4

The History of Cartography

MAPS have been produced for thousands of years. Though the exact history of cartography as a scientific
field is very recent, a 5,000-year old clay tablet shows land holdings (Fig. I). In 150 cr:, Ptolemy Claudius made a
praiseworthy compilation of a world map (Fig.2). He believed that the stationary Earth was at the centre of the
universe, surrounded by the revolving stars and planets.
Cartography in the Dark Ages suffered as scientific proof of the things depicted was missing. Influenced by
Biblical writings, the Earth was drawn circular in shape with Jerusalem at the centre (Fig.3).
In the Age of Discovery, at the end of the 15th century, a growing interest developed in Europe for the newly
explored world. By the later half of the 16th century, the printing and engraving of inventions in Europe gave a
boost to map reproduction and beautification, though reliable data was missing.
The early period of modern cartography (cE 1600-1650) recognized the scientific validity of maps and charts.
In addition to nautical charts and topographic maps, the broadening of knowledge with the introduction
of new fields of studies like astronomy, geology, meteorology, biology, and the social sciences gave rise to
thematic Cartography. Scientific surveying techniques and instruments, such as the theodolite (Fig.4), made it
possible for cartographers to measure angles and distances of points on the ground.
In the 20th century, the occurrence of the two world wars created a demand for maps for use by the military
and for general awareness. The invention of the airplane added a new dimension to mapping through the
method of remote sensing. This provided a bird's-eye view of the landscape and saved time and money required
for conventional surveying for ground realities.
The invention and use of aerial photography (Fig.5) and satellite imagery (Fig.6) were the most significant
contributions to map making in the 20th century. Computer-based GIS software which uses satellite data
has immense capability to record area and identify various Earth features like vegetation, water, built-up area
(cemented) or vacant land, and even underground water (up to 6 meters).
Fig.2

Fig. 3 Fig.4 Fig.5

Maps
A map is a representation of the round Earth on a flat piece of paper. Maps show us what the Earth would look like if we could see it from
above. The purpose of preparing a map is to show things as they appear in their true location, either in isolation or in relation to some
other feature. For example, a population distribution map shows the number of persons in an area, and a population density map shows
the number of persons per unit area.

Scale
Maps show portions of the Earth's surface much smaller than they actually are. The amount by which things are made smaller on a map
is called the scale. For drawing or reading a map, we must know the scale, or ratio, between the two points on the ground and their
corresponding distance on the map. A scale can be expressed in three ways as given in the box below.

1. Representative Fraction (RF) 2. Written statement 3. Scale

The units of measurement of distances The system of A diagram of a ruler is drawn to 2 km
2 km I km O km 1 km
are the same both on the ground and measurement is clearly show the given scale, e.g. 1 cm l �
on paper. It is always expressed as a stated, e.g. = 1 km or 1: 100,000. A segment
1cm
ratio, e.g. 1:100,000, where 1 cm = 1 cm= 1 km of a ruler measuring 15 cm will 1cm 1cm 1cm

100,000 cm or 1 inch= 100,000 inches. or 1 inch= 1 mile, and so represent 15 km.

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Maps and Map Making · 5
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Types of Maps Map Projections

D epending on the purpose of rnap making, the following types of maps are Grids of parallels and meridians, called projections, are
drawn on the basis of the area covered: used to represent the spherical surface of the Earth on a
flat piece of paper. It is impossible to make a world map

�,�--•
that is accurate in area, shape, distance and direction. Every
world map is distorted in at least one of these aspects.
<:;
ad� Choice of Map Projections
8J A number of map projections are available. The most
d •
commonly used ones are based on the concept of a
'developable surface' or a surface which can be flattened,
Me
A war• such as a cone (placed like a cap over the globe), or a
cylinder wrapped around the globe, or a plane resting on
imhans
Bharatpuf";;i .,
ndr .:,
- - ---- j (Q\. �,..,,......,,_ ,__.,,�,,.. ,
the Earth's surface (Fig.12).
Fig. 7 Fig.8
An imaginary source of light at the centre of the
Large-scale maps When the Small-scale maps When the globe casts the shadows of the lines of latitude and
area covered is small, such as on area covered is large, such as in a longitude accurately at the point where the globe
a topographical map which may school atlas which may have a scale touches the paper. Therefore, the scale is true at this
have a scale of 1 :50,000 or 1:25,000, of 1:1000,000 or 1:100,000, less details point. Away from it, distortions of shape, area, size and
more details can be shown (Fig. 7). can be shown (Fig. 8). distance take place. Any projection can take care of one
distortion at a time.
Locating Places
An imaginary grid is used to pinpoint the position of any place on Earth. This
£q11olor (Standard
Paro/le/) (Least

grid is made up of imaginary lines called parallels of latitude and meridians of

i-ariu11onof
anglrs.area and

longitude (Fig. 9).

diJlancc.Jalong r-,.._;.----,-...._
this/aritude)

Latitudes measure distances north or south of the equator in degrees.

Longitudes measure distances east or west of the Prime Meridian in degrees.
Fig.12
Conical Projection Cylindrical Projection Azimuthal Projection

Fig.10 Fig. 11
!I>� '1>�i� -��
q}
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ALTITUDE
IN
fo 1:,<1
�<::- +"''Ii <,
Q
<:..,'1><:i
METRES

q}
,s, "-
,-,i,�
� ,'/,��
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,§ �� cf� <:..,�
(Population)

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[:] [:] El @ More than 5 million 1200
Parallels of latitude Meridians of longitude Parallels and meridians @) @) Ii}) � 1,000,000 - 5,000,000
make a grid
® ® @ * 500,000 - 1,000,000
300

*
110
Fig. 9
0 0 0 100,000 - 500,000 so
0 0 0 iii 50,000 - 100,000
0 0 0 * 10,000 - 50,000
OEPTl-t lOO

,, Less than 10,000

International Boundary ,-==;:) Swamps/ Marsh

State Boundary =-- River
District Boundary ,,. ,,.
Religious / Tourist Place
Coastal Boundary
(f)
Symbols and Shades Railway line
International Airport
+ Domestic Airport
A simple coding system has been developed to represent the features shown
Golden Quadrilateral
...i.:.. Seaport
North-South Corridors

on a map. Besides the list of conventional symbols given (Fig. 70), colours
East-West Corridors .Jk Wildlife Sanctuary

an d shades are used to show certain features like blue for water and different
National Highway ,. 70<! Peak height
Other Road ..--29 m Depression

shades, ranging from the densest to the lightest, representing the range of
Canal •110 Ocean depth

occurrences of any phenomenon, such as altitude (i i9.

L:--:, Lake / Reservoir - - - - International date line