unit time from the surface of the
sun is given by
Thermodynamics Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter
12
• The branch of physics which deals with the study of transformation of heat into other forms
of energy and vice-versa is called thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science. It deals with bulk systems and does not go into
the
molecular constitution of matter.
• A collection of an extremely large number of atoms or molecules confined within certain
boundaries
such that it has a certain values of pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T) is called a ;
thermodynamic system.
• Thermal Equilibrium
A thermodynamic system is in an equilibrium state if the macroscopic variables such as
pressure, volume, temperature, mass composition etc. that characterise the system do not
change in time. In thermal equilibrium, the temperature of the two systems are equal.
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
This law identifies thermal equilibrium and introduces temperature as a tool for identifying f
equilibrium. According to this law “If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third
system then those two systems themselves are in equilibrium.”
• Heat, Work and Internal Energy
— Energy that is transferred between a system and its surroundings whenever there is
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings is called heat.
— Work is said to be done if a body or a system moves through a certain distance in the
direction of the applied force. It is given as
dW = PdV
where P is the pressure of the gas in the cylinder.
— If we consider a bulk system consisting of a large number of molecules, then internal
energy ; of the system is the sum of the kinetic energies and potential energies of these
molecules.
This energy is possessed by a system due to its molecular motion and molecular
configuration. The internal energy is denoted by U.
U = Ek + E p
where Ek and Ep represent the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules of the system.
• Internal energy of a system is a macroscopic variable and it depends only on the state of the
system. Its value depends only on the given state of the system and does not depend on the
path taken to arrive that state.
• First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is simply the general law of conservation of energy applied
to any system. According to this law, “the total heat energy change in any system is the sum
of the internal energy change and the work done.”
When a certain quantity of heat dQ is subjected to a system, a part of it is used in increasing
the internal energy by dU and a part is used in performing external work dW, hence
dQ = dU + dW
• For gases, the specific heat capacity depends on the process or the conditions under which
heat capacity transfer takes place. There are mainly two principal specific heat capacities for
a gas. These are specific heat capacity at constant volume and specific heat capacity at
constant pressure.
• From First Law of Thermodynamics we find a relation between two principal specific heats
of an ideal gas. According to the relation
Cp-Cυ = R
Here Cp and Cυ are molar specific heats under constant pressure and constant volume
condition respectively.
The specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure is greater than the specific heat
capacity of the gas at constant volume i.e. Cp > Cυ. Reason is that when heat supplied to a gas
at constant volume, no work would be done by the gas against the external pressure and all
the energy is used to raise the temperature of the gas. On the other hand when the heat is
supplied to the gas at constant pressure, its volume increases and the heat energy supplied to
it is used to increase the temperature of the gas as well as in doing the work against the
external pressure.
The difference, between the two specific heats is the thermal equivalent of the work done in
expanding the gas against the external pressure.
• Expression for the Relation between Cp and Cυ
Let P, V and T be the pressure, volume and absolute temperature initially of one mole of an
ideal gas.
Case (i): The heat dQ is supplied to the gas at constant volume so that the temperature
increases to T + dT.
• Thermodynamic State Variables
Thermodynamic state variables of a system are the parameters which describe equilibrium
states of the system. For example, equilibrium state of gas is completely specified by the
values of pressure, volume, temperature, mass and composition.
• Equation of State
The equation of state represents the connection between the state variables of a system. For
example, the those equation of state of an ideal/perfect gas in represented as
PV = μRT
where g is number of moles of the gas and R is gas constant for one mole of the gas.
• Thermodynamic state variables are of two kinds, extensive and intensive. Extensive
variables indicate the size of the system but intensive variables do not indicate the size.
Volume, mass, internal energy of a system are extensive variables but pressure, temperature
and density are intensive variables.
• Thermodynamic Processes
Any process in which the thermodynamic variables of a thermodynamic system change is
known as thermodynamic process.
• Quasi-Static Processes
Processes that are sufficiently slow and do not involve accelerated motion of piston and/or
large temperature gradient are quasi-static processes.
In this process, the change in pressure or change in volume or change in temperature of the
system is very small.
• Isothermal Process
A change in pressure and volume of a gas without any change in its temperature, is called an
isothermal change. In such a change, there is a free exchange of heat between the gas and its
surroundings.
• Adiabatic Process
A process in which no exchange of heat energy takes place between the gas and the
surroundings, is called an adiabatic process.
• The work done dW under isothermal change is given by
• P-V Diagram
A graph representing the variation of pressure with the variation of volume is called P-V
diagram. The work done by the thermodynamic system is equal to the area under P-V
diagram. It is given as
• Reversible Process
A process which can retrace so that the system passes through the same states is called a
reversible process, otherwise it is irreversible.
Irreversibility arises mainly from two causes:
(i) Many processes like free expansion or an explosive chemical reaction take the system to
non-equilibrium states.
(ii) Most processes involve friction, viscosity and other dissipative effects.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
This principle which disallows certain phenomena consistent with the First law of
thermodynamics is known as the second law of thermodynamics.
Following are the two statements of second law of thermodynamics.
Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible to construct an engine, operating in a cycle, to
extract
heat from hot body and convert it completely into work without leaving any change anywhere
i.e., 100% conversion of heat into work is impossible.
Clausius Statement: It is impossible for a self acting machine, operating in a cycle, unaided
by any external energy to transfer heat from a cold body to a hot body. In other words heat
can not flow itself from a colder body to a hotter body.
• A heat engine is a device by which a system is made to undergo a cyclic process that results
in conversion of heat to work. Basically, a heat engine consists of: (i) a heat source, (ii) a heat
sink, and (iii) a working substance.
• Carnot’s Engine. He proposed a hypothetical engine working on a cyclic/reversible process
operating between two temperatures. Its efficiency is independent of the working substance
and is given by, η=1-T2/T1 where T1 is the temperature of source and T2 is the temperature of
sink.
• According to Carnot’s theorem: (a) working between two given temperatures T1 and T2 of
the hot and cold reservoirs respectively, no engine can have efficiency more than that of
Carnot’s engine, and (b) the efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the nature of
the working substance.
• Refrigerator
The process of removing heat from bodies colder than their surroundings is called
refrigeration and the device doing so is called refrigerator.
In the refrigerator, heat is absorbed at low temperature and rejected at higher temperature
with the help of external mechanical work. Thus, a refrigerator is a heat engine working
backward and hence it is also called heat pump.
Refrigerator works on the reverse process of Carnot engine. By the work done on the system,
heat is extracted from low temperature sink T2 and passed on to high temperature source T1.
The coefficient of performance is given by
Kinetic Theory Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter
13
• The kinetic theory was developed in the nineteenth century by Maxwell, Boltzman and
others. Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases based on the idea that the gas consists
of rapidly moving atoms or molecules.
• Ideal Gas
An ideal gas or a perfect gas is that gas which strictly obeys gas laws such as Boyle’s law,
Charle’s law, Gay Lussac’s law etc.
An ideal gas has following characteristics:
(i) Molecule of an ideal gas is a point mass with no geometrical dimensions.
(ii) There is no force of attraction or repulsion amongst the molecules of the gas.
• Kinetic Theory and Gas Pressure
The pressure of a gas is the result of continuous bombardment of the gas molecules against
the walls of the container. According to the kinetic theory, the pressure P exerted by an ideal
gas is given by
• Boyle’s Law
According to this law, the volume (V) of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure (P) of the gas, provided temperature of the gas is kept constant.
• Charle’s Law
According to this law, the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas, provided pressure of the gas remains constant.
• Gay Lussac’s Law (or Pressure Law)

According to this law, the pressure P of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature T, provided the volume V of the gas remains constant.
• Equation of State of an Ideal Gas

The relationship between pressure P, volume V and absolute temperature T of a gas is called
its equation of state. The equation of state of an ideal gas
PV = nRT
where n is the number of moles of the enclosed gas and R is the molar gas constant which is
the same for all gases and its value is
R = 8.315 JK-1 mob-1
• Avagadro’s Law
Equal volumes of all gases under S.T.P. contain the same number of molecules equalling
6.023 x 1023.
• Graham’s Law of Diffusion of Gases
It states that rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the
density of the gas.
Hence, denser the gas, the slower is the rate of diffusion.
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
According to this law, the resultant pressure exerted by a mixture of non-interacting gases is
equal
to the sum of their individual pressures.
i-e., P = P1 + P2 + ————-Pn
• Mean (or average) speed of molecules of a gas is defined as the arithmetic mean of the
speeds of gas molecules.
• Root mean square speed of gas molecules is defined as the square root of the mean of the
squares of the speeds of gas molecules.
• Most probable speed of gas molecules is defined as the speed which is possessed by
maximum number of molecules in a gas
• Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature

The total average kinetic energy of all the molecules of a gas is proportional to its absolute
temperature (T). Thus, the temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy ‘IT
of the molecules of the gas.
U = 3/2 RT
According to this interpretation of temperature, the average kinetic energy U is zero at T = 0,
i.e., the motion of molecules ceases altogether at absolute zero.
• Degrees of Freedom
The total number of independent co-ordinates required to specify the position of a molecule
or the number of independent modes of motion possible with any molecule is called degree of
freedom.
Mono-, di-, and polyatomic (N) molecules have, 3,5 or (3 N-K) number of degrees of
freedom where K is the number of constraints [restrictions associated with the structure].
• Law of Equipartition of Energy
For a dynamic system in thermal equilibrium, the energy of the system is equally distributed
amongst the various degrees of freedom and the energy associated with each degree of
freedom per molecule is 1/2 kT, where k is Boltzman constant.
• Mean Free Path
Mean free path of a molecule in a gas is the average distance travelled by the molecule
between two successive collisions
(i) Smaller the number of molecules per unit volume of the gas, larger is the mean free path.
(ii) Smaller the diameter, larger is the mean free path.
(iii) Smaller the density, larger is the mean free path. In the case of vacuum, ρ = 0, λ —>∞
(iv) Smaller the pressure of a gas, larger is the mean free path.
(v) Higher the temperature of a gas, larger is the mean free path.
Oscillations Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 14
• Periodic Motion
Motions, processes or phenomena, which repeat themselves at regular intervals, are called
periodic.
• Oscillatory Motion
The motion of a body is said to be oscillatory motion if it moves to and fro about a fixed
point after regular intervals of time. The fixed point about which the body oscillates is called
mean position or equilibrium position.
• Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic oscillatory motion in which
(i) The particle oscillates on a straight line
(ii) The acceleration of the particle is always directed towards a fixed point on the line.
(iii) The magnitude of acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the particle from the
• Characteristics of SHM
The displacement x in SHM at time t is given by
x = A sin (ωt+ Ф )
where the three constants A, ω and Ф characterize the SHM, i.e., they distinguish one SHM
from another. A SHM can also be described by a cosine function as follows:
x = A cos (ωt + δ)
• The displacement of an oscillating particle at any instant is equal to the change in its
position vector during that time. The maximum value of displacement in an oscillatory
motion on either side of its mean position is called “displacement amplitude” or “simple
amplitude”.
Thus, amplitude A = x max.
• The time taken by an oscillating particle to complete one full oscillation to and fro about its
mean (equilibrium) position is called the “time period” of SHM. It is given by
• Frequency
The number of oscillations in one second is called frequency. It is expressed in sec-1 or
Hertz. Frequency and time period are independent of amplitude.
• Phase
The quantity (ωt+ Ф) is called the phase of SHM at time t; it describes the state of motion at
that instant. The quantity Ф is the phase at time f = 0 and is called the phase constant or initial
phase or epoch of the SHM. The phase constant is the time-independent term in the cosine or
sine function.
• The force responsible for maintaining the S.H.M. is called restoring force.
If the displacement (x) from the equilibrium position is small, the restoring force (F) acting
on the body is given by
F = -kx
where k is a force constant.
• Energy in S.H.M.
When a body executes SHM, its energy changes between kinetic and potential, but the total
energy is always constant. At any displacement x from the equilibrium position:
• Springs in Series
If two springs, having spring constant k1 and k2, are joined in series, the spring constant of the
combination is given by
• Springs in Parallel
If two springs, having spring constants k1 and k2, are joined in parallel, the spring constant of
the combination is given by
k = k1 + k2
• When one spring is attached to two masses m1 and m2, then
• Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is the most common example of bodies executing S.H.M. An ideal
simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass body suspended by a weightless in
extensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid support about which it is free to oscillate.
• The time period of simple pendulum of length ‘l’ is given by
The time period of a simple pendulum depends on
(i) length of the pendulum and
(ii) the acceleration due to gravity (g).
• A second’s pendulum is a pendulum whose time period is. 2s. At a place where g = 9.8 ms-2,
the length of a second’s pendulum is found to be 99.3 cm (= 1 m).
• If a liquid of density p oscillates in a vertical U-tube of uniform cross sectional area A, then
the time period of oscillation is given by
• If a cylinder of mass m, length L, density of material p and uniform area of cross section A,
oscillates vertically in a liquid of density o, then the time period of oscillation is given by
• Undamped and Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillations
Undamped Simple Harmonic oscillations: When a simple harmonic system oscillates with
a constant amplitude which does not change with time, its oscillations are called undamped
simple harmonic oscillations.
Damped Simple Harmonic oscillations: When a simple harmonic system oscillates with a
decreasing amplitude with time, its oscillations are called damped simple harmonic
oscillations.
The angular frequency of the damped oscillator is given by
• A system is said to execute free oscillations, if on being displaced or disturbed from its
position of equilibrium, it oscillates itself without outside interference.
When a system is compelled to oscillate with a frequency other than its natural frequency, it
is said to execute forced oscillations.
The external force which causes forced oscillation, is of sinusoidal nature. It is given as
• Resonance is the phenomenon of setting a body into oscillations with large amplitude under
the influence of some external periodic force whose frequency is exactly equal to the natural
frequency of the given body. Such oscillations are called the “resonant oscillations”.
• The two or more oscillations linked together in such a way that the exchange of energy
takes place between them are called coupled oscillators. The oscillations produced by
coupled oscillators are known as coupled oscillations.
• The speed of a mechanic wave depends upon the properties of the medium in which it is
travelling. If E is the elastic constant and ρ is the density of the medium then the speed of the
wave is given by
• In case of electric magnetic waves, we know that they are the combinations of the
oscillation of electric and magnetic fields in perpendicular directions. Their speed of
propagation depends upon the permitivity and the permeability of the medium. If μ0 is
permeability and ε0 is the permitivity of the medium in vaccum, then
Waves Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 15
• Waves
Wave is a form of disturbance which travels through a material medium due to the repeated f
periodic motion of the particles of the medium about their mean positions without any actual
transportation of matter.
• Characteristics of wave
The characteristics of waves are as follows:
(i) The particles of the medium traversed by a wave execute relatively small vibrations about
their mean positions but the particles are not permanently displaced in the direction of
propagation of the wave.
(ii) Each successive particle of the medium executes a motion quite similar to its predecessors
along/perpendicular to the line of travel of the wave.
(iii) During wave motion only transfer of energy takes place but not that of a portion of the
medium.
Waves are mainly of three types: (a) mechanical or elastic waves, (b) electromagnetic waves
and (c) matter waves.
• Mechanical waves
Mechanical waves can be produced or propagated only in a material medium. These waves
are governed by Newton’s laws of motion. For example, waves on water surface, waves on
strings, sound waves etc.
• Electromagnetic Waves
These are the waves which require no material medium for their production and propagation,
i.e., they can pass through vacuum and any other material medium. Common examples of
electromagnetic
waves are visible light; ultra-violet light; radiowaves, microwaves etc.
• Matter waves
These waves are associated with moving particles of matter, like electrons, protons, neutrons
etc. Mechanical waves are of two types:
(i) Transverse wave motion, (ii) Longitudinal wave motion,
• Transverse wave motion
In transverse waves the particles of the medium vibrate at right angles to the direction in
which the wave propagates. Waves on strings, surface water waves and electromagnetic
waves are transverse waves. In electromagnetic waves (which include light waves) the
disturbance that travels is not a result of vibrations of particles but it is the oscillation of
electric and magnetic fields which takes place at right angles to the direction in which the
wave travels.
• Longitudinal wave motion
In these types of waves, particles of the medium vibrate to and fro about their mean position
along the direction of propagation of energy. These are also called pressure waves. Sound
waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.
• Wavelength
The distance travelled by the disturbance during the time of one vibration by a medium
particle is called the wavelength (λ). In case of a transverse wave the wavelength may also be
defined as the distance between two successive crests or troughs. In case of a longitudinal
wave, the wavelength (λ) is equal to distance from centre of one compression (or refraction)
to another.
• Wave Velocity
Wave velocity is the time rate of propagation of wave motion in the given medium. It is
different from particle velocity. Wave velocity depends upon the nature of medium.
Wave velocity (υ) = frequency (v) x wavelength (λ)
• Amplitude
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from
their mean position.
• Frequency
The number of vibrations made by a particle in one second is called Frequency. It is
represented by v. Its unit is hertz (Hz) v =1/T
• Time Period
The time taken by a particle to complete one vibration is called time period.
T = 1/v, it is expressed in seconds.
• The velocity of transverse waves in a stretched string is given by
where T is the tension in the string and μ is the mass per unit length of the string, μ is also
called linear mass density of the string. SI unit of μ is kg m-1.
• The velocity of the longitudinal wave in an elastic medium is given by
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the medium and ρ is the density of the medium. In
case of solids, E is Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y), then
• Newton’s Formula for the velocity of sound in Air

According to Newton, when sound waves travel in air or in a gaseous media, the change is
taking place isothermally and hence, it is found that
Speed of sound in air at STP conditions, calculated on the basis of Newton’s formula is 280
ms-1. However, the experimentally determined values is 332 ms-1.
According to Laplace, during propagation of sound waves, the change takes place under
adiabatic conditions because gases are thermal insulators and compressions and refractions
are alternately taking place with a high frequency.
• Factors Influencing Velocity of Sound
The velocity of sound in any gaseous medium is affected by a large number of factors like
density, pressure, temperature, humidity, wind velocity etc.
(i) The velocity of sound in a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of density of the
gas.
(ii) The velocity of sound is independent of the change in pressure of the gas, provided
temperature remains constant.
(iii) The velocity of sound in a gas is directly proportional to the square root of its absolute
temperature.
(iv) The velocity of sound in moist air is greater than the velocity of sound in dry air.
(v) If wind flows at an angle θ to the direction of propagation of sound, the velocity of sound
is v + w cos θ, where w is the velocity of wind.
• General Equation of Progressive Waves
“A progressive wave is one which travels in a given direction with constant amplitude, i.e.,
without attenuation.”
As in wave motion, the displacement is a function of space as well as time, hence
displacement relation is expressed as a combined function of position and time as:
y (x,t) = A sin (kx — ωt + Ф)
We may also choose a cosine function instead of sine function. Here A, K, ω and Ф are four
constant for a given wave and are known as amplitude, angular wave number, angular
frequency and initial phase angle of given wave.
• Relation between phase and path difference
• A wave motion can be reflected from a rigid as well as from a free boundary. A travelling
wave, at a rigid boundary or a closed end, is reflected with a phase reversal but the reflection
at an open boundary takes place without any phase change.
• The Principle of Superposition of Wave
When any number of waves meet simultaneously at a point in a medium, the net
displacement at a given time is the algebraic sum of the displacements due to each wave at
that time.
• Standing waves or Stationary waves
When two sets of progressive wave trains of the same type (i.e., both longitudinal or both
transverse) having the same amplitude and time period/frequency/ wavelength travelling with
same speed along the same straight line in opposite directions superimpose, a new set of
waves are formed. These are called stationary waves or standing waves.
• Progressive Waves
1. The disturbance progresses on wards; it being handed over from particle to particle. Each
particle executes the same type of vibration as the preceding one, though at a different time.
2. The waves are in the form of crests and troughs, i.e., sine/cosine functions, which move on
wards with a definite velocity.
3. Every particle has the same amplitude; which it attains in its own time depending upon the
progress of the wave.
4. The phase of every particle varies continuously from 0 to 2π .
5. No particle remains permanently at rest. Twice during each vibration, the particles are
momentarily at rest. Different particles attain this position at different times.
6. All the particles have the same maximum velocity which they attain one after another, as
the wave advances.
7. There is a regular flow of energy across every plane along the direction of propagation of
the wave. The average energy in a wave is half potential and half kinetic.
• Stationary Waves
1. The disturbance is stationary, there being no forward or backward movement of the wave.
Each particle has its own vibration characteristics.
2. The waves have the appearance of a sine/cosine function, which shrink to a straight line,
twice in each vibration. It never advances.
3. Every particle has a fixed allotted amplitude. Some have zero amplitude (nodes) aiJ some
have maximum amplitude (antinodes) always. Each partic1eattains this at the same given
moment.
4. All the particles in one-half of the waves have a fixed phase and all the particles in the
other half of the wave have the same phase in the opposite direction simultaneously.
5. There are particles -which are permanently at rest (nodes) and all other particles have their
own allotted maximum displacement, which they attain simultaneously. These particles are
momentarily at rest twice in each vibration, all at the same time.
6. All the particles attain their individual allotted velocities depending upon their positions,
simultaneously. Two particles (nodes) in one wave form have zero velocities all the time.
7. There is no flow of energy at all, across any plane. Each particle has its own allotted
individual energy. They all attain their values of RE. at one time and all energy becomes KB.
at another given time.
• When a stationary wave is set up in a string of length l fixed at its two ends, in the simplest
mode of vibration, nodes are formed at the fixed ends and an antinode is formed at the middle
point. The frequency of fundamental mode of vibration (or first harmonic) is given by
• Frequency of the Stretched String

In general, if the string vibrates in P loops, the frequency of the string under that mode is
given by
Based on this relation three laws of transverse vibrations of stretched strings arise. They are
law of length, law of tension and law of mass.
• Law of Length
The fundamental frequency v is inversely proportional to,the length L of the stretched string.
• Law of Tension
The fundamental frequency is directly proportional to the square root of the tension in the
string.
• Law of Mass
The fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of mass per unit
length of the given string when L and T are kept constants.
• Beats
The phenomenon of regular rise and fall in the intensity of sound, when two waves of nearly
equal frequencies travelling along the same line and in the same direction superimpose each
other is called beats.
One rise and one fall in the intensity of sound constitutes one beat and the number of beats
per second is called beat frequency. It is given as:
vb = (v1-v2)
where v1 and v2 are the frequencies of the two interfering waves; v1 being greater than v2.
• Doppler Effect
According to Doppler’s effect, whenever there is a relative motion between a source of sound
and listener, the apparent frequencies of sound heard by the listener is different from the
actual frequency of sound emitted by the source.
For sound the observed frequency v’ is given by
Here v = true frequency of wave emitted by the source, v = speed of sound through the
medium, v0 the velocity of observer relative to the medium and vs the velocity of source
relative to the medium. In using this formula, velocities in the direction OS (i.e., from
observer towards the source) are treated as positive and those opposite to it are taken as
negative.

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PHYSICS CLASS XI NOTES

initial position to its final position.

The following general results are always valid

anuary 19, 2024 by Bhagya

Motion in a Plane Class 11 Notes Physics

• Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

• Triangle Law of Vector Addition

• Properties of Scalar Product

• Uniform Circular Motion

Law of Motion Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 5

Impulse of a force is a vector quantity and its SI unit is 1 Nm.

• Law of Conservation of Momentum

• Limiting Frictional Force

• Motion on a Rough Inclined Plane

• Motion in a Vertical Circle

Here the following forces act on the particle of mass ‘m’.

• The Law of Conservation of Energy

• Coefficient of Restitution or Coefficient of Resilience

Examples of non-conservative forces are :

Systems of Particles and Rotational Motion Class

• Motion of centre of Mass

• Theorem of Parallel Axes

• Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum

• Newton’s Law of Gravitation

• Acceleration Due to Gravity

• Mass and Mean Density of Earth

• Variation of Acceleration Due to Gravity

• Gravitational Potential Energy

• Stress is of two types:

• Stress Strain Curve

The SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is poiseuille (Pl) or Pa – s or Nm-2 s or kg m-1 s-1 .

where K is a dimensionless constant, q is coefficient of viscosity of liquid, p is density of

i.e., Heat required = mass x specific heat x change in temperature

• Newton’s Law of Cooling

• Black Body Radiation

• Gay Lussac’s Law (or Pressure Law)

• Equation of State of an Ideal Gas

• Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature

• Newton’s Formula for the velocity of sound in Air

• Frequency of the Stretched String

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