Electric Motors

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : General Engineering For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: AGE-102.08 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Electric Motors
Section Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
MOTOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS........................................................................... 5
Incentives for Using Electric Motors........................................................................... 5
Advantages........................................................................................................... 5
Disadvantages...................................................................................................... 5
Motor Types Applied to Plant Services ...................................................................... 6
General................................................................................................................. 6
Squirrel Cage Induction Motors ............................................................................ 6
Salient Pole Synchronous Motors......................................................................... 7
Induction Versus Synchronous Motors ............................................................... 11
Single Phase Motors .......................................................................................... 12
Direct Current Motors ......................................................................................... 16
Motor Classification.................................................................................................. 19
NEMA Design Classifications for General Purpose Induction Motors................. 19
Hazardous Locations—Enclosure Classifications .................................................... 20
MOTOR ENCLOSURES ............................................................................................... 21
Drip-Proof Enclosures.............................................................................................. 22
Weather-Protected Type I Enclosures (WP-I).......................................................... 22
Weather-Protected Type II Enclosures (WP-II)........................................................ 22
Totally Enclosed Forced Ventilated Enclosures (TEFV) .......................................... 23
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled Enclosures (TEFC)* .................................................. 23
Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEFC/CACA)*................................ 23
Totally Enclosed Water-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEWAC) ................................... 24
Explosion-Proof Enclosures ..................................................................................... 24
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS............................................................................ 25
Motor and Plant Power Factor ................................................................................. 25
Speed and Slip......................................................................................................... 26
Standard Motor Horsepower Ratings....................................................................... 27
Voltage Levels for Motors ........................................................................................ 27
Motor Efficiency (See Work Aid 10) ......................................................................... 28
Motor Service Factor................................................................................................ 28
VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS ....................................................................................... 29
MOTOR CONTROL ...................................................................................................... 31
Starting AC Induction Motors ................................................................................... 32
Voltage Drop ............................................................................................................ 33
Unloading Motor-Driven Compressors for Starting .................................................. 33
Reduced Voltage Starting Methods for Induction Motors......................................... 34
Synchronous Motor Starting Methods...................................................................... 35
Motor Re-acceleration.............................................................................................. 36
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Electric Motors
MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS ....................................................................... 37

TYPICAL MOTOR PROBLEMS .................................................................................... 39
WORK AID 1: INCENTIVES FOR USING ELECTRIC MOTORS................................. 40
WORK AID 2: ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION VERSUS SYNCHRONOUS
MOTORS ...................................................................................................................... 41
WORK AID 3: GUIDELINE FOR THE APPLICATION OF INDUCTION AND
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS ......................................................................................... 42
WORK AID 4: SUMMARY OF POLYPHASE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS............... 43
WORK AID 5: SUMMARY OF DC AND SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR
CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................................... 44
WORK AID 6: AREA ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATIONS............................................. 45
WORK AID 7: TYPICAL SHAFT SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS MOTORS (RPM).............. 46
WORK AID 8: STANDARD MOTOR HORSEPOWER RATINGS ................................ 47
WORK AID 9: VOLTAGE LEVELS FOR MOTORS...................................................... 48
WORK AID 10: TYPICAL EFFICIENCY AND POWER FACTORS OF
SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS (1) ............................................................... 49
WORK AID 11: SIMPLIFIED MOTOR PROTECTION SCHEMES ............................... 51
WORK AID 12: MOTOR PROTECTION CURVES....................................................... 53
WORK AID 13: MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS ............................................. 54
WORK AID 14: ELECTRICAL FORMULAS ................................................................. 55
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 56
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 58
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Electric Motors
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Typical Rotor, Stator Construction for Large Squirrel-Cage Motor -------------- 8
Figure 2. Wound-Rotor Motor ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Figure 3. Synchronous Motors---------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Figure 4. Single Phase Motors---------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Figure 5. DC Motors ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
Figure 6. Synchronous Speed of Induction and Synchronous Motors -------------------- 42
Figure 7. Mechanical Induced Draft Type Cooling Tower Handling Process
Cooling Water ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 45
Figure 8. Simplified Motor Protection Schemes ------------------------------------------------ 51
Figure 9. Simplified Motor Protection Schemes (Cont’d)------------------------------------- 52
Figure 10. Motor Protection Curves --------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Electric Motors
INTRODUCTION
More electric motors are used to drive pumps and compressors

than all the other driver types combined. The motor sizes in use
in refineries and gas plants range from fractions of one
horsepower (hp) up to 30,000 hp. Large numbers of motors up
to 10,000 hp are in use in refineries and gas plants. A limited
number in the 10,000 to 20,000 hp range are in use.
Electric motors require individual engineering attention in

proportion to their power ratings. Those under 250 hp are
highly standardized and require very little individual attention.
Many motors in the 800 to 1500-hp range, and all motors above
1500 hp, require individual attention to process design,
procurement, detailed engineering, testing and commissioning.
Electric motors have achieved wide acceptance in refinery and

gas plant services for the following reasons:
• Electrical distribution systems and equipment are designed

to minimize voltage fluctuations and service interruptions in
both public utility networks and in-plant systems.
• Electric generation facilities are reliable.
• Motor enclosures and cooling systems have been

developed for safe operation in a wide variety of industrial
environments.
• The cost of electric power has declined in many locations

over time.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Electric Motors
MOTOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

Incentives for Using Electric Motors
Advantages
The most attractive feature of electric motor drives for large
machinery is the low investment requirement. Equipment cost
is slightly lower for motors than for steam turbines, but the in-
plant utility system investment requirement is much lower.
Other advantages of electric motors over other available drive

types are:
• Little mechanical or performance deterioration over very

long runs.
• Low maintenance costs.
• Marginally higher equipment reliability than other drive
types.
• Quick startup, requiring less operator manipulation of the
driver than other drive types.
• Simple operation with minimal monitoring. No speed
governing system required.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of electric motor drivers are:
• Energy costs are usually higher than for other driver types.
• Purchased power rates are subject to increases beyond user
control during the economic life of the process unit.
• Reliability is completely dependent on the continuity of
electric power service. Supply continuity, in turn, depends on
weather, power generation/distribution system design and utility
company management factors that are not within the direct
control of the plant operations and management.• Quick start
requires more care in preparing the process for startup than the
gradual startup capability of other driver types.
• Constant speed occasionally limits process flexibility. This
is overcome by throttling or recycling for control, which
reduces overall efficiency.

Electric Motors
Motor Types Applied to Plant Services
General
Three types of polyphase (three-phase) ac motors are used for
nearly all plant pump, fan and compressor services:
• Squirrel-cage induction motors.
• Wound Rotor Induction motors.
• Synchronous (motors.
The induction motor is by far the most common. It is used for

most motor drives for pumps and compressors. The
synchronous motor is mainly used to drive low-speed
reciprocating machines.
Squirrel Cage
Induction Motors
The polyphase induction motor has a rugged and simple design
and is the most common driver used in industry.
The motor has two main parts, the stator and the rotor. See
Figure 1. The stator is a cylindrical iron core with insulated
windings arranged around the inner periphery of the core. The
stator is mounted in an enclosure.
The rotor is a cylindrical iron core mounted on a shaft and fitted

inside the stator. The rotor windings of a squirrel-cage induction
motor consist of a number of copper or aluminum bars fitted
lengthwise in the core and connected at each end to a ring: thus
the term "squirrel cage." There is no direct electrical connection
to the rotor winding.
A wound rotor induction motor has a rotor winding similar to the

stator winding. A variable resistor can be added to the rotor to
give some speed control. See Figure 2.

Electric Motors
A source of polyphase (three-phase for all high-power motors)

voltage is connected to the stator winding through the motor
starter. Most squirrel-cage motors are single-speed, although
the speed varies slightly with load, but two-speed and three-
speed motors are commercially available.
Squirrel cage motors use bearing construction similar to other

types of medium-speed rotating machines. Greased ball
bearings are most common in motors under 200 hp. Oil-
lubricated sleeve bearings are normally used for larger motors.
Salient Pole
Synchronous Motors
Salient pole synchronous motors are similar to squirrel-cage
motors except for their rotors. The rotor, or field, consists of a
number of iron core pole pieces arranged around a central hub
on the shaft. Each pole has an insulated winding. All pole
windings are connected together. They are energized by a
direct current source. Also mounted on the poles is a
squirrel-cage-like structure called an amortisseur winding. See
Figure 3.
Motor startup is similar to a squirrel-cage motor on the

amortisseur winding and when the motor approaches
synchronous speed, the dc field winding is energized. The
motor then runs at a constant speed, equal to synchronous
speed, regardless of load variations, unless the load exceeds
the capability of the motor.
Synchronous motors may have slip rings and brushes to

connect the dc voltage to the rotating field. Newer synchronous
motors do not require slip rings and brushes and are known as
brushless synchronous motors. Brushless motors are preferred
for hazardous locations, because they have no arcing or
sparking contacts.
Compared to synchronous motors, squirrel-cage induction

motors can be economically built to operate at high efficiency at
lower speed.

Electric Motors
With permission from Power Magazine
Figure 1. Typical Rotor, Stator Construction for

Large Squirrel-Cage Motor

Electric Motors
Figure 2. Wound-Rotor Motor

Electric Motors
Figure 3. Synchronous Motors

Electric Motors
Induction Versus
Synchronous
Motors
The relative advantages and disadvantages of induction and
synchronous motors may be summarized as follows:
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Advantages:
• Simple, rugged construction without windings on rotor.
• Lowest installed cost except for high hp ratings at low

speed.
• Can usually be re-accelerated after momentary voltage

interruption.
Disadvantages:
• Low power factor in low speed ranges.
• High starting current.
• Power factor always lagging, and low at part load.
Synchronous Motor
Advantages:
• More efficient than induction motor, by typically 2% at high

speed, more at low speed.
• Suitable for direct connection without gears, for example,
for large reciprocating compressors.
• Power factor can be 1.0 or leading.
• Less sensitive to rotor alignment and gap uniformity than
induction motors.
• Lower installed cost at speed below approximately 500 rpm
(for ratings above 150 bhp).

Electric Motors
Disadvantages:
• Control equipment more costly than for induction motors.
• More complex construction.
• Higher maintenance.
• Higher installed cost for most applications.
• Difficult to re-accelerate after momentary voltage

interruption.
• Requires dc power supply for the field.
The general range speed and power ranges for major motor
types are discussed later in this module and in Work Aid 3.
Single Phase
Motors
Single-phase motors are used mainly for low hp applications.
See Figure 4. The starting method is a major consideration in
selecting a single-phase motor, because single-phase squirrel-
cage motors are not self-starting on a single winding. Single-
phase motors must have an auxiliary means for developing
starting torque.
Basic types of single-phase motors include split-phase,

capacitor, and repulsion-start. With the exception of some
forms of the repulsion design, all run as induction motors.
Split-phase design is the simplest. It has a squirrel-cage rotor

and two stator windings spaced 90 electrical degrees apart.
Auxiliary or starting winding poles are physically halfway
between main winding poles. Split-phase motors have low
starting torque, high starting current. They are used for small
fans and unit heaters.
Repulsion-start motors have a rotor winding connected to a

commutator. Heavy starting torque diminishes as the motor
comes up to speed. Applications include compressors, pumps,
stokers, blowers.

Electric Motors
Capacitor-start motors use a modified auxiliary winding and

centrifugal switch with a capacitor in series to give good starting
characteristics. They are used interchangeably with the
repulsion-start type.
Variations of this design include the capacitor-run motor, which

has the capacitor permanently connected in series with the
auxiliary winding. In the same family is the capacitor-start-and-
run motor that has an electrolytic capacitor in series with the
auxiliary winding only during the starting period. A liquid-filled
capacitor is permanently in series with the auxiliary winding.
Reversing rotation of many single-phase motors requires

interchanging leads on either the auxiliary or running winding.
Repulsion-type motors can be reversed by reconnecting the
field winding or brushes.
Performance of single-phase designs varies with the motor.

Permanent capacitor motors have very low starting and pull-in
torques; about 50% of full-load torque. They also have a
rather low full-load speed. The load's torque needs must be
checked carefully before applying this design, because the
torque required to accelerate the load may exceed that
developed by the motor.
Split-phase designs offer starting and pull-in torques from 150%

to 230% of the full-load value. Capacitor-start and capacitor-
start-and-run motors have starting torques from 350% to 450%
of the full-load torque. Pull-up value is about 200% of the full-
load torque.
Repulsion-start motors have starting torques in the 350% to

550% range. Their pull-up torque is slightly less than for
capacitor start motors, but their starting currents are less than in
any other single-phase design.

Electric Motors
With permission from Power Magazine.
Figure 4. Single Phase Motors

Electric Motors
With Permission from Power Magazine
Figure 4. Single Phase Motors - Auxiliary Starting (Cont’d)

Electric Motors
Direct Current
Motors
The development of highly efficient, low-maintenance rectifiers
and the growing need for adjustable speed have made the
direct current motor popular again. Industrial plants seldom
generate direct current for their power needs. Motor/generator
sets or rectifying equipment are located alongside production
machines. Short dc leads are run directly to the motor.
The dc motor is used where an ac motor will not perform

satisfactorily. Direct current motors cost more, especially in
larger sizes, but they offer adjustable speed and effective and
simple control of torque, acceleration, and deceleration. Even
with the limitations of a commutator they can handle tough duty
cycles. The need for critical speed adjustment and continuous
processes often finds dc motors operating in tandem, with
speeds of each unit changing proportionally over a wide range.
The maximum economical dc-motor size is usually not

exceeded so long as the product of horsepower and speed is
less than 1.5 million; for example, 250 V for units up to 500 hp,
600 V for 600 to 1000 hp, 700 or 900 V above 1000 hp.
Classes - Direct current motors are divided into three classes:

series, shunt, and compound. The armature is similar in all
three. The main difference between motors is in field coils and
hookup. (See Figure 5).
Series design is the simplest of the three. Because the

armature and field are in series, the field is wound with
conductors large enough to carry armature current without big
losses. The high ratio of no-load to full-load speed leads to
using the series motor in hoist and traction work where the
speed must vary inversely with load. But this same speed
characteristic makes it necessary to positively connect the
motor to the load through couplings or gears. A series motor
without load will race at high speed. In larger sizes, the series
motor will be destroyed by centrifugal force on runaway or
extremely high speed.
To prevent dangerous changes in field strength, series motors

are sometimes modified to include a small shunt winding that is

Electric Motors
strong enough to prevent the motor from reaching excessive

speeds without changing its characteristics.
Shunt motors have their armature and fields in parallel, giving

essentially constant field strength and motor speed. This design
is used both for constant speed (little application) and adjustable
speed applications. In constant-speed applications, variation
between no load and full load is 5% to 12%.
Shunt
With
permission from Power Magazine
Figure 5. DC Motors

Electric Motors
The speed of a shunt motor is adjusted by a rheostat in the field

circuit. This adjustment may be as much as 2 to 1 on small
units at moderate speeds, but decreases with larger ratings and
higher speeds. A final point: Torque varies directly as armature
current.
The compound-wound motor combines series and shunt. The

compound design is used for drives needing fairly high starting
torque and reasonably constant running speed. The shunt field,
usually predominant, is parallel with the armature. The series
field is in series with the armature. By varying the series-field
strength, speed regulation can be increased to that of a series
motor.
Because of the series winding, compound motor speed is not as

constant for varying loads as the speed of a shunt motor.
Normal shunt design varies less than 10% from no load to full
load. In contrast, compound motor speed varies about 25%.
Power supplies for dc motors are usually made up of a number

of dc conversion points close to load centers. Local rectifiers
with short dc secondaries have replaced central conversion.
Motor generator sets and rectifying equipment follow the
"packaged" theme. In large applications, the packages are full
unit substations with ac circuit-breaker equipment, stepdown
transformer, dc conversion unit, and dc circuit breakers.
A summary of motor types and applications is given in Work

Aids 4 and 5.

Electric Motors
Motor Classification
NEMA Design
Classifications for
General Purpose
Induction Motors
National Electrical Manufacturer's Association (NEMA)
standards characterize several design classifications for
induction motors according to their speed-torque characteristics,
starting (locked rotor) current level, and full load slip range. Of
the four design classes defined (A, B, C, D), B is preferred and
most widely applied to pumps and compressors. Designs C and
D are occasionally applied where high starting torque is
required.
The specific speed-torque and speed-current characteristics of

each type vary with motor rating, so that quantitative
comparisons are valid only for specific ratings.
Design B motors have "normal" starting torque and a starting

current acceptable to most power systems. This design has a
relatively high breakdown torque (about 200% in sizes over 10
HP) and low slip. These motors are used on fans, machine
tools, and centrifugal pumps.

Electric Motors
Comparison of Characteristics for NEMA Design Types
NEMA Starting Starting Breakdow Full-Load Typical Application

n Torque Slip
Design Torque Current
Machine Tools, Centrifugal Pumps,

A Normal Normal High
Fans
B Normal Low High Low Same as for Design A
C High Low Normal Low Loaded Compressor,Loaded Conveyor
Very
D Low --------- High Punch Presses
High
Above
E Low Very Low Very Low Fans ( Large)
Normal
Hazardous Locations—Enclosure Classifications
Hazardous locations are classified by the National Electric

Code. Class I usually applies to refinery, chemical, and gas
plants. Within this class are two divisions. Division 1 locations
are those in which hazardous concentrations of flammable
gases or vapors exist, either continuously or periodically during
normal conditions. Division 2 locations are those in which
flammable gases are handled, processed, or used but are
normally confined within closed systems from which the gas can
escape only in the event of accidental breakdown or abnormal
operation. (See Work Aid 6.)
In Division 1 areas, all electrical equipment must be approved

as explosion-proof or intrinsically safe. Motors must be
explosion-proof.

Electric Motors
In Division 2 locations, motors without sparking contacts need

not be explosion-proof and only need enclosures suitable for
protection against weather and other ambient conditions. This
permits use of non-explosion- proof squirrel-cage or brushless
synchronous motors. Conventional synchronous motors, when
collector rings are housed in approved enclosures, are also
acceptable.
Within Class I, four groups of hazardous materials are defined.

Group D is the most common in refinery and gas plant
compressor and pump applications. The group classifications
are:
Group A - Atmospheres containing acetylene.
Group B - Atmospheres containing hydrogen, or gases or

vapors of equivalent hazard, such as manufactured
gas.
Group C - Ethyl ether, ethylene, or cyclopropane vapors.
Group D - Gasoline, hexane, naphtha, benzene, butane,

propane, alcohol, acetone, benzol, lacquer solvent
vapors, or natural gas.
When a location for a motor application is defined, all three

categories must be stated, such as: Class I, Division 2,
Group D.
MOTOR ENCLOSURES
Choosing a motor enclosure should be based upon the

environmental conditions under which the motor operates and
the amount of maintenance required to provide long-term
reliability and motor life. In general, the more open the
enclosure is to the atmosphere, the lower the purchase cost of
the machine but the higher the maintenance costs.
Motor enclosures are defined in NEMA MG1-1.25 and 1.26.

Enclosures frequently used in ac motors are listed below. The
motor enclosures allowed by Saudi Aramco are marked with an
asterisk (*).

Electric Motors
Drip-Proof Enclosures
Drip-proof enclosures are generally used only indoors or in

enclosed spaces not exposed to the elements. Maintenance
requirements will depend upon the general cleanliness of the
location and chemical contaminants in the area.
Drip-proof enclosures are not suitable for use in Division 1 areas

or Division 2 areas unless approved.
Weather-Protected Type I Enclosures (WP-I)
These enclosures are the least costly option for an outdoor

motor. They are essentially drip-proof guarded motors with
heaters and outdoor bearing seals and are very susceptible to
weather and atmospheric contamination. Considerable
maintenance may be required to ensure satisfactory winding
and bearing life.
They are not suitable for use in Division 1 areas or Division 2

areas unless approved.
Weather-Protected Type II Enclosures (WP-II)
These are the more commonly used outdoor enclosures. They

are more expensive than the WP-I, but minimize the entrance of
water and dirt. Maintenance is less than for WP-I types.
Chemicals in gaseous form may be carried into a WP-II
machine with the ventilating air and contaminate vulnerable
parts.
They are not suitable for use in Division 1 areas.

Electric Motors
Totally Enclosed Forced Ventilated Enclosures (TEFV)
These can be used indoors or outdoors in dirty or hazardous

environments. Since the motor cooling air comes from a remote
source, the influx of dirt and gaseous contaminants is
minimized. Maintenance is minimal depending upon the
cleanliness of the cooling air.
They can be used in Division 1 areas only if approved.
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled Enclosures (TEFC)*
Totally enclosed fan cooled enclosures offer the highest degree

of enclosure for an air-cooled machine. Internal motor air is
recirculated around the outside of the tubes while outside air is
driven through the tubes by a shaft driven fan. These motors
are costly in large sizes because of the high volume of cooling
air required. They are used in very dirty or hazardous locations.
The TEFC enclosure minimizes the maintenance required for

very dirty applications. However, the machines will breathe or
pull in surrounding air during shutdown, and vapor and gaseous
contaminants can be drawn into them. TEFC motors are noisy
because they have a large external fan.
TEFC enclosures without heat exchangers are not permitted for

motors above 15,000 hp.
TEFC enclosures can be used in Division 1 areas only if

approved.
Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEFC/CACA)*
These enclosures use an air-to-air heat exchanger to remove

heat generated by motor losses. The machine is cooled by
circulating the internal air through the heat exchanger, which in
turn is cooled by circulating external air. It is provided with an
air-to-air exchanger and a fan, integral with the rotor shaft or a
separate fan, for circulating internal air and another fan for
circulating the external air.

Electric Motors
Totally Enclosed Water-to-Air Cooled Enclosures (TEWAC)
These enclosures use a water to air heat exchanger to remove

heat generated by motor losses. It is the quietest enclosure
available and will usually result in the lowest maintenance costs.
It will breathe during shutdown, but often a breather filter is used
to remove particulate contaminants. It is more efficient than a
TEFC motor because it does not have to drive the external fan.
Its first cost is greater than WP-II but less than TEFC.
Operating costs are higher than the previously described
enclosures because of the necessity to continuously supply it
with cooling water.
Explosion-Proof Enclosures
Explosion-proof enclosures are totally enclosed and are

designed and constructed to withstand an internal explosion.
They are also designed to prevent the ignition of combustibles
surrounding the motor by sparks, flashes, or explosions within
the motor casing.
They are preferred in Division 1 areas.

Electric Motors
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Motor and Plant Power Factor
In alternating current distribution systems, amplitudes of voltage

and current vary in separate sine waves. Power factor, in its
simplest terms, describes the load-caused relationship of these
waves to one another. This relationship determines the
efficiency of the distribution system and thus the unit cost of
useful power transmitted. When these waves are in phase,
power factor is unity and the distribution system is at peak
efficiency. When these waves are displaced or out of phase
(the current wave may either lead or lag the voltage wave),
power factor is less than unity. The larger the wave
displacement, the lower the power factor and the less efficient
the distribution system becomes, with the penalty usually being
increased unit power costs.
Squirrel-cage motors always operate at a lagging power factor

that varies with load. Power factor is highest at full load and
reduces as load is decreased. Typical full-load power factors
range from 80% to 85% for small motors (10 hp and smaller)
and 90% to 95% for large motors (200 hp and larger).
Synchronous motors are available that operate at a power factor

of one or at 80% leading power factor. With constant field
excitation, power factor will vary with load. Most synchronous
motors operate at a power factor of one.
Occasionally, synchronous motors are selected instead of

induction motors because they can raise the overall plant power
factor and may therefore reduce the cost of purchased power.
Raising plant power factor also releases existing generator and
transformer capacity for additional load. Without such
improvement, most plants would run with a lagging power factor
of about 85% to 90%.
However, many things must be considered in any effort to

improve plant power factor and an electrical specialist should be
consulted before a synchronous motor is selected for this
purpose.

Electric Motors
Speed and Slip
An induction motor does not run at a constant speed. Its speed

varies from very close to synchronous speed at no load to a
speed as much as 5% less than synchronous speed (or 5% slip)
at full load. Slip is usually expressed in percent of synchronous
speed. Synchronous motors operate at synchronous speed,
from no load to full load, with no slip.
Typical Shaft Speeds For Various Motors (rpm)
Synchronous Motors Induction Motors*
Poles 60 Hertz 60 Hertz
2 3600 3545
4 1800 1772
6 1200 1182
8 900 886
10 720 709
12 600 591
14 514.3 506
16 450 443
18 400
20 360
22 327.2
24 300**
* Slip varies inversely with motor size and speed and ranges
from 0.5% and 5.0%; 1.5% slip is typical.
** Still lower speeds for unusual applications.

Electric Motors
Standard Motor Horsepower Ratings
The standard NEMA horsepower ratings for induction motors

are:
Standard NEMA Frame Sizes - 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 3, 5, 7-1/2,

10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 100, 125, 150, 200.
Larger Frame Sizes - 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700,
800, 900, 1000, 1250, 1500, 1750, 2000, 2250, 2500, 3000,
3500, 4000, 4500, 5000.
Manufacturers typically stock motors to 100 hp and build larger

ones to order.
Some vendors have standard ratings in 5,000 to 10,000-hp

range. Other vendors design to match the required size. Above
10,000 hp, most vendors design to the required size.
Voltage Levels for Motors
Standard voltages for motors that are used for Saudi Aramco
plant pump and compressor drive service are 115, 230, 460,
2300, 4000, 6600, and 13,200 V. Voltages most commonly
selected (others are available) for various motor sizes are as
follows:
Motor Sizes, hp Voltage Type
up to 1/3 115 Induction

(Single Phase)
1/4 to 10 230 Induction
200 to 4000 4000 Induction
670 to 4000 4000 Synchronous
Above 1340 13,200 Induction
Above 15,000 13,200 Synchronous

Electric Motors
The voltage selected is usually established by the system

voltage available at the motor location. When more than one
suitable voltage is available, selection is based on economics.
For voltage levels above 600 V and other factors equal, motors
built for lower voltage levels are considered more reliable.
For a guide to application of induction and synchronous motors,
see Work Aid 3.
Motor Efficiency (See Work Aid 10)

Some general characteristics of motor efficiency are:
• A motor's highest efficiency is at some point between 3/4

and full load. Efficiency falls off at part load and at
overload.
• Efficiency of a synchronous motor is generally 1% to 2%
higher than for a squirrel-cage induction motor.
• Larger motors have higher efficiency than small motors.
• Motor efficiency cannot be measured directly in the field.
If vendor data on motor losses are available, a close estimate of
motor efficiency can be made in the field using the following
equation.
Efficiency = (Input – Losses)/ input
Work Aid 10 gives motor efficiencies and power factors of

squirrel-cage induction motors for a wide range of motor sizes.
Motor Service Factor
Motor service factor, or continuous overload capability,

expresses the horsepower at which a motor can operate
continuously, above its rated horsepower, without exceeding its
rated temperature rise by more than 10°C. Most motors have a
service factor of either 1.0 (no overload permitted) or 1.15 (15%
overload permitted).
Regardless of their service factor rating, motors should not be

applied above their rated horsepower without consulting
electrical specialists.

Electric Motors
VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS
Direct current (dc) can provide variable speed operation over a

wide range, but they are costly.
Series motors have the widest speed range, varying from zero
to maximum depending upon control and load. They are used
where high starting torque is required and speed change with
load change is not critical.
Shunt and compound wound motors are more limited in speed

range, usually about 2 to 1 in larger sizes.
Shunt motors are used where constant or adjustable speed is

required and starting conditions are not severe.
Compound motors are used where high starting torque and

fairly constant speeds are required.
Single-phase ac repulsion motors can give some speed control

by varying the position of the brushes on the repulsion rotor.
Three-phase ac wound rotor motors can provide 50% to 100%

speed control by varying rotor resistance.
Multiple-speed ac motors (two to four constant speeds) are

available that can control speed by changing the winding
connections, which effectively changes the number of poles.
Pole amplitude modulation, which changes the coil grouping
around the stator, is another method used in multiple-speed ac
motors.
Adjustable speed can also be obtained by varying frequency.

Synchronous speed of a four-pole induction motor at 60 Hz is
1800 rpm; at 50 Hz, it is 1500 rpm; at 70 Hz, 2100 rpm. Infinite
speed adjustment above and below a base value can be
obtained by adjusting the frequency above and below the
corresponding base frequency. It is necessary to adjust voltage
along with frequency because the reactance of the motor varies
with its speed. As frequency goes up, voltage must go up; as
frequency goes down, voltage must go down proportionally.

Electric Motors
The source of adjustable frequency is usually solid-state

equipment, although motor generator sets could be used and
sometimes are. Two approaches are possible: the rectifier-
inverter and the cycloconverter. The rectifier- inverter takes the
line frequency (usually 60 Hz), rectifies it to dc, then inverts the
dc to ac of the desired frequency. With this approach, any
desired frequency may be obtained. With the cycloconverter,
the original 60-Hz sine wave is cut up into segments.
Summation of these segments constitutes a roughly defined
sine wave of a slower frequency. Cycloconverters can be used
only where desired frequency is lower than original frequency,
but it is adjustable within its range. Rectifier-inverter units have
been built for motors up to 30 MW and for speeds from 0 to
10,000 rpm.
In addition to the methods of achieving variable speed

described above, load speed control can be achieved by
magnetic or Eddy current clutches, which allow the driven
equipment speed to change while motor speed remains
constant.
Typical applications of variable speed drives are for

compressors and pumps, fans, and mixers or masticators.
Other applications include cranes and hoists, elevators,
conveyors and wood- and metal-working machines.

Electric Motors
MOTOR CONTROL
(See Work Aids 11 and 12)
The functions of a motor control system are (a) to start and stop
the motor; (b) to reaccelerate the motor after a voltage dip or
outage; (c) to protect the motor and its supply feeder from
overload, overheating, locked rotor, short circuits and other
abnormal conditions; (d) to control motor speed for variable or
multiple-speed motors; (e) to vary motor operations based on
process conditions; and (f) to maintain proper sequencing of
motors, equipment, processes, and operations.
The "motor-protection" function protects the motor from

overcurrent conditions during starting or running that could
cause overheating and damage to the windings. The controller
starts and stops the motor and also provides the desired
operating characteristics of the drive (combination of controller
and motor). Usually, the motor protection and controller are
combined in one unit.
The "branch-circuit protection" protects the branch circuit to the

motor, the motor and associated controls from short circuits.
The "disconnect means" permits the entire branch circuit to be
de-energized and disconnected from the power supply. It can
be a separate unit or can be combined with the branch- circuit
protection.
Selection of a motor controller depends on: (a) the nature of the

job, (b) characteristics of the motor, (c) characteristics of the
power supply, (d) type of environment and (e) laws, codes,
regulations and standards. Controllers are classified by to the
type of motor they control: single- or multiple-speed squirrel-
cage, wound-rotor, or synchronous motors.
Plant motors are normally arranged for across-the-line (full

voltage) starting and employ magnetic contactor or circuit
breaker starters. Magnetic starters contain a mechanism for
opening and closing a set of contacts in the motor circuit and a
thermal-overload protective device. Unlike a manual starter, a
magnetic starter depends on an electrical signal to open and
close the contacts.

Electric Motors
Magnetic starters are frequently controlled by such pilot devices

as pushbuttons, limit switches, relays, timers, pressure switches
and float switches. These are designed for a high frequency of
open/close (start-stop) cycles.
Circuit breaker starters are used for larger motors. They are
latched-in switches that are opened by a powerful spring when
the latch is released. Circuit breakers are opened and closed
by an electrical signal. Circuit breakers are often equipped with
relays that can protect the motor and its feeder circuit. They
may also be controlled by pilot devices. They are not suitable
for a high frequency of open/close cycles.
Starting AC Induction Motors

When power is first applied to an electric motor at rest for
starting, the current flows instantly at 5.5 to 6.5 times the full
load current. This is termed "in-rush" or "locked rotor" current.
The current level remains very high until the speed reaches
80% to 85% of normal (typically 8 to 15 seconds for a
centrifugal pump and 2 to 4 seconds for a centrifugal
compressor) and then drops rapidly toward normal as the speed
approaches the synchronous speed. The torque developed by
the in-rush current rotates the load machine and accelerates the
rotors of the train to full speed, overcoming rotor inertia.
The motor-locked rotor torque must exceed the load breakaway

torque for the motor to be able to accelerate. The amount by
which the motor torque exceeds the driven machine load torque
is the net torque available for accelerating the rotor system.
Both the load torque required and the motor torque developed
vary continuously between zero speed and full speed, so that
the net accelerating torque varies throughout the acceleration
period. If the "average" net accelerating torque is low, the
starting time, and therefore the time during which in-rush current
occurs, is high and may cause overheating of the motor. If the
net accelerating torque reaches zero at any point during the
acceleration, acceleration ceases and the motor will stall and
may overheat if the motor starter fails to quickly disconnect the
motor.
Many factors influence the starting performance of a motor-

compressor system, all of which require careful engineering.

Electric Motors
The speed-torque capability characteristics of large motors vary.

Basic designs can be modified by varying the shape of the rotor
bars and slots and by changing the magnetic field strength of
the stator windings. Motors designed for high starting torque
employ higher resistance in the rotor bars and short circuit rings
and are slightly less efficient at normal speed.
The speed-torque requirement of load machines varies among

the several machine types and the unloading means provided.
The inertia values of compressor, gear and motor rotors vary

considerably. Axial compressors, for instance, have higher
2
inertia (WK ) than centrifugal compressors of the same flow and
heat capability. The complete trains must be evaluated to
determine motor starting requirements.
Voltage Drop
The level to which the supply voltage drops during the in-rush
period is a function of the distribution system design and the
relationship of each motor size to system capacity. The voltage
drop is critical because the starting torque developed by a motor
reduces roughly in proportion to the square of the voltage at the
motor terminals. That is, a 20% voltage drop will reduce starting
torque to 64% of rated voltage.
The heat capacity of motors varies according to insulation type,

construction, and other factors. Because of the many variables
involved, computer analysis may be required to engineer the
starting characteristics of large motors.
Unloading Motor-Driven Compressors for Starting
Provisions should be made in the piping system and control

systems to unload all types of motor-driven compressors before
the motor is energized. Reducing the load on the compressor
during acceleration lowers the torque requirements of the
compressor. This shortens the time for the motor to reach full
speed and reduces the motor heating due to in-rush current,
thus prolonging the useful service life of the motor insulation.

Electric Motors
Startup unloading of the common compressor types may be

accomplished as follows:
Reciprocating compressors - Valve unloaders or recycle line

(atmospheric vents at each stage discharge for air
compressors).
Rotary compressors - Recycle line or atmospheric vents.
Centrifugal compressors - Nearly closed position for inlet block

valve (or guide vanes or butterfly throttling valve) and open
recycle line. For air compressors lacking inlet valve or guide
vanes, nearly closed discharge valve position.
Axial compressors - Closed position of variable stator vanes or

nearly closed inlet throttle valve.
Reduced Voltage Starting Methods for Induction Motors
Full voltage starting should not be used in applications where

the driven machine, or method of coupling, may be damaged by
the resulting high shock load. In these cases, one of the
following methods of reduced voltage starting should be
considered.
Part-winding starting may be used with motors with a multiple

winding primary circuit. This is a full-voltage starting method,
except that voltage is applied to only one winding during startup.
As the motor accelerates, more windings are energized until the
full winding is in use. The starting current and torque are low,
and full-load torque is built up in steps, depending on the motor
design. Control is accomplished through simple switching.
Autotransformer starting is a reduced-voltage starting method in

which a voltage less than line voltage is supplied to the motor.
This method is often used with high-speed synchronous motors
started at 65% of line voltage. Reduced-voltage starting limits
motor starting current in direct proportion to the reduction in
starting voltage.
Autotransformer starting is generally limited to two steps. One

tap on the winding proves the reduced voltage, and the entire
winding is bypassed when full voltage is applied.

Electric Motors
When the voltage is changed from the reduced starting voltage

to the full running voltage, high line surges may occur, resulting
from transients generated by the difference in voltage and
phase angle between the motor and the power supply.
Reactor starting is a reduced-voltage starting method obtained

by placing a series reactor in each phase of the power supply.
This is usually a two-step method in which the reactors are
shorted out after the motor accelerates. During acceleration,
the motor current decreases, and voltage drop across the
reactor decreases, thus increasing the voltage at the motor
terminals. Reactor starting is simple, but gives low starting
torque per kilovolt-ampere (kVA) drawn from the line.
Resistor starting is occasionally used for smaller motors in low-

voltage networks where several steps of starting are required.
Tapped resistors are inserted in each phase of the power supply
to obtain reduced voltage. Sections of the resistors are
successively shorted out until full voltage is applied to the motor
terminals. This is a voltage-drop method, and the starting
torque is reduced by the ratio of motor terminal voltage squared
to line voltage squared. It is used where several steps of
starting are required without opening the motor circuit between
steps.
Synchronous Motor Starting Methods
Synchronous motor has a squirrel cage for starting, the inherent

low starting torque and the need for a dc power source for
excitation require a starting system that will: 1) provide full
motor protection while starting, 2) apply dc field excitation at
the proper time, 3) remove field excitation upon rotor pull-out,
4) protect the squirrel-cage winding against thermal damage
under out-of-step conditions. Several methods that meet these
requirements are used for starting excited synchronous motors.
Full-voltage starting, because of its simplicity, is used wherever

possible. On some applications that require high starting
torque, increment starting by means of part-windings, reactors,
or resistors is used. The motor need not start on the first step,
and additional torque increments are applied until the motor
starts and accelerates. The motor will pull into synchronism
when excitation is applied to the rotor field winding. Application

Electric Motors
of excitation at the proper speed and phase angle is governed

by the type of starting method. Most low-speed synchronous
motors can be started by direct connection across the line.
High-speed motors may require a reduced-voltage starting
method.
Full-voltage starting is the simplest starting method and requires

the least time to accelerate the motor to operating speed. No
complex control equipment is needed; thus, it is an economical
method. However, full-voltage starting produces high
mechanical stresses due to the sudden application of maximum
starting torque. This method should not be used when the
driven machine or method of coupling may be damaged by the
resultant high shock load.
In such applications, the methods discussed under induction

motor starting should be considered.
Motor Re-acceleration
Critical process and utility services that are motor-driven usually

have motor starters arranged to permit the motors to re-
accelerate automatically after short voltage dips or interruptions
in the power source (called ride through capability). Automatic
re-acceleration minimizes shutdown or upset of process and
utility plants from power source disturbances.
The need for re-acceleration is determined by designers.

Standard squirrel-cage induction motors normally have
adequate torque capability to permit automatic re-acceleration
of centrifugal pumps and compressors.
Re-acceleration can take place immediately after voltage is

restored or in steps after preset times.
Automatic re-acceleration of synchronous motors and motors

driving reciprocating compressors requires close coordination
between machinery and electrical specialists. Automatic
unloading devices are required on reciprocating compressors
that will be re-accelerated.

Electric Motors
MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS

The motor size selected for a given service is typically equal to
the driven equipment maximum brake horsepower (bhp)
multiplied by a load factor, usually. 1.05 or 1.10. The following
table lists frequently used load factors:
Type of Load Load Factor
Air compressor 1.05
Gas compressor 1.10
Centrifugal pump 1.10
Positive displacement pump 1.10
Centrifugal fan
− Forward curved blades 1.10
− Backward curved blades 1.05
Axial Fan 1.05
To calculate the required motor rating, use the following

equations:
Required motor KW = Driven load bhp x Load Factor x 0.746
Required motor hp = Driven load bhp x Load Factor
To calculate motor current, use the following equations:
Three-phase maximum motor current (amperes) =
Driven Load Max bhp × Load Factor × 746

% Efficiency
1.732 × Volts × × % Power Factor
100
where % efficiency and % power factor are at 100% load.

Electric Motors
Three phase motor running current (amperes) =
Driven Load Operating HP × 746

% Efficiency
1.732 × Volts × × % Power Factor
100
where % eff. and % power factor are at operating load.
For additional electrical equations see Work Aid 14.

Electric Motors
TYPICAL MOTOR PROBLEMS
The initial alignment of motors frequently is a problem. The

electrical or magnetic center of a motor when it is running is not
the same as the center of gravity when the motor is idle.
Alignment and coupling should be based upon the electrical
center.
Motors require a high starting current. If special controls are not

used, the starting current of an induction motor is typically six
times normal full load current or more, until the motor reaches
operating speed.
Starting times can also be quite long for high-inertia loads. This
must be considered in setting the motor protective relay.
When a motor is idle in a humid atmosphere, the windings can

absorb moisture, which will lower the winding insulation
resistance. In some areas, heaters must be installed in or near
motors during long idle periods.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 1: INCENTIVES FOR USING ELECTRIC MOTORS
Advantages
By far the most attractive feature of electric-motor drivers for large machinery is the low
investment requirement when electric power can be purchased from a local utility
system. Equipment costs are slightly lower for motors than for steam turbines, but the
in-plant utility system investment requirement is much lower.
Other advantages of electric motors over the other available driver types are:
• Little mechanical or performance deterioration over very long runs.

• Low maintenance costs.
• Marginally higher equipment reliability than other driver types, although
not sufficiently higher than steam and gas turbines to warrant economic
credits for this feature.
• Quick startup, requiring less operator manipulation of the driver than for
other driver types.
• Simple operation with minimum monitoring speeds. No speed governing
system required.
Disadvantages
• Usually higher drive energy cost than for other type drivers.
• Purchased power rates subject to increases beyond user control during

the economic life of the process unit.
• Reliability completely dependent on the continuity of electric power

service. Supply continuity, in turn, depends on weather, power
generation/distribution system design, and utility company management
factors that are not within the direct control of the plant operations and
management.
• Quick start requires more care in preparing the process for startup than
the gradual startup capability of other driver types.
• Constant speed occasionally limits process flexibility. This is overcome by

throttling or recycle for control, which reduces overall efficiency.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 2: ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION VERSUS

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Advantages:
• Simple, rugged construction without windings on rotor.

• Lowest installed cost except for high hp ratings at low speed.
• Can usually be re-accelerated after momentary voltage interruption.
Disadvantages:
• Low power factor in low speed ranges.

• High starting current.
• Power factor always lagging, and low at part load.
Synchronous Motor
Advantages:
• More efficient than induction motor, by typically 2% at high speed, more at

low speed.
• Suitable for direct connection without gears, for example, for large
reciprocating compressors.
• Power factor can be 1.0 or leading.
• Less sensitive to rotor alignment and gap uniformity than induction motors.
• Lower installed cost at speed below approximately 500 rpm (for ratings
above 150 bhp).
Disadvantages:
• Control equipment more costly than for induction motors.

• More complex construction.
• Higher maintenance.
• Higher installed cost for most applications.
• Difficult to re-accelerate after momentary voltage interruption.
• Requires dc power supply for the field.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 3: GUIDELINE FOR THE APPLICATION OF INDUCTION

AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Figure 6. Synchronous Speed of Induction and Synchronous Motors

Electric Motors
WORK AID 4: SUMMARY OF POLYPHASE MOTOR

CHARACTERISTICS
Speed Speed Starting Breakdown Applications
Regulation Control Torque Torque
General-Purpose Squirrel-Cage (Design B)
Drops About 3% Adjustable 100% for 200 hp, 200% of Full Load Constant-Speed Service Where
for Large to 5% for Frequency, 300% for 1-hp 4- Starting Torque is Not Excessive.
Small Sizes Adjustable Pole Unit Fans, Blowers, Rotary
Voltage, Compressors, and Centrifugal
Multispeed (2 to 4 Pumps.
Constant Speeds)
High-Torque Squirrel-Cage (Design C)

Drops About 3% Adjustable 250% of Full Load 200% of Full Load Constant-Speed Where Fairly
for Large to 6% for Frequency, for High-Speed to High-Starting Torque is Required
Small Sizes Adjustable 200% for Low- Infrequently With Starting About
Voltage, Speed Designs 550% of Full Load. Reciprocating
Multispeed (2 to 4 Pumps and Compressors,
Constant Speeds) Crushers, etc.
High-Slip Squirrel-Cage (Design D)

Drops About 10% Adjustable 225% to 300% of 200%. Will Constant-Speed and High-
to 15% From No Frequency, Full Load Usually Not Stall Starting Torque. If Starting is Not
Load to Full Load Adjustable Depending on Until Loaded to Too Frequent, and for High-Peak
Voltage, Speed With Rotor Max-torque, Loads With or Without Flywheels,
Multispeed (2 to 4 Resistance Which Occurs at Punch Presses, Shears,
Constant Speeds) Standstill Elevators, etc.
Wound Rotor
With Rotor Rings Speed Can be Up to 300% 300% When Where High-Starting Torque with
Short Circuited, Reduced to 50% Depending on Rotor Slip Rings Low-Starting Current or Where
Drops About 3% By Rotor External Are Short Limited Speed Control is
for Large to 5% for Resistance. Resistance in Circuited. Required. Fans, Centrifugal and
Small Sizes Speed Varies Rotor Circuit and Plunger Pumps, Compressors,
Inversely As Load How Distributed. Conveyors, Hoists, Cranes, etc.
Synchronous
Constant None 40% for Slow to Unity-PF Motors For Constant-Speed Service,
160% for 170%; 80%-PF Direct Connection to Slow-Speed
Medium-Speed Motors 225%. Machines and Where Power-
80% PF. Specials Up to Factor Correction is Required
Specials Higher. 300%

Electric Motors
WORK AID 5: SUMMARY OF DC AND SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR

CHARACTERISTICS
Speed Speed Starting Breakdown Applications
Regulation Control Torque Torque
Series
Varies Inversely As Zero to Maximum High. Varies as High. Limited by Where High-Starting Torque is
Load. Races on Depending on Square of Commutation, Required and Speed Can be
Light Loads and Control and Load Voltage. Limited Heating Line Regulated. Traction, Bridges,
Full Voltage by Commutation, Capacity Hoists, Gates, Car Dumpers, Car
Heating Line Retarders.
Capacity
Shunt
Drops 3% to 5% Any Desired Good. With High. Limited by Where Constant or Adjustable
from No Load to Range Depending Constant Field, Commutation, Speed is Required and Starting
Full Load on Design, Type Varies Directly as Heating Line Conditions Are Not Severe.
of System Voltage Applied to Capacity Fans, Blowers, Centrifugal
Armature Pumps, Conveyors, Wood and
Metal-Working Machines,
Elevators
Compound
Drops 7% to 20% Any Desired Higher than for High. Limited by Where High-Starting Torque and
From No Load to Range Depending Shunt, Depending Commutation, Fairly Constant Speed is
Full Load on Design, Type on Amount of Heating Line Required. Plunger Pumps, Punch
Depending on of System Compounding Capacity Presses, Shears, Bending Rolls,
Amount of Geared Elevators, Conveyors,
Compounding Hoists
Single-Phase Motors
Split-Phase
Drops About 10% None 75% for Large to 150% for Large to Constant-Speed Service Where
from No Load to 175% for Small 200% for Small Starting is Easy. Small Fans,
Full Load Sizes Sizes Centrifugal Pumps and Light-
Running Machines, Where
Polyphase is Not Available
Capacitor
Drops About 5% None 150 to 350% of 150% for Large to Constant-Speed Service for Any
for Large to 10% Full Load 200% for Small Starting Duty and Quiet
for Small Sizes Depending on Sizes Operation, Where Polyphase
Type, Size Current Cannot be Used

Electric Motors
WORK AID 6: AREA ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Figure 7. Mechanical Induced Draft Type Cooling Tower

Handling Process Cooling Water

Electric Motors
WORK AID 7: TYPICAL SHAFT SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS MOTORS

(RPM)
Synchronous Motors Induction Motors*
Poles 60 Hertz 60 Hertz
2 3600 3545
4 1800 1772
6 1200 1182
8 900 886
10 720 709
12 600 591
14 514.3 506
16 450 443
18 400
20 360
22 327.2
24 300**
*
Slip varies inversely with motor size and speed and ranges
from 0.5% and 5.0%; 1.5% slip is typical.
**
Still lower speeds for unusual applications.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 8: STANDARD MOTOR HORSEPOWER RATINGS
The standard NEMA horsepower ratings for induction motors are:
Standard NEMA Frame Sizes - 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 3, 5, 7-1/2, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40,
50, 60, 75, 100, 125, 150, 200.
Larger Frame Sizes - 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1250,
1500, 1750, 2000, 2250, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000.
Manufacturers typically stock motors to 100 HP and build larger ones to order.
Some vendors have standard ratings in 5,000 to 10,000-hp range. Other vendors
design to match the required size. Above 10,000 hp, most vendors design to the
required size.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 9: VOLTAGE LEVELS FOR MOTORS
Standard voltages to which induction motors are applied for plant pump and compressor
drive service are: 115, 230, 460, 2300, 4000, 6600, and 13,200 V. Voltages most
commonly selected (others are available) for various motor sizes are as follows:
Motor Sizes, hp Voltage Type
up to 1/3 115 Induction

(Single Phase)
670 to 4000 4000 Synchronous
Above 1340 13,200 Induction
Above 15,000 13,200 Synchronous

Electric Motors
WORK AID 10: TYPICAL EFFICIENCY AND POWER FACTORS OF

(1)
SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS
MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR EFFICIENCY (%) (3) AT POWER FACTOR (%) AT

RATING CONNECTED % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY
hp LOAD (2) kW 50 75 100 (4) 50 75 100 (5)
1 0.98 67.0 72.5 74.0 53.5 65.5 75.4

1-1/2 1.42 72.0 76.0 77.0 54.0 73.5 80.5
2 1.86 73.0 78.0 79.5 54.5 68.0 77.0
3 2.76 74.5 79.0 80.5 55.5 68.0 75.5
5 4.39 81.0 83.5 84.0 60.0 71.0 78.0
7-1/2 6.65 78.0 82.0 83.0 58.0 70.0 77.0

10 8.78 83.0 85.0 85.0 87.5 65.5 75.5 80.5
15 13.0 85.0 86.0 86.0 87.5 76.0 84.0 87.0
20 17.05 86.5 87.5 87.5 88.5 79.0 84.5 87.0
25 21.00 87.5 88.5 88.5 89.5 79.0 84.5 87.0
30 25.10 88.0 89.0 89.0 89.5 80.0 85.0 88.0 88

40 33.5 88.0 89.0 89.0 90.2 81.0 86.0 88.5
50 41.7 88.0 89.5 89.5 90.2 82.0 87.0 89.0
60 49.7 89.5 90.0 90.0 91.7 82.0 87.0 89.0
75 62.1 89.0 90.0 90.0 92.4 82.0 87.0 89.0
100 82.0 84.0 89.0 91.0 93.0 85.0 89.0 91.0

125 102.0 85.0 89.5 91.5 93.0 85.0 90.0 92.0
150 123.0 86.0 89.0 91.0 93.0 85.0 90.0 92.0
200 161.0 88.0 91.0 92.5 94.1 87.5 91.0 92.0
250 201.0 90.5 92.5 92.5 94.1 84.0 87.7 90.5
300 241.0 90.8 92.5 92.8 84.4 88.2 90.9

350 281.0 90.9 92.6 92.9 84.8 88.5 91.1
400 320 91.1 92.8 93.1 85.0 89.0 91.3
450 360 91.2 93.0 93.2 85.1 89.0 91.6
500 399 91.4 93.1 93.4 85.3 89.2 91.6
600 478 91.6 93.3 93.6 85.5 89.5 91.8

700 557 91.7 93.4 93.7 85.7 89.7 91.9
800 636 91.9 93.6 93.9 85.8 89.8 92.0
900 715 92.0 93.7 94.0 85.9 89.9 92.0
1000793 92.1 93.8 94.1 85.9 89.9 92.1

Electric Motors
MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR EFFICIENCY (%) (3) AT POWER FACTOR (%) AT

RATING CONNECTED % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY % OF FULL LOAD CAPACITY
hp LOAD (2) kW 50 75 100 (4) 50 75 100 (5)
1250 988 92.3 94.0 94.3 86.0 90.0 92.2

1500 1185 92.4 94.1 94.4 86.1 90.1 92.3
1750 1380 92.6 94.3 94.6 86.2 90.2 92.4
2000 1575 92.7 94.4 94.7 86.3 90.4 92.5
2250 1770 92.8 94.5 94.8 86.4 90.5 92.6

2500 1965 92.9 94.6 94.9 86.5 90.6 92.8
3000 2355 93.0 94.7 95.0 86.6 90.7 93.0
3500 2750 93.0 94.7 95.0 86.6 90.7 93.0
4000 3140 93.1 94.8 95.1 86.6 90.7 93.0
4500 3580 93.1 94.8 95.1 86.6 90.7 93.0

5000 3920 93.2 94.9 95.2 86.6 90.7 93.0
5500 4310 93.8 95.0 95.2 86.3 90.7 92.6
6000 4700 93.8 95.0 95.2 86.3 90.7 92.6
7000 5480 94.0 95.2 95.3 84.3 88.7 90.6

8000 6260 93.7 95.1 95.3 84.3 88.7 90.6
9000 7050 93.8 95.2 95.3 84.3 88.7 90.6
10000 (6) 7820 93.9 95.3 95.4 84.3 88.7 90.6
NOTES:
1. Applies to open and enclosed motors rated at 1800 rpm, 3-phase, 60 hertz. At 7000 hp and
above, speed is 1200 rpm, instead of 1800.
(hp ) (0.746 kW hp )
2. Connected Load =
Efficiency @ 100% of Full Load
3. For totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motors, efficiency should be reduced 1% at full load,
1-1/2% at 3/4 load and 2-1/2% at half load.
4. Saudi Aramco requires minimum full load efficiencies as listed in IEEE-841 Table-1.
5. Saudi Aramco requires minimum full load power factor of 88 %.
6. Above 10,000 hp, use the 10,000 hp values until specific vendor estimates are obtained.

Electric Motors
WORK AID 11: SIMPLIFIED MOTOR PROTECTION SCHEMES
Figure 8. Simplified Motor Protection Schemes

Electric Motors
Figure 9. Simplified Motor Protection Schemes (Cont’d)

Electric Motors
WORK AID 12: MOTOR PROTECTION CURVES
Figure 10. Motor Protection Curves

Electric Motors
WORK AID 13: MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS
The motor size selected for a given service is typically equal to the driven equipment
maximum brake horsepower (bhp) multiplied by a load factor, usually 1.05 and 1.10.
The following table summarizes frequently used load factors:
Type of Load Load Factor
Air compressor 1.05
Gas compressor 1.10
Centrifugal pump 1.05
Positive displacement pump 1.10
Centrifugal fan
− Forward curved blades 1.10
− Backward curved blades 1.05
Axial Fan 1.05
To calculate the required motor rating, use the following equations:
Required motor KW = Driven load bhp x Load Factor x 0.746
Required motor hp = Driven load bhp x Load Factor

Electric Motors
WORK AID 14: ELECTRICAL FORMULAS
Desired Data Alternating Current Direct Current

Single Phase Three Phase
kilowatts V ∗ I ∗ PF 1.73 ∗ V ∗ I ∗ PF V ∗I
1000 1000 1000
KVA V ∗I 1.73 ∗ V ∗ I
1000 1000
Reactive kVA
(
V ∗ I ∗ 1 − PF2 )1 2 (
1.73 ∗ V ∗ I ∗ 1 − PF2 )1 2
1000 1000
Horsepower V ∗ I ∗ eff ∗ PF 1.73 ∗ V ∗ I ∗ eff ∗ PF V ∗ I ∗ eff
(Output) (746 )(100 ) (746 )(100 ) (746 )(100 )
Amperes (when hp(746 )(100 ) hp(746 )(100 ) hp(746 )(100 )

horsepower is V ∗ eff ∗ PF 1.73 ∗ V ∗ eff ∗ PF V ∗ eff
known)
Amperes (when kW ∗ 1000 kW ∗ 1000 kW ∗ 1000
kilowatts are V ∗ PF 1.73 ∗ V ∗ PF V
known)
Amperes (when kVA ∗ 1000 kVA ∗ 1000
kVA is known) V 1.73 ∗ V
kW hp (0.746 )(100 )
PF = Motor kilowatts =
kVA Eff
kW hp (0.746 )(100 )
PF = (for 3 phase) Motor kVA =
1.73 ∗ V ∗ I Eff ∗ PF
PF = Power Factor, per unit 5252 ∗ Full Load hp
Motor full load =
Eff = Efficiency, percent Torque in ft. lbs Full Load Speed
in RPM
Synchronous 120 ∗ Frequency

=
Speed in rpm Number of Poles

Electric Motors
GLOSSARY
Ambient Temperature The temperature of the surrounding cooling

medium, such as gas or liquid, that comes into
contact with the heated parts of the apparatus.
Breakaway Torque The maximum torque required to accelerate the

load (e.g., a compressor train) from zero speed.
Breakdown Torque The maximum sustained torque that a motor will

develop with rated voltage applied at rated
frequency, without an abrupt drop in speed.
Connected Load The load connected to a motor.
Efficiency The ratio of the power output at the shaft to the

total electrical power input. It is expressed in
percent.
Full-Load Torque The torque of a motor is the torque necessary to

produce the motor's rated horsepower at full-load
speed. In pounds at a 1-ft radius, it is equal to the
horsepower times 5252 divided by the full-load
speed in rpm.
Locked-Rotor Current The steady-state current taken from the line with
the rotor locked and with rated voltage (and rated
frequency in the case of alternating-current motors)
applied to the motor.
Locked-Rotor Torque The minimum torque which a motor will develop at

(Static Torque) rest for all angular positions of the rotor, with rated
voltage applied at rated frequency. This condition
must be allowed to persist only momentarily, to
prevent damage to the rotor or stator windings.
The locked-rotor torque must exceed the
breakaway torque for the motor to be able to
accelerate the load from zero speed. Locked-rotor
torque is often called "starting torque."
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturer's Association.
Overload Capability See Service Factor.

Electric Motors
Power Factor The ratio of the kilowatt input to the kilovolt-ampere

(kVA) input for an ac motor. Power factor is usually
expressed as a percentage.
Pull-In Torque The maximum constant torque under which a

synchronous motor will pull its connected inertia
load into synchronism, at rated voltage and
frequency, when field excitation is applied.
The speed to which a motor will bring its load

depends on the power required to drive it.
Whether the motor can pull the load into step from
this speed depends on the inertia of the revolving
parts. Therefore, the pull-in torque depends not
only on the torque of the load, but also on the
inertia of the entire system.
Pull-Out Torque The minimum torque developed by the motor

during the period of acceleration from rest to the
speed at which breakdown torque occurs.
Pull-Up Torque The minimum torque developed up to rated speed.
Rated Load The nameplate rating of a motor.
Service Factor A multiplier applied to the rated horsepower to

indicate a permissible horsepower loading under
the conditions specified for the service factor.
These conditions usually include the requirement
that the actual temperature rise not exceed the
rated temperature rise by more than 10°C, if rated
voltage and frequency are maintained. Also called
Motor Continuous Overload Capability/Service
Factor.
Slip The difference between the actual running speed

of an induction motor and synchronous speed,
expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed.
Temperature Rise The difference between ambient temperature and
the temperature of the motor in continuous service
at its rated load, as measured under conditions
specified in IEC 34.1.
Temperature Test Determines the temperature rise of certain parts of
the machine above the ambient temperature, when
running under a specified load.

Electric Motors
REFERENCES
SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARDS
• SAES-B-068, Electrical Area Classification
• SAES-P-113, Motors and Generators
• SAES-P-114, System Equipment and Protection
• SAES-P-116, Switchgear and Control Equipment
SAUDI ARAMCO MATERIAL SYSTEM SPECIFICATION
• 17-SAMSS-502, Form-Wound Induction Motors 250 HP and above
• 17-SAMSS-503, Sever-Duty, Totally enclosed, Squirrel Cage Induction

Motors to 250 HP
• 17-SAMSS-520, Form Wound Brushless Synhronous Motors
EXXON BASIC PRACTICES
• BP10-11-1, Sizing of Drivers and Transmissions
• BP16-2-1, Power System Design
• BP16-7-1, Motor Application
• BP16-9-1, AC Motors
• BP16-9-2, Additional Requirements for AC Motors Over 1,500 HP

Electric Motors

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : General Engineering For additional information on this subject, contact

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

MOTOR SIZING AND CALCULATIONS ....................................................................... 37

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

More electric motors are used to drive pumps and compressors

Electric motors require individual engineering attention in

Electric motors have achieved wide acceptance in refinery and

• Electrical distribution systems and equipment are designed

• Electric generation facilities are reliable.

• Motor enclosures and cooling systems have been

• The cost of electric power has declined in many locations

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

MOTOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

Other advantages of electric motors over other available drive

• Little mechanical or performance deterioration over very

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Motor Types Applied to Plant Services

• Squirrel-cage induction motors.

• Wound Rotor Induction motors.

The induction motor is by far the most common. It is used for

The rotor is a cylindrical iron core mounted on a shaft and fitted

A wound rotor induction motor has a rotor winding similar to the

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

A source of polyphase (three-phase for all high-power motors)

Squirrel cage motors use bearing construction similar to other

Motor startup is similar to a squirrel-cage motor on the

Synchronous motors may have slip rings and brushes to

Compared to synchronous motors, squirrel-cage induction

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

With permission from Power Magazine

Figure 1. Typical Rotor, Stator Construction for

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

With permission from Power Magazine

Figure 2. Wound-Rotor Motor

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

With permission from Power Magazine

Figure 3. Synchronous Motors

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

• Simple, rugged construction without windings on rotor.

• Lowest installed cost except for high hp ratings at low

• Can usually be re-accelerated after momentary voltage

• Low power factor in low speed ranges.

• High starting current.

• Power factor always lagging, and low at part load.

• More efficient than induction motor, by typically 2% at high

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

• Control equipment more costly than for induction motors.

• More complex construction.

• Higher installed cost for most applications.

• Difficult to re-accelerate after momentary voltage

• Requires dc power supply for the field.

Basic types of single-phase motors include split-phase,

Split-phase design is the simplest. It has a squirrel-cage rotor

Repulsion-start motors have a rotor winding connected to a

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Capacitor-start motors use a modified auxiliary winding and

Variations of this design include the capacitor-run motor, which

Reversing rotation of many single-phase motors requires

Performance of single-phase designs varies with the motor.

Split-phase designs offer starting and pull-in torques from 150%