Analog and Digital Communication w/ e.g.
Five Network Topologies
Analog Communication :-
1. Analog communication uses analog signals for the transmission
of information.
2. Analog communications are affected by noise.
3. Analog communication requires complicated hardware.
4. Low bandwidth is required for analog communication.
5. High power is required for analog communication.
6. Examples: - Sound shows analog signals
Digital communication :-
1. Digital communication uses digital signals for the transmission
of information.
2. Digital communications are not affected by noise.
3. Digital communication requires less complicated hardware.
4. High bandwidth is required for digital communication.
5. Digital communication requires comparatively less power.
6. Examples: - Computers use digital signals.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission
1. In Synchronous transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or
frames.
2. Synchronous transmission is fast.
3. Synchronous transmission is costly.
4. In Synchronous transmission, the time interval of transmission
is constant.
5. In Synchronous transmission, there is no gap present between
data.
1. In Asynchronous transmission, data is sent in form of bytes or
characters.
2. Asynchronous transmission is slow.
3. Asynchronous transmission is economical.
4. In Asynchronous transmission, the time interval of
transmission is not constant, it is random.
5. In Asynchronous transmission, there is present a gap between
data.
Frequency modulation, Advantages & Disadvantages
Frequency modulation is a technique or a process of encoding
information on a particular signal (analogue or digital) by varying
the carrier wave frequency in accordance with the frequency of
the modulating signal.
Advantages :-
Less interference and noise.
Power Consumption is less as compared to AM.
Adjacent FM channels are separated by guard bands.
Disadvantages:-
Equipment cost is higher. Has a large bandwidth.
More complicated receiver and transmitter.
The antennas for FM systems should be kept close for better
communication.
Problem with PSK ? 4-QPSK & 8 QPSK ?
The problem with phase shift keying is that the receiver cannot
know the exact phase of the transmitted signal to determine
whether it is in a mark or space condition. This would not be
possible even if the transmitter and receiver clocks were
accurately linked because the path length would determine the
exact phase of the received signal. To overcome this problem PSK
systems use a differential method for encoding the data onto the
carrier.
QPSK, or Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying, uses four distinct
phase-shifts to encode data. In contrast, 8PSK, or Eight
Phase-Shift Keying, uses eight distinct phase-shifts. These occur
at 0 degrees, 45 degrees, 90 degrees, 135 degrees, 180 degrees,
225 degrees, 270 degrees and 315 degrees.
Advantages of packet switching over circuit switching
Packet switching is most often used for data and voice
applications that aren’t time-sensitive.
Advantages of packet switching over circuit switching:
More efficient than circuit switching
Data packets are able to find the destination without the use of a
dedicated channel
Reduces lost data packets because packet switching allows for
resending of packets
More cost-effective since there is no need for a dedicated
channel for voice or data traffic
Fiber Optic Cables
A fibre optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals
in the structure of light signals. The structure of an optical fiber
cable is displayed in the figure. It involves an inner glass core
surrounded by a glass cladding that reflects the light into the
core. Each fibre is encircled by a plastic jacket.
MD5 Algorithm
MD5 is a cryptographic hash function algorithm that takes the
message as input of any length and changes it into a fixed-length
message of 16 bytes. MD5 algorithm stands for the message-digest
algorithm.
The output of MD5 (Digest size) is always 128 bits.
Use Of MD5 Algorithm:
It is used for file authentication.
In a web application, it is used for security purposes. e.g. Secure
password of users etc.
Using this algorithm, We can store our password in 128 bits
format.
OSI model , Layers & Functions
Mesh Topology: In mesh topology each device is connected to
every other device on the network through a dedicated
point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the link
only carries data for the two connected devices only.
>Adv : No data loss: No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated
link between two devices which means the link is only available
for those two devices.
>Disadv: Amount of wires required to connected each system is
tedious and headache.
Star Topology
In star topology each device in the network is connected to a
central device called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology
doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device
must have to communicate through hub.
If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first
send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the
designated device.
>Adv: Less expensive: Less expensive because each device only
need one I/O port and needs to be connected with hub with one
link.
>Disadv: If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the
devices can work without hub.
Bus Topology
In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are
connected to this main cable through drop lines. There is a
device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable.
Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable.
>Adv: Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with
backbone cable.
>Disadv: Difficultly in fault detection.
Ring Topology
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices
on either side of it. There are two dedicated point to point links
a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This
structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology.
>Adv: Less expensive: Generally Twisted pair cabling is used in
ring topology which is inexpensive and easily available.
>Disadv : A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal
will not travel forward due to failure.
Hybrid Topology
A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid
topology. For example a combination of star and mesh topology is
known as hybrid topology.
>Adv: We can choose the topology based on the requirement for
example, scalability is our concern then we can use star topology
instead of bus technology.
>Disadv : Design is complex so maintenance is high thus
expensive.
Privacy and Authentication
The data being transmitted via GSM is in digital form and hence is
much easier to carry out digital transformation, data encryption,
scrambling and other known methods of protection against
unauthorized access to transmitted information. i.e. Privacy
We system needs to verify before connecting two terminals if the
connection has been tapped or compromised and that the
authorized user is at both the ends of connection i.e.
Authentication.
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
that describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function :
1. Physical Layer:
Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices
can be connected physically.
Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two
devices on the network.
2. Data-Link Layer:
Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the
frame that contains a destination address. The frame is
transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the
same communication channel, then the data link layer protocols
are used to determine which device has control over the link at a
given time.
3. Network Layer:
Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of
the network layer. It provides a logical connection between
different devices.
Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify
the device on the internet.
4. Transport Layer:
Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow
control but it is performed end-to-end rather than across a single
link.
Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error
control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across
the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message
reach at the destination without any error.
5. Session Layer:
Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that
creates a dialog between two processes or we can say that it
allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the
middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will
take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
6. Presentation Layer:
Translation: the presentation layer handles the interoperability
between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and
changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at
the receiving end.
Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption
is a process of converting the sender-transmitted information
into another form and sends the resulting message over the
network.
7. Application Layer:
File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application
layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to
retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
TCP/IP
TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication
protocols.It is named after the two main protocols that are used
in the model, namely, TCP and IP. TCP stands for Transmission
Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are:
1. Host-to- Network Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer
Go-back-sliding window protocol
Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is also known as Go-Back-N Automatic
Repeat Request. It is a data link layer protocol that uses a sliding
window method. In this, if any frame is corrupted or lost, all
subsequent frames have to be sent again.
The size of the sender window is N in this protocol. For example,
Go-Back-8, the size of the sender window, will be 8. The receiver
window size is always 1.
If the receiver receives a corrupted frame, it cancels it. The
receiver does not accept a corrupted frame. When the timer
expires, the sender sends the correct frame again.
Pure ALOHA & SLOTTED ALOHA Comparison
Digital Modulation comparison of ASK, PSK & FSK
Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data
security, quicker system availability with great quality
communication. Hence, digital modulation techniques have a
greater demand, for their capacity to convey larger amounts of
data than analog modulation techniques.
ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying
The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input
data whether it should be a zero level or a variation of positive
and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency.
FSK – Frequency Shift Keying
The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low,
depending upon the input data applied.
PSK – Phase Shift Keying
The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the
input. These are mainly of two types, namely Binary Phase Shift
Keying BPSK and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK, according
to the number of phase shifts.
CRC
The Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) is the most powerful
method for Error-Detection and Correction. It is given as a kbit
message and the transmitter creates an (n – k) bit sequence
called frame check sequence. The out coming frame, including n
bits, is precisely divisible by some fixed number. Modulo 2
Arithmetic is used in this binary addition with no carries, just like
the XOR operation.
It should have accurately one less bit than the divisor.
Joining it to the end of the data unit should create the resulting
bit sequence precisely divisible by the divisor.
ARP & RARP Works
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.Arp translates IP
numbers into hardware addresses.
How ARP works: Send a packet from the querying host with an
Ethernet broadcast address asking the target host with the given
IP address to respond. All hosts on the physical network receive
this packet, and the one with the given IP number responds.
Then the original querying host knows the physical address of the
target host. Does not use IP; uses's physical frames.
RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
What is it for: Diskless clients don't have a place to store there IP
number. Rarp translates machines addresses into IP numbers.
How RARP works: The client broadcasts a RARP packet with an
ethernet broadcast address, and it's own physical address in the
data portion. The server responds by telling the client it's IP
address. Note there is no name sent. Also note there is no
security. Does not use IP; uses's physical frames.
Network Interface Card
A NIC provides a computer with a dedicated, full-time connection
to a network. It implements the physical layer circuitry necessary
for communicating with a data link layer standard, such as
Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Each card represents a device and can
prepare, transmit and control the flow of data on the network.
One such example of a wireless network NIC card is fiber data
digital interface FDDI.
NIC cards are of two types −
1. Internal Network Cards
2. External Network Cards
Distance Vector Routing Protocol, diagram & Algorithm
A distance-vector routing (DVR) protocol requires that a router
inform its neighbors of topology changes periodically. Historically
known as the old ARPANET routing algorithm (or known as
Bellman-Ford algorithm).
Bellman Ford Basics – Each router maintains a Distance Vector
table containing the distance between itself and ALL possible
destination nodes. Distances,based on a chosen metric, are
computed using information from the neighbors’ distance
vectors.
Dx(y) = min { C(x,v) + Dv(y), Dx(y) } for each node y ∈ N
Example – Consider 3-routers X, Y and Z as shown in figure. Each
router have their routing table. Every routing table will contain
distance to the destination nodes.
Transparent Fragmentation vs Non-Transparent
Fragmentation
Transparent fragmentation is done by one network is made
transparent to all other subsequent networks through which
packet will pass. Whenever a large packet arrives at a gateway, it
breaks packet into smaller fragments as shown in the following
figure gateway G1 breaks a packet into smaller fragments.
After this, each fragment is going to address to same exit
gateway. Exist gateway of a network reassembles or recombines
all fragments example is shown in the above figure as exit
gateway, G2 of network 1 recombines all fragments created by G1
before passing them to network 2. Thus, subsequent network is
not aware that fragmentation has occurred. This type of strategy
is used by ATM networks .
Non-Transport fragmentation is done by one network is
non-transparent to the subsequent networks through which a
packet passes. Packet fragmented by a gateway of a network is
not recombined by exit gateway of same network as shown in the
below figure.
Once a packet is fragmented, each fragment is treated as original
packet. All fragments of a packet are passed through exit
gateway and recombination of these fragments is done at the
destination host.
Categories of ICMP
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. IP does not
have an inbuilt mechanism for sending error and control
messages. It depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
to provide an error control. It is used for reporting errors and
management queries. It is a supporting protocol and is used by
networks devices like routers for sending error messages and
operations information., e.g. the requested service is not
available or that a host or router could not be reached.
These message types can be divided into two categories −
Error Reporting Messages- These are messages which are sent
when an error is reported by ICMP protocol.
Query Messages - These are messages which are sent when ICMP
queries about the status of the host.
IGMP, Draw a header field of IGMP
IGMP is acronym for Internet Group Management Protocol. IGMP is
a communication protocol used by hosts and adjacent routers for
multicasting communication with IP networks and uses the
resources efficiently to transmit the message/data packets.
IGMP can be used in streaming videos, gaming or web
conferencing tools. This protocol is used on IPv4 networks and
for using this on IPv6, multicasting is managed by Multicast
Listener Discovery (MLD).
3-Way Handshake Connection Establishment Process
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides a secure and
reliable connection between two devices using the 3-way
handshake process. TCP uses the full-duplex connection to
synchronize (SYN) and acknowledge (ACK) each other on both
sides.
The following diagram shows how a reliable connection is
established using 3-way handshake. It will support
communication between a web browser on the client and server
sides whenever a user navigates the Internet.
Steps of Silly window Syndrome w Diagram
Sender windows transmit one byte of data repeatedly
Step 1 − If an application which will generate only one byte of
data. The TCP will transmit this small segment of data.
Step 2 − All time the application generates a single byte of data
and the window transmits it.
Step 3 − This is because the transmission process becomes slow
and inefficient. Here the sender window transmits one byte of
data repeatedly.
Receiver window accepting one byte of data repeatedly
Step 1 − Suppose the receiver is not able to process all the
incoming data.
Step 2 − In such a case, the receiver advertises a small window
size.
Step 3 − The process repeats and the window size becomes too
small.
Step 4 − Thus, the receiver repeatedly advertises window size of
one byte.
Step 5 − Finally, the receiving process becomes slow and
inefficient.
Fra
Frame Relay architecture w Diagram
Frame relay is a protocol that defines how frames are routed
through a fast-packet network based on the address field in the
frame. Frame relay takes advantage of the reliability of data
communications networks to minimize the error checking done
by the network nodes.
ATM Cell
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a cell-switching,
connection-oriented technology. In ATM networks, end stations
attach to the network using dedicated full duplex connections.
The ATM networks are constructed using switches, and switches
are interconnected using dedicated physical connections.
An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload.
The payload size of 48 bytes was chosen as described above. ATM
defines two different cell formats: user–network interface (UNI)
and network–network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell
format.
IPv4 & IPv6
IPv4:
1. IPv4 has a 32-bit address length.
2. It Supports Manual and DHCP address configuration
3. In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity is Unachievable
4. In IPv4 checksum field is available
5.IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes.
6. IPv4 consist of 4 fields which are separated by dot (.)
7. Example of IPv4: 66.94.29.13
IPv6:
1. IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
2. It supports Auto and renumbering address configuration.
3. In IPv6 end to end, connection integrity is Achievable
4. In IPv6 checksum field is not available.
5. IPv6 has header of 40 bytes fixed.
6. IPv6 consist of 8 fields, which are separated by colon (:)
7. Example of IPv6: 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB
What is CSMA/CD ?
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
is a network protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the
Medium Access Control (MAC) layer. It senses or listens whether
the shared channel for transmission is busy or not, and defers
transmissions until the channel is free. The collision detection
technology detects collisions by sensing transmissions from other
stations. On detection of a collision, the station stops
transmitting, sends a jam signal, and then waits for a random
time interval before retransmission.
Block Cipher Adv. & Disadv
Block cipher is an encryption algorithm that takes a fixed size of
input say b bits and produces a ciphertext of b bits again. If the
input is larger than b bits it can be divided further. For different
applications and uses, there are several modes of operations for a
block cipher.
Advantages
Saves up on memory and communication bandwidth
-Easy to incorporate within existing systems.
Main Disadvantage
-Every block is always encrypted in the same way.
Important Examples:DES,AES.
Subnetting ? subnetwork address
Subnetting is the strategy used to partition a single physical
network into more than one smaller logical sub-networks
(subnets).Subnetting allows an organization to add sub-networks
without the need to acquire a new network number via the
Internet service provider (ISP). Subnetting helps to reduce the
network traffic and conceals network complexity. Subnetting is
essential when a single network number has to be allocated over
numerous segments of a local area network (LAN).
IMAP
In computing, the Internet Message Access Protocol is an
Internet standard protocol used by email clients to retrieve email
messages from a mail server over a TCP/IP connection. IMAP is
defined by RFC 9051.
Features of IMAP :
It is capable of managing multiple mailboxes and organizing them
into various categories.
Provides adding of message flags to keep track of which messages
are being seen.
It is capable of deciding whether to retrieve email from a mail
server before downloading.
It makes it easy to download media when multiple files are
attached.

A subnet address is the IP address assigned by the DHCP server or

the network admin when subnetting. Basically if you have
10.0.0.0 as the base network IP, a subnet of it could be 10.1.0.0
and then an actual IP address for a device in that subnet would
be 10.1.0.15.

Count to infinity Problem

The Count to Infinity problem arises from the routing loop in this
Distance Vector Routing(DVR) network. Such Routing Loops
usually occurs when 2 routers send an update together at the
same time or when an interface goes down.
The crux of the Count to Infinity problem is that if node A tells
node B that it has a path somewhere, there is no way for node B
to know if the path has node B as a part of it.
Advantages :
-It offers synchronization across all the maintained sessions by
the user.
-It provides security over POP3 protocol as the email only exists
on the IMAP server.
-Users have remote access to all the contents.
-It offers easy migration between the devices as it is
synchronized by a centralized server.
-There is no need to physically allocate any storage to save
contents.

Consider the case in the above diagram, where the connection
between B and C gets disconnected. In this case, B will know that
it cannot get to C at a cost of 1 anymore and update its table
accordingly.However, it can be possible that A sends some
information to B that it is possible to reach C from A at a cost of
2. Then, since B can reach A at a cost of 1, B will erroneously
update its table that it can reach C via A at a cost of 1 + 2 = 3
units. A will then receive updates from B and update its costs to
4, and so on. Thus, the process enters into a loop of bad
feedback and the cost shoots towards infinity. This entire
situation is called the Count to Infinity problem.
Encryption
In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding
informationEncryption is the method by which information is
converted into secret code that hides the information's true
meaning. The science of encrypting and decrypting information is
called cryptography.
This process converts the original representation of the
information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known
as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a
ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information
Decryption
Decryption is a process that transforms encrypted information
into its original format.
The process of encryption transforms information from its
original format — called plaintext — into an unreadable format —
called ciphertext — while it is being shared or transmitted.
Disadvantages :
-IMAP is complex to maintain.
-Emails of the user are only available when there is an internet
connection.
-It is slower to load messages.
-Some emails don’t support IMAP which makes it difficult to
manage.
-Many browser-based solutions are unavailable due to not support
of IMAP
MD5 Algorithm
MD5 is a cryptographic hash function algorithm that takes the
message as input of any length and changes it into a fixed-length
message of 16 bytes. MD5 algorithm stands for the message-digest
algorithm. MD5 was developed as an improvement of MD4, with
advanced security purposes. The output of MD5 (Digest size) is
always 128 bits. MD5 was developed in 1991 by Ronald Rivest.
It is used for file authentication.
In a web application, it is used for security purposes. e.g. Secure
password of users etc.
ATM Cell
ATM transfers data in fixed-size units are known as cells. Each
cell includes 53 octets or bytes, as shown in the figure. The first
5 bytes contain cell-header data, and the remaining 48 include
the payload (user information).
An ATM cell header can be two formats, such as User Network
Interface (UNI) or Network to Network Interface (NNI). The UNI
header can be used for communication between ATM endpoints
and ATM switches in private ATM networks. The NNI header can
be used for communication between ATM switches.

Difference encryption and Decryption

Encryption
1. Encryption is the process of converting normal message into
meaningless message
2.Encryption is the process which take place at sender’s end
3.Its major task is to convert the plain text into cipher text.
4.Any message can be encrypted with either secret key or public
key.
5.In encryption process, sender sends the data to receiver after
encrypted it.
6.The same algorithm with the same key is used for the
encryption-decryption process

Decryption
1.While decryption is the process of converting meaningless
message into its original form.
2.While decryption is the process which take place at receiver’s
end.
3.While its main task is to convert the cipher text into plain text.
4.Whereas the encrypted message can be decrypted with either
secret key or private key.
5.Whereas in decryption process, receiver receives the
information(Cipher text) and convert into plain text.
6.The only single algorithm is used for encryption-decryption
with a pair of keys where each use for encryption and
decryption.

RSA SHORT NOTE

It was invented by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman in year 1978 and
hence name RSA algorithm.
RSA algorithm is asymmetric cryptography algorithm. Asymmetric
actually means that it works on two different keys i.e. Public Key
and Private Key. As the name describes that the Public Key is
given to everyone and Private key is kept private.
RSA is still seen in a range of web browsers, email, VPNs, chat
and other communication channels. RSA is also often used to
make secure connections between VPN clients and VPN servers.