SCIENCE NOTES

Chapter 1 - Crop Production and Management

 Regular production, proper management, and distribution of food are all
required to feed a huge population.
 Crop: A crop is formed when plants of the same kind are grown and
cultivated on a big scale in one location.
A. Crops in India are divided into two groups based on the seasons:
Rabi and Kharif crops.
B. Seeds sown at the proper depths and distances produce an
excellent yield. After selecting healthy seeds, a good variety of seeds
is sowed. Seed drills are used to sow the seeds.
C. Organic manure and fertilizers must be used to replenish and
improve the soil. With the advent of new crop varieties, the use of
chemical fertilizers has soared.

 Crop Production Basics Include:

A. Soil Preparation consists of the following steps: Turning and loosening
the soil is one of the most important jobs in agriculture. Tilling or plowing
is the process of loosening and turning the soil.
B. Sowing: When seeds are sown at the right depths and distances, they
provide a healthy yield. After selecting healthy seeds, a good variety of
seeds is sowed. Seed drills are used to sow the seeds.
C. Adding Fertilizers and Manure: Organic manure and fertilizers must
be used to replenish and improve the soil. With the advent of new crop
varieties, the use of chemical fertilizers has skyrocketed.
 Inorganic chemicals containing nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium,
and phosphorus are known as fertilizers. They are manufactured in
factories. Urea, ammonium sulfate, potash, and other similar
substances are examples.
 Microbes decompose plant and animal wastes (cow dung, animal
bones, dead leaves, dead insects, and vegetable wastes) to produce
manure, a natural product.
 Irrigation is the process of providing water to crops at regular intervals.
 Irrigation Systems:
A. Moat, Chain Pump, Dheki, Rahat are all traditional irrigation methods.
 B. Sprinkler systems and drip irrigation are two modern irrigation methods.
 Weed Control or Protection from Weeds: Weeding is the process of
removing undesired and uncultivated plants known as weeds.
 Harvesting is the process of manually or mechanically cutting the
mature crop.
 Storage to keep grains safe from pests and bacteria must be stored
properly. Foodgrains are usually harvested with more moisture than is
required for storage. To keep grains safe from pests like rodents and
insects, they are stored in silos and granaries on a large scale. Jute
bags or metal bins are used by farmers to store crops.
 Food is also obtained from animals that have been bred for the purpose
of providing food. Animal husbandry is the term for this.

What is a Crop?
Crops are plants belonging to the same kind that are grown and cultivated as
a staple source of food in extensive cultivable lands.

Types of Crops
Depending on the seasons in India, there are two primary types of crops- Rabi
crops and Kharif crops.
(a) Kharif Crops: The Kharif crops are usually sown during the rainy season-
from July to October.
Examples of Kharif crops- Maise, Paddy, Cotton, Soybean and Groundnut
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(b) Rabi Crops: The Rabi crops are usually grown during the winter season-
from October to March.
Examples of Rabi crops- wheat, pea, linseed, grams, and mustard.
There is another type of crop produced in India, known as Zaid crops.

Practices of Crop Production

There are seven basic and primary agricultural practices to be followed while
growing a crop:
a. Preparation of Soil: The first step is the preparation of soil, where
farmers loosen and turn the soil to increase its fertility.
b. Sowing: In the second step i.e. Sowing, farmers plant seeds of a crop
in the soil.
c. Addition of Manure and Fertilisers: In the third step, essential
nutrients are added to the soil for the development and growth of crops.
d. Irrigation: In the fourth step i.e. irrigation, water is supplied to the crops
at timed and regular intervals.
 e. Protection from Weeds: In the fifth step, all the unwanted plants are
removed from the cultivated field to allow crops to get proper access to
space, nutrients and light.
f. Harvesting: In the sixth step, farmers cut mature crops from the fields.
g. Storage: In the final step, the grains are kept safe from insects,
moisture, rats and other microorganisms.

Quality of the Seeds

The quality of crop seed is an essential factor that determines the yield of the
crop. The selection of good crop seeds is a process done by putting the crops
seeds in water. The dead and damaged crop seeds become hollow and float
on the surface of the water, whereas the excellent crop seeds sink at the
bottom of the water.

Chapter 2 - Microorganisms: Friend and Foe

Micro-Organisms:
 There are numerous organisms living around us that we may not be
able to see. We can see some of them through a magnifying glass, like
the fungus on bread. Some others are so small that they cannot be
seen without a microscope.
 These organisms that cannot be seen by unaided eyes are termed
microorganisms or microbes.
 The Microorganisms can be Broadly Classified as:
a. Bacteria - They are a group of prokaryotic organisms (does not have
membrane-bound nucleus or organelles) that constitute a major part of
microorganisms. They can inhabit soil, water, and every other habit
found on earth. They can be a few micrometers in length and can be of
various shapes like spheres, rods, or spirals. Example - Escherichia
coli, coliform bacteria, etc.
b. Fungi - They are a group of eukaryotic organisms (have a membrane-
bound nucleus and organelles) that are usually heterotrophic in nature.
Examples - Penicillium, bread mold, mushroom, etc.
c. Protozoa - They are a group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms that
may be parasitic or living independently and are heterotrophic (cannot
prepare their own food) in nature. Example - Amoeba, paramecium, etc.
d. Algae - They are a group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms that
are predominantly aquatic. Example - Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, etc.
 These groups of microorganisms may be harmful or useful in nature.
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 The virus is also a microorganism, but they differ from the others in this
group as they can reproduce only in the body of a host, be it animals,
plants, or humans. Example - AIDS, herpes, rubella, zika, etc.

Where do Microorganisms Live?

 The microorganism may be single-celled or unicellular as in bacteria,
protozoa or they may be multicellular as in fungi, animals, etc.
 They can survive in water, air and all kinds of environmental conditions
like extreme cold climate to even the hot springs, deserts, and marshy
lands. Some of them even live inside the body of animals, and even
humans.
 Some of them grow on their own whereas others thrive on the body of
other animals.

Microorganisms and us:

It is to be noted that these microorganisms play a vital role in our lives. Some
of them may be beneficial to us whereas some of them may have an adverse
and harmful effect on us.

Friendly Use of Microorganisms:

Microorganisms can be put to multiple uses, be it in the making of alcohol,
bread, cake, or medicines or in agriculture or cleaning the environment.
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a. Making of Curd and Bread:

 A bacterium, namely lactobacillus, multiplies in milk converting it
into curd. The making of cheese, pickles, and various other food
products also involve the use of bacteria.
 The process of fermentation conversion of sugar to alcohol that
is required in the rice batter for making idlis and dosa is again
helped by bacteria and yeast.
 When yeast is added to a dough, it reproduces rapidly releasing
carbon dioxide which bubbles into the dough, making it rise. This
property of yeast is used to make bread, cakes, etc.

b. Commercial Use of Microorganisms:

 Yeast is an ingredient that is widely used in the production of
alcohol, wine, and vinegar. This is done by growing yeast on the
natural sugar present in the fruit juices like grapes, grains like
barley, wheat, rice, etc.
  The sugars are converted to alcohol by fermentation.
c. Medicinal Use of Microorganisms:
 The source of the widely used medicines, antibiotics(medicines
that stop or kill the disease-causing agents) are again
microorganisms.
 These are manufactured by growing specific as a cure for various
diseases.
 Some of the antibiotics are streptomycin, erythromycin,
azithromycin, etc.
d. Vaccine:
 A disease-causing microorganism called a pathogen produces
antibodies against it when it enters our body. These antibodies
are retained in our body and we are protected from that disease
forever.
 A Vaccine is a biological substance that initiates the production of
antibodies for a specific disease. Thus a vaccination protects us
from that specific disease.
 Children are generally vaccinated for many diseases like polio,
tuberculosis, chickenpox, hepatitis, etc. Smallpox has been
eradicated this way. And currently, the Covid vaccine is doing the
same.
e. Increasing Soil Fertility:
 There are some bacteria, like rhizobium that are present in the
soil, generally in the roots of leguminous plants, that are capable
of fixing the atmospheric nitrogen to enrich the soil with nitrogen
which increases the fertility of the soil and the yield of the crop.
f. Cleaning the Environment:
 Some of the microorganisms have the ability to decompose dead
organic matter and convert them into simpler substances or
manure that can be reused for animals or plants, making the
environment clean.

Harmful Uses of Microorganisms:

They can be harmful in numerous ways to humans, plants, and animals and
cause diseases. As stated, the disease-causing microorganisms are known by
the name of pathogens.

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a. Disease-Causing Microorganisms in Humans:

  The harmful pathogens enter the body of humans by means of
air, water, or food. They can then spread to others by contact with
the infected person or through an animal or insect.
 The diseases that can spread from an infected person to a
healthy person by means of air, water, or contact are termed
communicable diseases. Examples - plague, chickenpox,
tuberculosis, common cold, and the current Covid 19 infections.
 These disease-bearing microorganisms are sometimes carried by
insects and animals then they are termed as carriers of that
disease. For example - the female anopheles mosquito is the
carrier of Plasmodium that causes malaria.
 The mode of transmission, type of microorganism, the disease
caused by these microorganisms, and their prevention differ from
each other as shown below:

 The prevention of these diseases follows a general pattern of

keeping the affected person and his belongings isolated, personal
hygiene, proper sanitary practices, drinking boiled and clean
water, controlling breeding sites of mosquitoes, consuming
properly cooked food, and above vaccination against all these
diseases on schedule.
b. Disease-Causing Microorganisms in Animals:
Many of the microorganisms are a cause of certain diseases in animals too. A
few of the diseases found in animals is as shown below:

c. Disease-Causing Microorganisms in Plants:

Many microorganisms are responsible for diseases in plants of potato, rice,
wheat, sugarcane, etc reducing the quality and quantity of the yield of the
crops. These diseases can be controlled by the use of chemicals that destroys
these organisms. Some of the diseases of plants are listed as below:

d. Food Poisoning:
When the microorganisms contaminate the food, they sometimes produce
toxic substances which leads to the ill health of a person consuming it and has
health problems like vomiting and needs to be taken to a hospital. This
condition of consuming food contaminated with microorganisms is called food
poisoning.

Preservation of food:
As discussed above, contamination of the food by microorganisms leads to a
change in the color and taste of the food. Several methods can be followed to
prevent this microorganism attack Some of them are as follows:
a. Chemical method: Generally salts and edible oils are used to control their
growth and these are termed preservatives. Example - salt in pickles, sodium
benzoate in jams.
b. Common salt: This is a common practice where meat and fish or some
fruits like raw mangoes, tamarind, etc are covered with salt to last them for
longer periods.
c. Sugar: Some food items like jams and jellies are preserved in sugar which
reduces the moisture to inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
d. Oil and vinegar: This is also used commonly as the microorganisms
cannot live in such conditions. This is widely used in making pickles.
e. Heat and cold treatments: It is a common practice to boil milk in order to
store it. The method of heating milk to eliminate the microbes present in it is
called pasteurization. Similarly storing food at low temperatures also prevents
the growth of these microbes.

Nitrogen Cycle:
 The nitrogen cycle can be defined as a biochemical process of
circulating the nitrogen in the atmosphere, through soil,
organisms, and back to the atmosphere.
 The nitrogen present in the atmosphere cannot be consumed by
plants or animals directly.
 This nitrogen needs to be converted to nitrogenous compounds
by some bacteria in the soil.
 This converted form of nitrogen is used by the plants and when
the animals feed on them they get that.
 The fungi and bacteria in the soil convert the nitrogen present in
dead plants and animals to either gaseous or compounds that are
reused by the plants.
 Thus the balance of nitrogen is maintained in the atmosphere.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. Name the four major groups of microorganisms.
 2. Are viruses microscopic?
3. Where do microorganisms live?
4. Define fermentation.
5. Who discovered the smallpox vaccine and when?

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What are antibiotics?
2. What are communicable disease?
3. Name microorganisms that cause disease in plants and animals.
4. Name few common chemicals that are generally used to check the
growth of the organisms.
5. What actions should be taken to prevent the communicable diseases?

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Explain Nitrogen Cycle with diagram.
2. What preventive measures should be taken if a person suffers from
tuberculosis, cholera, hepatitis-A, and Malaria?
3. Explain the process of fermentation.

Chapter 11 - Force and Pressure

Definition of Force:
 Force is defined as a push or a pull on an object, which changes or
tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion of the object.
 It may lead to a change in the direction or shape of the object.
 Some of the cases which involve force are simple actions like opening a
pencil box/lunch box, kicking a football, lifting a box, pushing a chair
etc.
 In all these cases, a push or pull is being exerted on the object to
change its state of motion. Like the closed pencil box is being opened,
the football moves on kicking etc.
Unit of force: Force is represented in the SI units as Newton.
Effects of Force:
1. A force is a resultant of the interaction between two objects. If we
consider football, then it will not move unless a person kicks it. So, it is an
interaction between the person and the football which creates a force that
results in its movement.
2. A force has strength which is known as magnitude as well as direction.
The magnitude of the applied force can be large, small or it can also be
equal. The force can be applied in the same or opposite direction to each
other. These change the effect of the force on the object. It is easy to push
a heavy object in the same direction by two people instead of two people
pushing it in opposite directions to move it.
3. A force may bring about a change in the speed or the direction of
motion or both of an object. This implies that the object has undergone a
change in its state of motion. If we consider a football being kicked by a
player, then the kick sets the stationary ball into motion towards the
direction in which it is being kicked. The amount of force exerted on the
object decides the speed of the object.
4. A force that is acting on an object may tend to bring a change in its
shape. The dough can be rolled into chapatis by applying force and rolling
them.
5. A force can act on an object by being in contact with it or by not being in
contact with it.

Types of Forces:
There are two types of forces based on whether the force acting on the object
is by being in contact with it or not. Further, each of them can be subdivided
according to the type of contact or non-contact force being applied.
1. Contact Forces: A force that acts on an object when it is in contact with the
body is called a contact force. The point of application of force on the object is
called the point of application of the force or the point of contact.
The contact forces can be categorised as follows:
 Muscular Force: A force that is exerted as the result of the action of
the muscles in our body is termed a muscular force. We use the
muscular force to carry out some of our bodily actions like breathing,
digestion etc. The animals like buffalo, camels or horses use their
muscular force to get activities done for us like ploughing, pulling, or
carrying the load.
 Frictional Force: A frictional force is one that opposes the motion of an
object and it always acts in the direction opposite to the motion of the
object. This can be understood when a boat stops moving when we
 stop rowing. This is due to the frictional force between the boat and the
water.
2. Non-Contact Forces: A force that does not involve any kind of physical
contact between two objects on which they act is called a non-contact force.
The non-contact forces can be categorised as follows:
 Magnetic Force: A force exerted by a magnet on objects made of iron,
steel, cobalt, or nickel without being in contact with them is termed as a
magnetic force.
 Electrostatic Force: A force that is exerted by a charged body on
another charged or uncharged body is termed as an electrostatic force.
It may result in the repulsion of similar charges like if we bring two
straws rubbed with paper charged�ℎ����� near each other and
attraction of opposite charges if we bring a charged straw near an
uncharged straw.
 Gravitational Force: A force that is exerted by each and every object in
the world on another object which is an attractive force, is termed as
gravitational force.

Pressure:
1. The unit force that acts on the per unit area of a surface is called
pressure. The relationship between pressure and force can be defined as,
Pressure=forceareaonwhichitacts��������=�����
�������ℎ��ℎ������.
2. It is easy to push a nail into a wooden board with its pointed end instead
of the head as the smaller area exerts a larger pressure for the same
amount of force and the nail goes into the wood easily with one push.
3. The unit of measurement for pressure in the SI system, is Newton per
square metre which is equal to 1 Pascal (Pa).
4. It is seen that fluids and gases also exert pressure like solids.
5. A solid generally exerts pressure in the downward direction only, which
is mostly due to its weight.
6. On the contrary, liquids and gases exert pressure in all directions. It can
be noted that when a water pipe leaks, you can see fountains of water
coming in all directions. This is because the water exerts pressure on the
wall of the pipes. Similarly, when a balloon has holes, the air escapes in
all directions. So this shows that the liquids and gases exert pressure on
the walls of their container.

Atmosphere:
 1. The thick blanket of air that surrounds the earth above its surface is
termed as atmosphere.
2. The pressure that is exerted by this column of air in the atmosphere is
called atmospheric pressure. It is this pressure that allows a rubber
sucker to stay attached to the surface.
3. We cannot feel this tremendous atmospheric pressure that surrounds
us. This is so because the fluid pressure inside our bodies actually
counter-balances the atmospheric pressure that surrounds us.

Chapter 12 - Friction Notes

1. Friction: The force that opposes the relative motion between two surfaces
of objects when they come in contact. Frictional force always acts in a
direction opposite to the direction of applied force.

2. What are the causes of Friction?

Frictional force comes into play between two surfaces due to irregularities on
the surfaces of the objects coming in contact, causing interlocking of micro-
level irregularities between the two surfaces and ploughing of harder surfaces
into smoother surfaces.

Factors Affecting Friction:

a. The roughness of the surface is present.
b. The extent by which the two surfaces can be pressed together.
c. Nature of the surfaces coming in contact.

Types of Friction:
a. Static Friction: When a body is at rest, the force of friction acting on it is
known as static friction. This force is always equal and opposite to the applied
force on the object. The force which is acting, when the body is just at the
point of sliding on the surface is known as limiting friction.
b. Sliding friction: The frictional force which opposes the sliding motion
between two surfaces which are in contact. Sliding friction is generally smaller
than static friction.
c. Rolling Friction: The frictional force which is present between the two
surfaces when one body rolls over the other body. The rolling frictional force is
usually smaller than sliding frictional force.

Effects of Friction:
a. Friction generates heat.
b. Friction is responsible for causing wear and tear in tyres.
c. Frictional force always opposes motion.

Advantages of Friction:
a. It is due to friction between pen and paper which allows us to write on
paper.
b. Frictional force between our feet and the ground allows our
movements like standing, walking and running.
c. Frictional force between the surface of the road and tyres of our
vehicles allows the vehicles to move on the road without slipping.

Disadvantages of Friction
a. Due to friction, moving objects tend to stop or slow down as their
motion is opposed.
b. Due to friction heat is generated leading to wastage of energy in
machines.
c. Friction is responsible for the wear and tear of moving parts of
machinery, soles of shoes, and tyres on the road after some time.

3. Friction is a necessary evil. why?

Friction has advantages so considered a friend but due also has some
disadvantages, then it is a foe. Depending on the circumstance, friction could
be of help or could be a problem. Therefore, it is a necessary evil.

4. How can we Increase Friction?

 a. We can increase friction by pressing the surfaces together very
strongly. For example, when we apply brakes while riding a bicycle or
car, the brake pads are pressed against a moving part of the wheel
which leads to increased friction force.
b. Friction can also be increased by increasing the roughness of the
surfaces which are coming in contact. For example, the threading of
shoes and tires is done to increase friction which causes its movement
on the road without slipping.

5. How can we reduce friction?

a. Frictional force acting between the sliding surfaces of two objects can
be reduced by making the surfaces in contact smooth by polishing
them.
b. Sliding friction between the moving parts of vehicles and machinery can
be reduced by applying oil, grease, graphite or any other lubricant. The
rolling frictional force is usually smaller than the sliding frictional force.
Hence, sliding friction is generally replaced by rolling friction by using
rollers, like ball bearings are used between the hub and the axles in the
moving parts of machines and vehicles.
c. Friction can be reduced by providing wheels, hence used in suitcases,
and school bags of kids.

6. The body of aeroplanes, boats, fishes and birds are able to move through
fluids because of their streamlined shape, in order to reduce the friction due to
fluid and avoid any energy loss.

 Causes of Friction
Class 8 Science friction notes explain the main factors for production to be the
roughness of the surface, the intensity with which two objects are pressed
together, and the nature of the surface itself.

 Different Types of Friction

Friction can be of various kinds:
1. Static Friction: This frictional force is applicable when a body remains
at rest. Static friction is equal, and opposite to the force applied, at all
times. However, when the body is just on the verge of setting into
motion, the force is called limiting friction.
2. Sliding Friction: This force resists actual relative sliding motion.
 3. Rolling Friction: This frictional force comes into existence when one
body rolls over another body. It should be noted in this regard that
rolling friction will remain less than sliding friction.

 Impact of Friction
A few of the main effects of friction as discussed in chapter 12 friction class 8
notes are:
1. Production of heat.
2. Causing wear and tear in an object.
3. Offers resistance to an actual motion.

 Benefits of Friction
The primary benefit of the frictional force is to enable objects to move. We can
move over the ground or write on paper due to the existence of friction.
Vehicles can move on the road because of the frictional force between tyres
and the surface of the road. Friction prevents vehicles from slipping on the
road.

 Disadvantages of Friction
The disadvantages of friction are that it may slow down or stop the motion of
objects, and also cause the generation of heat. Such heat can lead to energy
wastage in machines. It can also cause wear and tear.