Applied Petroleum Geology (PE-104)

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Assignment: Rocks and Type of Rocks.

Name: Muhammad Babar

# Roll No: PE-23030
Year: 2023-2024
Batch: 2023
Discipline: Petroleum Engineering Department
Rocks:
Rocks are aggregates of minerals, organic matter (as in the case of coal), or
volcanic glass (like obsidian). They can contain a single mineral, such as halite
(rock salt) or calcite (certain limestones), or a variety of minerals, such as quartz,
feldspar, and mica found in granite.

Types of Rocks:
There are three main types of rocks.

1. Igneous Rocks.
2. Sedimentary Rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rocks.

Igneous rocks:
Igneous rocks are one of the three main classes of rocks,
alongside sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. These rocks form through the
cooling and solidification of molten rock, or magma. Depending on where and
how this cooling process occurs, igneous rocks can be classified into two main
types: plutonic (or intrusive) and volcanic (or extrusive).

Types of Plutonic (Intrusive) Igneous Rocks:

Plutonic igneous rocks form when magma cools and
crystallizes slowly beneath the Earth's surface. This slow cooling allows for the
growth of large, interlocking mineral crystals, which are typically visible to the
naked eye. Some common examples of plutonic igneous rocks include:

i. Granite:
It Composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica (Ferro-magnesium
rich Minerals, dark color and basic). Granite can range in color from white
to black, with various shades of gray, pink and red. Granite has a coarse-
grained texture. It’s hardness rating of 6-7 relatively hard and density of
around 2.75 g/cm³.
 ii. Diorite:
It Contains plagioclase feldspar, biotite, hornblende, and sometimes
quartz. Diorite commonly appears in dark gray to black shades, exhibiting a
speckled or mottled texture. IT exhibits a coarse-grained texture,
characterized by prominently visible mineral grains. It’s hardness rating of
6-7 relatively hard and density of around 2.9-3.0 g/cm³.

Type of Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks:

Volcanic igneous rocks form when magma reaches the Earth's
surface and cools rapidly. The rapid cooling results in smaller crystals that are
usually too small to be seen without magnification. Common examples of volcanic
igneous rocks include:

i. Andesite:
It typically consists of plagioclase feldspar, biotite, pyroxene, and
amphibole minerals. It usually appears in shades of gray to black and exhibits
a fine-grained texture. Andesite forms from the rapid cooling of magma at the
Earth's surface, resulting in small mineral crystals that are generally not
visible to the naked eye. It has a hardness rating of around 6 and a density
ranging from 2.3 to 2.8 g/cm³. Andesite is commonly found in volcanic areas
associated with subduction zones and volcanic arcs.

ii. Basalt:
It is composed mainly of pyroxene and plagioclase feldspar, and often
contains olivine as well. Basalt forms from rapid cooling of lava at or near the
Earth's surface, resulting in a fine-grained texture with small, often
microscopic, mineral crystals. It is dense, with a hardness rating of around 6
on the Mohs scale, and has a density ranging from 2.8 to 3.0 g/cm³.

Common Minerals in Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rocks are typically composed of a combination of the following minerals:

i. Quartz
ii. Mica
iii. Feldspar
iv. Amphibole
v. Pyroxene
vi. Olivine

Sedimentary rocks:
Sedimentary rocks are one of the three main classes of rocks, alongside igneous
and metamorphic rocks. They form at the Earth's surface through the accumulation and lithification
(compaction and cementation) of sediments derived from the weathering of pre-existing rocks,
biological activity, or direct precipitation from solution.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks:
Clastic sedimentary rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones,
siltstones, and shales form from the accumulation and lithification of fragments of
older rocks. These fragments (clasts) are transported and deposited by wind, water,
or ice, and then compacted and cemented together. Examples include:

i. Conglomerate:
It Composed of rounded gravel-sized particles, typically made of
quartz, chert, or other durable rock fragments. These particles are poorly
sorted, exhibiting a wide range of sizes and shapes. The rock is generally hard,
with a rough texture, and is cemented together by substances like silica,
calcite, or iron oxides.

ii. Sandstone:
Made of sand-sized particles, mainly quartz, feldspar, and sometimes
rock fragments. It is well-sorted, with a consistent particle size. The particles
are commonly cemented by silica, calcite, or iron oxides. Its hardness ranges
from 6 to 7 on the Mohs scale. Sandstone generally has a gritty texture and a
porous structure.
iii. Shale:
It consists of clay-sized particles primarily composed of clay minerals like
kaolinite, fillite, and montmorillonite, alongside quartz and organic matter. It
is well-sorted, with very fine particles arranged in thin, parallel layers known
as lamination. Shale typically registers a hardness of around 3 on the Mohs
scale. It has a smooth texture and often splits into thin sheets, a characteristic
known as fissility.

2. Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks:

Biogenic sedimentary rocks form through the accumulation of
biological debris or by chemical activities of organisms. Examples include:

i. Limestone:
It Often formed from the accumulation of marine shells and coral
reefs. Limestone is primarily composed of calcite (CaCO₃), with occasional
traces of other minerals such as clay, silt, or sand. It is typically found in
massive or bedded formations and can exhibit crystalline, oolitic, or
fossiliferous structures. Limestone has a hardness of around 3 on the Mohs
scale and reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, producing effervescence.

ii. Chert:
It Formed from the accumulation of silica-rich remains of organisms
such as diatoms and radiolarian Chert consists primarily of microcrystalline
quartz (SiO₂). It is a dense and hard rock, commonly occurring as nodules or
layers embedded within limestone. Chert typically ranks around 7 on the
Mohs scale of hardness. It is very tough and dense, characterized by its
conchoidal fracture patterns.

Metamorphic rocks:
Metamorphic rocks are formed from the alteration of pre-
existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) through heat,
pressure, and chemically active fluids. This process, known as metamorphism,
occurs deep within the Earth's crust where conditions differ significantly from
those at the surface. Metamorphism causes changes in the mineral composition,
texture, and sometimes the chemical composition of the rocks without melting
them.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks:

i. Schist:
Schist is characterized by its highly crystalline structure and
significant water content. It is also known for its foliation, meaning its
mineral grains can easily split into flakes or slabs. This rock can be split
along the planes where its platy minerals are aligned. Schist's composition
includes platy minerals such as mica, talc, chlorite, or graphite, along with
granular minerals like feldspar and quartz. Common minerals found in schist
are muscovite, biotite, quartz, and feldspar, with porphyroblasts including
garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, and cordierite.

ii. Marble:
Marble rock is primarily composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
comprising over 90% of its mineral composition. It also contains varying
amounts of other minerals such as quartz, mica, feldspar, iron oxides,
graphite, pyrite, and dolomite. The quality and suitability of marble for
different applications depend on the purity of its calcium carbonate content.
Marble exhibits a range of colors including white, pink, gray, brown, green,
yellow, or blue, determined by its mineral composition. It is relatively soft,
with a Mohs hardness rating of 3, and has a massive structure with medium-
sized, interlocking calcite crystals, giving it a granoblastic, granular texture.