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International Journal of
Market Research
Semiotic protocols for cultural trend 2024, Vol. 0(0) 1–22
© The Author(s) 2024
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DOI: 10.1177/14707853241250287
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Manuel Pinto Grunfeld 

University of Lisbon Centre for English Studies, University of Lisbon School of Arts and Humanities, Portugal; Faculdade de
Letras da Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal

Nelson Pinheiro Gomes

University of Lisbon Centre for English Studies, University of Lisbon School of Arts and Humanities, Portugal

Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic strongly influenced daily practices, and this manifested in social interactions,
communications and consumption. This work addresses the relations between branding and cultural
trends in strategic communication and advertising in different contexts of the pandemic. First, we
reviewed the concepts of branding and cultural trends. From there, it was necessary to develop a
methodological proposal to articulate a connotative semiotic analysis with the semiotic square and a
cultural trend mapping. The analysis was carried out through an independent and comparative reading of
two-time phases: confinement (2020) and end of constraints (2022). Three telecommunications brands
in Portugal act as case studies in a random and probabilistic sample of two audiovisual texts from
Christmas campaigns each. Finally, a theoretical-operational triangulation is obtained between branding,
cultural trends and semiotic analysis in promoting local brands that redefine spaces, social relations, and
identity expression during and after the COVID-19 pandemic confinements.

Keywords
branding, cultural trends, semiotics, strategic communication, advertising

Introduction
This paper explores how strategic communication pieces from major Portuguese brands from an
important sector, such as telecommunications, have addressed cultural trends. Our research follows the

Corresponding author:
Manuel Pinto Grunfeld, University of Lisbon Centre for English Studies, University of Lisbon School of Arts and
Humanities, Portugal; Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon 1600-214, Portugal.
Email: manuel.alejandro@edu.ulisboa.pt
2 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

more difficult pandemic moments and years, from 2020 until the end of the main limitations in 2022.
This comparative study allows us to see how cultural trends impact communication pieces; and how the
pandemic affected communication content, advertising, and strategies in the sector. Our problem, and the
knowledge gap, lies in the way trends are translated into brands in different contexts and visible through
their communication pieces. This paper contributes to an answer with a specific semiotic analytical
framework, contextualized in the following question: How did the Portuguese telecommunication sector
highlight cultural trends in different moments of the COVID-19 pandemic?
For this purpose, our conceptual-methodological framework will focus on (1) branding and its
relation to culture, drawing attention to authors such as Batey (2013), Holt (2004), Kotler and
Gertner (2002), and Floch (1993); (2) on trend analysis (Dragt, 2017; Gomes et al., 2021; Higham,
2009; Powers, 2019) to review the main operational concepts for the analysis; and (3) semiotic
protocols in the context of advertising analysis, following mainly a connotative Barthesian approach
(Barthes, 1986, 1991) and the semiotic square (Greimas & Courtés, 1979), both with some scholarly
actualizations (Gomes & Malafaia, 2020; Volli, 2015; Oswald, 2015, 2012; Bianchi, 2011; Mick
et al., 2004; among others). Our cases represent three important telecommunication brands in
Portugal, with a stratified sample of two communication pieces from 2020 and 2022 for each. This
work is an in-depth narrative analysis of each communication piece to address the main imprinted
meanings. Results show clearly that the three brands, even in two different contexts, address cultural
trends and are impacted by them in constructing the communication narrative.

Branding
Historically, brands are perceptible factors of identification, used for recognition and differentiation of
what is branded. However, brands are also cultural signs. They are “sets of meanings” (Batey, 2013,
p. 33; McCracken, 2005, p. 179) that promise something to their audiences, strongly linked to sensory
stimuli consumers collect in their interactions with the brands. Through exposure, selection, organi-
zation, and interpretation of experiences, brands fulfill a material identification role and, as Kotler and
Gertner say, “incite beliefs, evoke emotions and prompt behaviours” (Kotler & Gertner, 2002, p. 249). In
this sense, Jean-Marie Floch proposes that, like any language and social practice, brands can be defined
as objects of meaning and understood as significant cultural realities (Floch, 1993, pp. 21–22). Hence,
the semiotic approach contributes to work on brand communications and analyzing social consumer
behaviors linked to advertising or commercial design, among other related areas (Floch, 1993). Brands
provide materialistic, social, and cultural meanings by generating and organizing possible worlds
through stories and intangible benefits, which support people in the construction of their personal and
syncretic identities, projects and imaginaries while encouraging and giving meaning to their con-
sumption (Kapferer, 2012; Semprini, 2006). This functional, semiotic, and cultural perspective of brands
will be essential to articulating our applied analysis method.
From this operational viewpoint, trends can be found behind brands as mediators and in the
communities for which they are managed, communicated and shared through cultural patterns and
icons. Brands connect material identification with some complex and abstract meanings through
actions of sociocultural consumption (Kapferer, 2012, pp. 7–8 and 44–45; Santos, 2012, p. 104;
Semprini, 2006, pp. 36, 139–141 and 289; Floch, 1993, p. 32). This connection depends on different
actors involved in possible contacts with what is branded and on the management process of each
brand –also known as “branding”–. With branding, brands are named and marketed. However, they
can also be transformed into more valuable signs by working with images, symbols, perceptions,
and feelings, which stimulate beliefs, evoke emotions, and trigger behaviors (Batey, 2013, p. 28;
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 3

Kotler & Gertner, 2002, p. 249). Thus, branding increases the value of brands and their recognition
and preference in a symbolic, performative, and identifying way.
Strategically, branding achieves further success and brand recognition when that brand embodies
a story that goes beyond a name, logo, or design. Sometimes, this story overcomes the product,
service, organization, person, place, or whatever is being branded. Branding fills with cultural
meaning those empty material markers that make up a brand, involving the product’s daily ex-
perience of consumers, the brand’s own communication and that of others, and the recognition and
social discussion that surround it (Holt, 2004). We will use branding as a dynamic process focused
on strategic communication of a brand as the core of value for the audiences. That process goes from
simple persuasion to creating or managing narratives and trends.
Branding managers and analysts require a deep knowledge of brands, their consumers, and their
contexts. We will take Douglas Holt’s proposal in which this knowledge should focus on: social
changes, social categories of identification, brands as historical-social actors, people as integral
subjects and not just consumers, and understanding of the identity value of the texts of the culture of
masses over their qualities in terms of trends and entertainment (Holt, 2004, pp. 209–210). We also
agree with Cantú et al. that cultural analysis of the sociocultural context of brands allows for
establishing strategic bases (Cantú et al., 2019, p. 198). Cultural and consumer trends must be
studied through behavior patterns and the construction of meanings in communication, product
design or brand management. This can be seen through audiovisual productions with significant
potential for identifying, analyzing, and monitoring sociocultural trends (Gomes, 2022), for ex-
ample, in advertisements that offer powerful stories and cultural connotations.

Cultural Trends
Cultural trends are a social structure that encompass mindsets, patterns, and objects. They are social
movements of change that go into specific directions (Cramer et al., 2016, p. 41; Dragt, 2017, p. 14;
Kongsholm & Frederiksen, 2018, p. 25; Powers, 2019, p. 5; Vilar & Hellı́n, 2021, p. 17). They translate
themselves into patterns of behavior and consumption. In a way, they represent a cycle of influence
between objects/manifestations (Gomes et al., 2021, pp. 232, 235–236; Cramer et al., 2016, p. 44) that
appear in the sociocultural landscape – products, but also practices, representations and artifacts in
general. They impact the cultural environment and behaviors, and they shape and are shaped by new
ideas – smaller or bigger changes in mindsets. This operational concept of trends is an essential basis for
our research. They are the structures that will ultimately be identified with our case study objects.
Trends are an important indicator for strategy, business, and brand management – this is
regularly, and latently, present in existing bibliography (Powers, 2019; Higham, 2009). They
provide valuable insights on the consumer and the macro cultural environment. Considering how
they shape lifestyles, interests, perceptions, and behaviors, they are a key compass to consider.
There has been a discussion between trends and Marketing. In terms of trends marketing, William
Higham addresses three processes: identification, interpretation, and implementation (Higham,
2009, p. 49). Regarding the latest, we “have to establish which trends are most relevant to their
particular situation and then determine how they can exploit them most effectively” (Higham, 2009,
p. 51). The author adds that trends are an important instrument for marketers and that business uses
trends in one or another point in the business process. Articulating trend insights with business is
important for marketing strategies and trends can provide a basis for impact analysis and identify
potential benefits (Higham, 2009, p. 193). As Devon Powers says, “cultural change makes for good
business, no matter what direction it goes” (Powers, 2019, p. 7). Trends can be used earlier when
developing a strategy, but they can also act as a review instrument to audit already created objects,
4 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

including narratives. We will follow this last process to see the connections between the brand
narratives in advertising and already identified macro cultural trends.
Trends can have different densities according to their nature, impact, and audiences. They can be
mega trends, macro trends or micro trends (Cramer et al., 2016, pp. 49, 54; Higham, 2009, pp. 87–
88). Mega trends are too broad for the purposes of this research, but macro and micro trends
simultaneously have a large scope and a specificity to them that allows us to take key insights for
strategic purposes.
This trend analysis follows within the scope of Trend Studies, a conceptual-methodological
approach (Gomes et al., 2021) that closely articulates the analysis of cultural trends to Culture
Studies (Gomes et al., 2021; Powers, 2019).
We will be using the already identified trends and trend map from the Trends and Culture
Management Lab.1 Nonetheless, it is important to address the processes and protocols for trend
analysis and identification. Gomes et al. (2021) mapped procedures and proposed an integrated
protocol, discussing different works (Kongsholm & Frederiksen, 2018; Dragt, 2017; Cramer et al.,
2016; Higham, 2009; among others). It starts with contextual analysis; to information systema-
tization; trend architecture; trend DNA and text (Gomes et al., 2021, pp. 246–260) – from collecting
data to organizing it and identifying the building blocks of a trend to addressing it in a cohesive and
informative text. In 2022, Gomes and Cantú also highlighted the methods and elements/sections that
can be used when building a trend report that focuses on trend identification: identification of the
Nature, Context, Objectives, and Methodology; Desk Research; Observation (urban immersions
and direct observations); Questionnaires; Coolhunting; PEST; Systematization; Trend Narratives;
Insights (Gomes & Cantú, 2022, pp. 70–71). As the authors suggest, in terms of marketing and
branding, this type of report gives insights on consumer behavior changes and points for paths to
new strategies and communication narratives (Gomes & Cantú, 2022, p. 72).

Methodological application and case analysis

Our methodological protocol uses specific analytical practices from semiotics and trend analysis
(Table 1). We start with a connotative reading of the different cases and objects to identify the main
signifiers and signifieds and the general meanings and narrative of the communication pieces. For
this, we follow a Barthesian approach to denotation and connotation. Following this, we take the
common signifieds of the previous reading and use them in the Greimassian semiotic square,
underlining tensions and connections. Thus, we will confirm our interpretation of the leading
meanings in the advertising narratives. With the results from these two steps, we can articulate each
object with the main macro cultural trends. In a sense, this will contextualize these communication
objects in a larger semiosphere (Lotman, 1996),2 where the structured ideas of mindset trends
inhabit and build the ever-changing zeitgeist. This interpretative protocol will give us the relation
between context, meanings and the main movements and cultural trends that compose and are
behind these brand objects.
It is worth mentioning that, although we worked protocols based on rather classic methods
of semiotics, such as the semiotic analysis model (Barthes, 1986, 1991) and the semiotic square
(Greimas & Courtés, 1979), we considered specific procedural adjustments to these methods
shared more recently by specialists (Bianchi, 2011; Gomes & Malafaia, 2020; Mick et al.,
2004; Oswald, 2012, 2015; Volli, 2015). Variations on the semiotic square have been ap-
proached to study products, brands, marketing, and advertising (Floch, 1993; Galli et al., 2019;
Østergaard et al., 2015; Perusset, 2023; Rossolatos, 2012a; among others).3 Others have used
the semiotic square approach to build a linguistic protocol for trend identification and analysis
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 5

Table 1. Semiotic protocol for cultural trend analysis in strategic communication texts.

Connotative semiotic analysis of the Semiotic results and cultural

cases Semiotic square analysis of the cases trends

a. Denotative signs d. Main connotative terms h. Trends-based articulations

and analysis
b. Connotative reading(s) e. Relations between terms
c. Articulated connotative reading of f. Mapping sign patterns in
the full visual text advertisements
g. Bases of positioning and creative
development

Note. Articulated by the authors, based on the references discussed in the sections of Cultural trends, Methodological
application and case analysis, Connotative semiotic analysis, and Semiotic square.

and to see movements in a cultural map within the square (Stock & Tupot, 2015, 2020).4
However, here we intend to use and combine semiotic methods to read and discuss con-
temporary objects of brand communication and their strategies through their audiovisual texts,
in light of already identified cultural trends.

Connotative semiotic analysis. There is already a large tradition in applying semiotic analysis to ad-
vertising and branding. From a visual perspective (Rose, 2001) to a marketing one (Oswald, 2012, 2015;
Rossolatos 2012b, 2018), an interpretative advertising tradition has promoted a close reading and in-
depth analysis of narratives and meanings imprinted into advertising pieces. There is a large following of
the Peircean model and construct for semiotic analysis, and there are works that already articulate this
perspective in terms of advertising and trends (Bogo & Machado, 2022; Silva, 2015; Vilar & Hellı́n,
2016). There are also other works that articulate trends and semiotics (Bogo & Machado, 2022; Vilar &
Hellı́n, 2021) and one specifically in terms of our case study, Gucci (Cantú, 2022).
In our work, we will start with the protocol by Roland Barthes (1991, 1986), following a
Saussurean perspective, to review denotative, connotative, and mythical aspects. Following the
Saussurean paradigm, as Mick et al. highlighted, “its basis in language has led to an intense focus
and extensive insights on (a) the nature and role of structure in communication and meaning, (b) the
nature and role of symbolism […], and (c) the cultural relativity of communication and meaning due
to arbitrariness” (Mick et al., 2004, p. 5). As Bianchi added, “semiological studies of advertising
have a descriptive rather than an evaluative intent” (…), “adopting a procedure that involved
‘breaking down’ the object in order to understand how it functioned” (Bianchi, 2011, pp. 244–245).
This perspective, following specifically the developments of Barthes, has been reviewed in ad-
vertising terms by Volli (2015), Oswald (2015, 2012), Gomes and Malafaia (2020), Gomes (2022,
2021), and also articulated with trends by Gomes (2020).
We start this exercise by identifying the most relevant signs in each case object, following the
Saussurean understanding of the sign as a dyad composed of the signifier and the signified. We
will apply the perspective of a second order of the semiological system (Barthes, 1991, p. 113)
but following Barthes’s review of denotation and connotation (Barthes, 1986, pp. 89–94). So, at
the first level, we have the denotative reading/sign, and at the second level, the connotative
reading/sign (Barthes, 1986, p. 90). For Volli, there is also a third level following these two, the
advertising sign, where the connotative signs are used to evoke the product/brand (Volli, 2015).
This perspective contextualizes the first steps of our protocol: (a) identify the main signs in a
6 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

denotative fashion; (b) provide the connotative reading of each; (c) articulate the different
connotative readings to see the visual text as a whole and provide a unified connotative reading
of the visual text as a full connotative sign. This last point follows the possibility highlighted by
Barthes: “several denoted signs can be grouped together to form a single connotator […] the
units of the connoted system do not necessarily have the same size as those of the denoted
system” (Barthes, 1986, p. 91). This description protocol follows the exercise of Gomes and
Malafaia (2020).

Semiotic square. To reach a next level with results obtained from the previous independent semiotic
analysis, we will face and articulate the different connotative readings of visual texts as integrated
signs. In this sense, Ugo Volli’s perspective stands out, which recommends taking advantage of the
character of the opposition of meanings typical of the semiotic approach, also seeking analysis of
textual units in pairs and not in isolation (Volli, 2015, Chapter III, par. 3). Laura Oswald agrees,
appealing to approach advertising as a system or network, through a binary analysis compared
between different advertising texts, “with an audit of the recurring patterns structuring brand
meaning” (Oswald, 2015, p. 42). For this purpose, both authors (Oswald, 2015; Volli, 2015) work
with the semiotic square, initially proposed by Algirdas Julien Greimas (Greimas & Courtés, 1979).
This Greimassian semiotic square is “the visual representation of the logical articulation of any
semantic category” (Greimas & Courtés, 1979, p. 364). It intends to represent an implicit conceptual
framework through a kind of semantic map within the specific significant universe of the analyzed
discourse or text (Chandler, 2022, p. 124).
The semiotic square considers a minimum of four different and comparable terms, operationally
related and with various levels of categorical complexity (Greimas & Courtés, 1979, pp. 364–368).
Specifically, it presents four types of relations regarding the observed semiotic category: opposition
or contrariety on the upper horizontal axis –S1-S2–; subcontrariety on the lower horizontal axis –no
S2-no S1–; deixis or complementarity on the verticals –not S2-S1 and not S1-S2–; and the
contradiction along its diagonals –S1-not S1 and S2-not S2– (Chandler, 2022, pp. 124–126; Volli,
2015, Chapter III, pp. 8–14; Greimas & Courtés, 1979, p. 366).
It is relevant to emphasize that in the original proposal of the Greimasian semiotic square, the
opposite terms that underpin the tool –S1 and S2– are determined as an affirmation versus a denial
(Greimas & Courtés, 1979, pp. 365–366). However, it also opens the possibility of squares based
on other types of terms whose relationship of contrariness is less antagonistic, such as, for
example, “be” and “seem” (Greimas & Courtés, 1979, p. 367). Furthermore, the authors’ ap-
proach on which we base our application of this method makes the selection of the two opposite
terms even more flexible, as scholars have seen by tensioning concepts for the management or
study of strategic brand communication, narratively and culturally defined to guiding inter-
pretation and persuasion (Floch, 1993; Oswald, 2015; Perusset, 2023; Rossolatos, 2012a; Volli,
2015). Volli recommends that, especially for advertising analyses, over the negative opposites of
the black and white type, we can confront terms such as white and red in the case of Italian politics,
white and blue in the case of Italian football, white and green as symbols of snow and field, white
monks and gray monks, or white blood cells and red blood cells (Volli, 2015, Chapter III,
par. 9–10). Likewise, for the advertising field, Oswald suggests the importance of the semiotic
square to analyze binary but whose tension is culturally defined, such as those linked to genders
such as masculine and feminine, or to dimensions such as modern and traditional, which are
perceived rather than antonyms as contextual stereotypes or paradigms, with several gray areas
between them (Oswald, 2015, pp. 25–26 and 45).
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 7

From the aforementioned perspective, to interpret the cultural trends of recurrent connotative
signs by tensioning the binary poles of the cultural category and their brand interactions (Oswald,
2015, pp. 43–45), we will add this tool to represent paradigmatic dimensions of the studied brand
category. Thus, the semiotic square leads to the next steps of our protocol: (d) highlight two main
connotative terms in tension from the cases of each brand and define their contradictory terms to
have the four vertices; (e) visualize relations between the different terms to name the four axes; (f)
map most used signs between advertisements by means of grouping under the axes; (g) articulate
results to see the bases of evolution of positioning and creative development of each brand. This
approach allows us to reveal semiotic results and cultural trends (based on section 2) through (h)
trends-based articulations and analysis, represented in comparable texts from advertising campaigns
in different moments/contexts.

Case presentation. For this study, we considered three telecommunications brands that remained
active in their local communication in Portugal during the COVID-19 pandemic. These three brand
cases are MEO, NOS and Vodafone. They concentrate a relevant part of the Portuguese market in
the category. For our study, two audiovisual advertisements were randomly chosen for each case:
one from the containment stage of the pandemic at Christmas time in 2020; and another from the end
of the confinement stage at Christmas time in 2022.5

Connotative semiotic analysis of the cases

Case 1.1. MEO Natal 2020: “Neste Natal o MEO vem com tudo” (https://youtu.be/100ZzFNiQ8k). “Denotative
and connotative readings from the case 1.1” title corresponding to Table 2.

Table 2. Denotative and connotative readings from case 1.1.

Denotative signs Connotative reading(s)

Sign 1: bell. Sign 1. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: it is a call for attention,
Christmas, and a happy season.
Sign 2: a stage. Sign 2. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: a place to be heard, for
exhibition.
Sign 3: smoke explosions. Sign 3. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: party, rock, energy.
Sign 4: a man in the top of the Sign 4. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: Cristiano Ronaldo, success,
stage. energy, celebritism.
Sign 5: guitar. Sign 5. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: rock, music, energy.
Sign 6: a young woman. Sign 6. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: the young consumer.
Sign(s) 7: several people with Sign(s) 7. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: rock, difference, party.
outfits. Carolina Deslandes, Miguel Oliveira, Jéssica Silva, Armindo Araújo,
Bárbara Tinoco, Frederico Morais, João Sousa and Chakall.
Sign 8: a door with a Christmas Sign 8. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: an entry point, a contact, a
decoration. gateway, Christmas.
Sign 9: the song. Sign 9. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: everything is mine and can be
mine.
Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol based on the references discussed in the Connotative semiotic
analysis section, mainly Barthes (1986, pp. 89–94).
8 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

Articulated connotative reading of the full visual text. It connects different signs of Christmas and
rock to give a representation of energy, party, activity, “celebritism” and a call to action. A Christmas
Rock that empowers people to have everything the brand offers.
Celebritism in its various arts is the initial motto, mainly with Cristiano Ronaldo, that calls youth
to action and rock – those that want technology and fast internet and demand it from their parents,
from the stage to the Christmas family assembly.
Christmas and rock may seem distant or polarized, but musicality combines the mentioned
positive adjectives. In a certain way, the calm of the family Christmas stage is rocked by young
people who come from a rock concert, promoting the idea of crashing into a party and rocking the
calm and traditional Christmas set, also showing tolerance and that anyone can step in and access the
brand’s offer.

Case 1.2. MEO Natal 2022: “Há Natal nas diferenças” (https://youtu.be/ykSh57XUFeU). “Denotative
and connotative readings from the case 1.2” title corresponding to Table 3.

Table 3. Denotative and connotative readings from case 1.2.

Denotative signs Connotative reading(s)

Sign 1: poster with the expression “Ho Ho Ho”.
Sign 2: girl tears up a poster.
Sign 3: poster with the expression “no no no”.
Sign 4: stage.
Sign 5: choirs.
Sign 6: guitar.
Sign(s) 7: screens.
Sign(s) 8: gatherings of people.
Sign 9: hat falling.
Sign 10: living room space with a tree and a working
fireplace.
Sign 11: girl gives poster to boy.
Sign 12: two adults and two children together next to a
tree.
Sign 13: the writing “todos temos direito às diferenças e
que isso não faça diferença” (we all have the right to
differences and may that not make a difference).
Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol based on the references discussed in the Connotative semiotic
analysis section, mainly Barthes (1986, pp. 89–94).
Sign 1. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
Christmas, merry spirit and Santa Claus.
Sign 2. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
disagreement, taking out from exposure.
Sign 3. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
unbelief, Santa Claus doesn’t exist.
Sign 4. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: a place
to expose ideas to the audience.
Sign 5. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
tradition.
Sign 6. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: rock,
contestation.
Sign 7. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: social
media, connection, perspectives, and information
spreading.
Sign 8. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: protest,
exposition of ideas, ideals.
Sign 9. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: the idea
of Santa Claus falling.
Sign 10. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: home,
Christmas, warmth.
Sign 11. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
coming together, embracing differences.
Sign 12. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
coming together, embracing differences.
Sign 13. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
tolerance.
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 9

Articulated connotative reading of the full visual text. It is a discussion about a Christmas symbol,
Santa Clauses, to highlight the polarization of opinions on the streets and social media, as an
exposure of disagreements that, in the end, are overcome with listening, respect and coming
together. It appeals to the idea that we can all come together (at Christmas) no matter the
differences of opinion: to promote tolerance and togetherness in family/friends union around
Christmas.
In the first interpretation, polarization takes the stage: to believe or not in Christmas “magic” and
Santa Claus. In a way, it calls for, or underlines, the need for engagement with issues and politics in a
metaphor that uses Santa Claus. We have rallies, protests, manifestations, and, as in the advert
before, rock also takes a center place in empowering. Social media and the rapid exchange of news,
opinions and data also highlight the need and inevitability of being online and information being
shared and (re)contextualized.
At the same time, it highlights the right to different opinions but extrapolates the vio-
lence and negative discourses that can come from it. The advert calls attention to being
more understanding and tolerant of different perspectives. In the end, we can make an
exploratory interpretation that different opinions can coexist with good disposition and
communication.

Case 2.1. NOS Natal 2020: “A separação” (https://youtu.be/Aa4T3Cop2eM). “Denotative and con-
notative readings from the case 2.1” title corresponding to Table 4.

Table 4. Denotative and connotative readings from case 2.1.

Denotative signs Connotative reading(s)

Sign 1: placing baggage in a car.
Sign 2: making an image with hands.
Sign 3: elder man with a teddy bear.
Sign 4: taking pictures of a teddy bear and showing it via
phone/tablet to a girl.
Sign 5: wrapping the teddy bear.
Sign 6: tree with wrapped boxes.
Sign 7: girl opens one of the wrappings and looks within
making a facial expression.
Sign 8: elder man opens a package and finds a teddy bear.
Sign 9: elder man hugs the teddy bear and cries.
Sign 10: The writing “neste Natal nada nos pode
separar” (on this Christmas, nothing can separate us).
Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol based on the references discussed in the Connotative semiotic
analysis section, mainly Barthes (1986, pp. 89–94).
Sign 1. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: going
on a trip, leaving.
Sign 2. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: love,
caring.
Sign 3. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
remembering, making a connection with family.
Sign 4. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
bonding, sharing moments, caring.
Sign 5. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: giving
back.
Sign 6. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
Christmas, Christmas morning.
Sign 7. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
sadness, feeling of loss.
Sign 8. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
surprise.
Sign 9. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
happiness, connection.
Sign 10. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
connection, family, being together.
10 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

Articulated connotative reading of the full visual text. It addresses distance and the need to connect
and be in touch. Christmas calls for family experiences and the digital connection via an object
of affection offers a bridge between what we believe to be a grandfather and a granddaughter. It
calls for the need to connect when being distant and to share experiences that generate positive
emotions.
It is about sharing experiences and emulating home closeness. The text shows a
digital connection as a bridge and opportunity to be in touch and limit the distance
and isolation caused by the pandemic. It reminds us that Christmas is seen as a family
custom.
There is also an idea of caring. In this challenging year, caring for one another and showing
that we care is essential. Caring for the bear is an extension of the connection with the
granddaughter.

Case 2.2. NOS Natal 2022: “O carrossel” (https://youtu.be/b7PLmnIWly4). “Denotative and conno-
tative readings from the case 2.2” title corresponding to Table 5.

Table 5. Denotative and connotative readings from case 2.2.

Denotative signs Connotative reading(s)

Sign 1: a merry-go-round. Sign 1. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: fun, tradition,
childhood.
Sign 2: a man placing a child in a horse on the Sign 2. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: love, caring,
merry-go-round. memories.
Sign 3: the song/music. Sign 3. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: remembering,
family, emotion.
Sign 4: a young man with a young woman in the Sign 4. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: bonding,
merry-go-round. sharing moments, caring, love.
Sign 5: people dancing. Sign 5. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: having fun
bonding.
Sign 6: the young man carries the young woman. Sign 6. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: marriage,
happiness.
Sign 7: man interacting in an office. Sign 7. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: work,
routine.
Sign 8: man and women exchanging words and Sign 8. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: fight, break-
gesturing. up, sadness.
Sign 9: man looking at the phone. Sign 9. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: family,
connection.
Sign 10: man looking at couple and in the middle Sign 10. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: memory,
of different people. connection, family, being together, Christmas.
Sign 11: merry-go-round with people and a Sign 11. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: memory,
Christmas tree. connection, family, being together, Christmas.
Sign 12: the writing “neste Natal, oferece Sign 12. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: memory,
atenção” (in this Christmas, offer attention). remembering, connecting, attention.
Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol based on the references discussed in the Connotative semiotic
analysis section, mainly Barthes (1986, pp. 89–94).
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 11

Articulated connotative reading of the full visual text. It deals with tradition, family, and memory in
an articulate way to call out the need to give affection and share experiences. The merry-go-round is
one of the main signs that go from happiness to other emotions, joining the family at the end – a
place of memory and belonging.
Different signs point to important relations highlighting temporal development: tradition - old game
fairs; family - fathers and son; memory - the transition of key-scenes with growing characters. The
merry-go-round illustrates a circle/cycle in motion with high and low moments but with the possibility of
returning to the beginning or balancing the processes. Christmas is also recurrently seen as a moment to
remember loved ones who may no longer be so close and to introspect about the year and our lives.
These articulations highlight the importance of giving attention and sharing experiences: inviting
not to neglect the problems of loved ones throughout their lives. Again, it is about self care and
looking after others. The advert calls for attention to give importance to what is really important by
highlighting family again.

Case 3.1. Vodafone Natal 2020: “Canto de Natal” (https://youtu.be/d3iiW7sAXPw). “Denotative and
connotative readings from the case 3.1” title corresponding to Table 6.

Table 6. Denotative and connotative readings from case 3.1.

Denotative signs Connotative reading(s)

Sign 1: desert street with calçada and some Signs 1 and 2. Signifier: the denotative signs; Signified: people are
lighting. inside enjoying Christmas feasts.
Sign 2: people inside sitting at a table and
there is an illuminated pine.
Sign 3: woman singing. Sign 3. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: being together,
support.
Sign 4: a bus driver greets wearing a mask. Sign 4. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: COVID-19
awareness, responsibility, services still working.
Sign 5: a cellphone. Sign 5. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: connection.
Sign 6: woman greets a masked doorman Sign 6: Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: warmly welcomed.
with fists at the window.
Sign 7: woman putting on the mask to enter Sign 7: Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: careful and
a building. responsible entry into a building.
Sign 8: building with ER sign. Sign 8. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: emergency room,
dealing with the pandemic.
Sign 9: child sleeping. Sign 9. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: daughter went to
sleep peacefully with the sound of her mother song.
Sign 10: woman puts on an isolation suit. Sign 10. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified: treating people
with COVID-19.

Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol based on the references discussed in the Connotative semiotic
analysis section, mainly Barthes (1986, pp. 89–94).
12 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

Articulated connotative reading of the full visual text. It calls out the responsibility of being home
during the COVID-19 pandemic, with desert streets, while services work and health providers fight
against the pandemic helping people. While this, the brand provides a connection point to ac-
company loved ones.
Health providers are the only ones moving in this scene. It is about being engaged whit the
different people who need us. Even those who must leave the house can “be” in the family’s daily
moments.
It directly underlines the context of COVID-19 while showing that technology can create
bridges and presences for those who need our accompaniment while we need to attend to others
who require our professional medical attention. In sum, the text is about strong and facilitation
of connection.

Case 3.2. Vodafone Natal 2022: “Partilha o que estás a sentir” (https://youtu.be/a1zesVBH5yc). “Denotative
and connotative readings from the case 3.1” title corresponding to Table 7.

Table 7. Denotative and connotative readings from case 3.2.

Denotative signs Connotative reading(s)

Sign 1: running in a deserted road. Sign 1. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
loneliness, despair.
Sign 2: eyes watering. Sign 2. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
sadness, despair.
Sign 3: cellphone ringing in the beach. Sign 3. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
point of connection.
Sign 4: young man answers the phone and talks to a young Sign 4. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
woman. connection.
Sign 5: both talk while walking alone. Sign 5. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
connecting, sharing.
Sign 6: they meet in a square with lighting. Sign 6. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
connecting, insight.
Sign 7: young man knocks at the door and another man Sign 7. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
answers it. courage, home.
Sign 8: they hug. Sign 8. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
help, connecting, family support.
Sign 9: the writing “se estás a viver um problema de saúde Sign 9. Signifier: the denotative sign; Signified:
mental, dá o primeiro passo” (if you are living a mental help, mental health.
health issue, give the first step).
Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol based on the references discussed in the Connotative semiotic
analysis section, mainly Barthes (1986, pp. 89–94).
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 13

Articulated connotative reading of the full visual text. It highlights moments of sadness and loneliness
from mental health issues and finding help to cope, deal, and heal. Like the advert before, it is about
strengthening connections. Staying engaged is essential to help, support and care for others.
On the advert, we go from the illustration of abandonment (scenes of being alone
and suffering) to a moment of help and dialogue and understanding (when she talks with
him and hugs him in the end), to a final moment of engagement –connection– and ac-
companiment where the cellphone is presented as a bridge for direct –familiar– care and
communication.
Again, the cellphone and brand are bridges, connections and awareness elements, essentials in
times of personal and group crises, such as during times of confinement.

Semiotic square analysis of the cases

MEO: Christmas advertisements 2020 and 2022 (Cases 1.1 and 1.2)
Main connotative terms. For this semiotic square (Figure 1), we will use: EMPOWERMENT as
the first term –S1–; POLARIZATION as its term in tension –S2–; WEAKENING as a contradictory
term to the first –not S1–; and TOLERANCE as a contradictory term to the second –not S2–.

Relations between terms. With the two main terms and their contradictory ones already defined
–S1-not S1 and S2-no S2–, to conceptualize the other relations, it is suggested that: Commitment as
the axis of opposition –S1-S2–; Indolence as the axis of subcontrariety –not S2-not S1–; Concern as
the axis of positive deixis –not S2-S1–; and Abstention as the axis of negative deixis –not S1-S2–.

Mapping sign patterns in advertisements. Based on the main terms and their relations, we will map
the signs used between both advertisements by grouping: under the Concern axis, the signs of bell,

Figure 1. Semiotic square from cases 1.1 and 1.2. Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol based
on the references discussed in the Semiotic square section, mainly Greimas and Courtés (1979, pp. 364–368).
14 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

electric instruments, stages, shows, music, concerts, kids, celebrities, outfits, door, home, family,
Christmas trees and decorations; and under the Commitment axis the signs of traditional choirs,
posters, news and mainstream media, meetings, protests and manifestations, adults, and Santa’s hat
falling.

Bases of positioning and creative development. MEO’s positioning strategy focuses on the meaning
of empowerment, contrasting its relationships with tolerance and polarization. In both cases, the
brand shares patterns and cultural icons that represent forms of concern, with high levels of energy,
calls to action and festivities. This creative development also offers commitment possibilities by
sharing ideas related to forms of communication, manifestations and gatherings. At the same time, it
seeks to repel possible prejudices of weakening, linked to signs of abstention and indolence, most
related to apathy, disagreements and insurmountable differences of opinion.

NOS: Christmas advertisements 2020 and 2022 (Cases 2.1 and 2.2)
Main connotative terms. For this semiotic square (Figure 2), we will use: AFFECTION as the first
term –S1–; ISOLATION as its term in tension –S2–; NEGLECT as a contradictory term to the first
–not S1–; and ATTENTION as a contradictory term to the second –not S2–.

Relations between terms. With the two main terms and their contradictory ones already defined
–S1-not S1 and S2-no S2–, to conceptualize the other relations, it is suggested that: Proximity as the

Figure 2. Semiotic square from cases 2.1 and 2.2. Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol
based on the references discussed in the Semiotic square section, mainly Greimas and Courtés (1979,
pp. 364–368).
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 15

axis of opposition –S1-S2–; Remoteness as the axis of subcontrariety –not S2-not S1–; Affinity as
the axis of positive deixis –not S2-S1–; and Antipathy as the axis of negative deixis –not S1-S2–.

Mapping sign patterns in advertisements. Based on the main terms and their relations, we will map
the signs used between both advertisements by grouping: under the Affinity axis, the signs of the
heart image with hands, teddy bear, pictures, videos, messages, gifts, hugs, family, elder man and
girl, parents and children, music, dancing, couple, marriage, and Christmas trees and decorations;
and under the Proximity axis the signs of baggage, car, cellphones and tablets, packages, merry-go-
round, office, fights, crying, and bad memories.

Bases of positioning and creative development. NOS’s positioning strategy focuses on the meaning
of affection, contrasting its relationships with attention and isolation. In both cases, the brand shares
patterns and cultural icons that represent forms of affinity, with high levels of being in touch, family
experiences and beliefs. This creative development also offers proximity possibilities by sharing
ideas related to trips, media and personal memories. At the same time, it seeks to repel possible
prejudices of neglect, linked to signs of antipathy and remoteness, most related to separation,
traumas and loneliness.

Vodafone: Christmas advertisements 2020 and 2022 (Cases 3.1 and 3.2)
Main connotative terms. For this semiotic square (Figure 3), we will use: ACCOMPANIMENT as
the first term –S1–; DISENGAGEMENT as its term in tension –S2–; ABANDONMENT as a
contradictory term to the first –not S1–; and ENGAGEMENT as a contradictory term to the second
–not S2–.

Figure 3. Semiotic square from cases 3.1 and 3.2. Note. Analysis developed by the authors with a protocol
based on the references discussed in the Semiotic square section, mainly Greimas and Courtés (1979,
pp. 364–368).
16 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

Relations between terms. With the two main terms and their contradictory ones already defined
–S1-not S1 and S2-no S2–, to conceptualize the other relations, it is suggested that: Caring as the
axis of opposition –S1-S2–; Indifference as the axis of subcontrariety –not S2-not S1–; Safety as the
axis of positive deixis –not S2-S1–; and Vulnerability as the axis of negative deixis –not S1-S2–.

Mapping sign patterns in advertisements. Based on the main terms and their relations, we will map
the signs used between both advertisements by grouping: under the Safety axis, the signs of insides,
services and workers, masks, greetings, cellphones, woman singing, child sleeping, bedroom,
parents and family, calls, meetings, door, home, hug, Christmas tree and decorations; and under the
Caring axis the signs of desert streets and roads, walks, beach, COVID-19, ER, eyes watering and
missed calls.

Bases of positioning and creative development. Vodafone’s positioning strategy focuses on the
meaning of accompaniment, contrasting its relationships with engagement and disengagement. In
both cases, the brand shares patterns and cultural icons that represent forms of safety, with high
levels of responsibility, providers and companions. This creative development also offers caring
possibilities by sharing ideas related to social crisis, human relations and awareness. At the same
time, it seeks to repel possible prejudices of abandonment, linked to signs of vulnerability and
indifference, most related to sadness, mental health issues and COVID-19.

Semiotic results and cultural trends

For this analytical protocol, we will use the trends identified by the Trends and Culture Management
Lab from the School of Arts and Humanities, University of Lisbon, considering its methodological
approach to the identification and analysis of trends.

i. Regarding the MEO videos, the brand aims to empower the audience through scenes of
concern and commitment. There is a clear connection, especially in the second one, with the
topic of polarization in a general connection with the “Protagonist Identities”6 macro trend
and a specific connection to the “Polarizations”7 micro trend. The brand addresses both
celebritism and contestation, but it is always connected to the concepts of identity and
expression, these are transversal in both adverts. It is interesting how the brand captured the
zeitgeist of differences and polarizations and presented the conflict positively and with a
happy ending. Addressing the topic generates a process of understanding and identification
in the audience that will recognize the social dynamics and positively end the viewing of the
narrative. In a way, it also addresses the “Anchored Narratives”8 macro trend in the im-
portance of symbolic repositories and how they operate the construction and reconstruction
of narratives since the nature of Christmas and Santa Claus is called into question: this calls
for a tolerant discussion of collective memory representations and the discussion around
mental constructions.
ii. In terms of NOS, the brand is looking to transmit affection, with affinity and proximity
representations. Although there could be something to explore regarding isolation, mainly from
the second video, the main topic of family and attention goes to deeper topics beyond specific
cultural patterns. The first video directly connects to the “Ergonomic Connections”9 macro
trend. This idea of being perpetually connected and linked with our loved ones and our topics/
narratives/communities of interest is growing in a way that generates a blur between realities –
proximity and accessibility become two of the most important commodities, and we can see that
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 17

in the narrative. The potential of digital connection, breaking the walls between space and
physical-digital boundaries, is present as an affinity opportunity.
iii. Vodafone’s adverts work on accompaniment, balancing safety and caring signs. There is a
connection between these two brand objects and the iterations of the last four years re-
garding the macro trend “Lifestyles Redesign”10, either at the level of the changes that the
COVID-19 led confinement generated or regarding the mental health issue and aban-
donment. It is a macro trend that has suffered profound changes in a small amount of time,
dealing with mindsets of the moment. This trend highlights the challenges that came with
the pandemic and the many that ensued from it and new hostile and violent contexts. It
shows how we adapt to new realities and how it takes a tool to engage with other people and
the entire world. Again, it generates a process of identification and connection with the
audience while highlighting and calling attention to important issues of the day.

The three brands, in one video or both, have displayed a connection to three different macro
trends, one each, with no overlapping of mindset trends.

Conclusion
The paper addresses connections between cultural trends and brands’ strategic communication.
How can we identify trends in brand communication objects and how different contexts affect their
narratives? The proposed sample associated with the confinement and post-confinement periods of
the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic gave us a good contrast. Nevertheless, the results still show that trends
impact both moments and advertising translated into their narratives. All the brands in our sample
were responding to cultural trends. Those trends are linked to daily practices, such as social in-
teractions, communications, or consumption.
The proposed protocol also successfully articulated two semiotic practices –connotative analysis
and the semiotic square– to determine the main signifieds/meanings to examine associated cultural
trends. This results in a contribution to the debate of using semiotics in trend analysis, highlighting
the interpretative character of Trend Studies and the importance of hermeneutical practices and the
review of objects that possess evident and comparable narrative qualities.
It is interesting to underline that each brand addressed different macro trends. With brands from
the same sector, it could be assumed that they emphasize similar mindsets. However, the results
show that not only do they not underline the same micro trend, but they also incorporate meanings
that are present in the structure of different macro trends. It means the involved promotion strategies
work with different mindsets and behavior patterns. From “Protagonist Identities” in terms of
polarization; the “Ergonomic Connections” and the end of barriers between the digital and the
physical; and the “Lifestyle Redesign”, these trends have different idea structures. Through these
examples of local promotion of telecommunications brands in Portugal, we contrast redefinitions of
spaces, social relationships, and identities around the pandemic context. This comparison shows us
that different macro trends can be used to develop strategies and communication narratives even in
the same timeline and sector of activity.
This specific approach can serve different applied purposes with professional implications:
First, it provides a temporal audit review that can work with the protocols of Laura Oswald
(2015, 2012) that mainly focuses on meaning. It gives insight into narratives and how a storyboard
can provide specific readings, but it especially highlights and addresses the signs that are present and
the main meanings that the viewer can perceive. With this, we can see the evolution of meanings and
how they translate into and from the brand’s core identity. Taken to its maximal potential, marketers
18 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

can see the mapped evolutions and connections of the main meanings over the years and how the
brand is ressignifying itself. This point presents a diachronic potential of analysis.
Second, by articulating both perspectives, we create a two-stage approach to confirm the primary
potential meanings the creatives imprinted in the objects. This process aligns with approaches by
authors such as Batey (2013), Holt (2004), Kotler and Gertner (2002), and Floch (1993) from an
operationalization of functional, semiotic, and cultural branding. It can be applied once the objects
are created, but they can also be used constantly in the creative process of mockups and storyboards
to test the imprinting and deconstruction of meanings.
Third, the comparative and complementary approach of direct competitors in specific moments
or topics can let us see how each adapts and responds to particular circumstances. By analyzing
meanings, we go to the root of each brand’s communication, individually or by groups/categories.
This point is tactical for advertising management and competitiveness, where, as Volli (2015) or
Oswald (2015) have proposed, cultural signs and persuasive narratives take special prominence.
Fourth, with the combination of tools, the manager/analyst also acquires a practical chain
workflow for the strategic communication of brands. It supports understanding from the classical
sign –textual and, simultaneously, implicit– to the advertising sign –evocative and activating–, as
we saw in the scholarly discussion (Barthes, 1986, 1991; Mick et al., 2004; Bianchi, 2011; Volli,
2015; Oswald, 2015, 2012; among others). Thus, our protocol connects cultural and brand
communication keys to visualize the logic of the connotative articulations of the audiovisual texts of
the brand and then discover bases for positioning and creative development of the advertising
campaign in dynamic and competitive contexts.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD
Manuel Pinto Grunfeld  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0162-8866

Notes
1. This entity is a project from the School of Arts and Humanities, University of Lisbon, and deals with Trend
Studies at an academic level. They have produced, since 2019, an experimental trend report specifically
based in a Portuguese context that addresses scientific protocols. Considering their geographical attention
and the clear methodological procedures, their map serves as an important map for our study
2. The concept of semiosphere from Lotman (1996) helps us understand a semiotic space where we share
meanings. The semiosphere is a semiotic universe with different texts and languages where the semiotic
space works as a “single mechanism”; outside of it, semiosis is impossible (Lotman, 1996). Rossolatos
summarizes that it “constitutes an umbrella concept or metaconcept that designates a semiotic space that is
made of various interlocking spheres with identifiable boundaries” (Rossolatos, 2014, p. 25). The author
also suggests –we believe– that there is potential to articulate the perspectives of Lotman with Cultural
Studies, Consumer Culture Theory and Cultural Branding (Rossolatos, 2014, p. 24) and also with Trend
Studies: “The accelerating interplay between cultural center and periphery mandates even more urgently
Pinto Grunfeld and Pinheiro Gomes 19

the need for a model and a methodology of cultural branding whereby multidimensional dynamic changes
may be mapped with view to enhancing the predictability of emergent cultural trends and the impact such
trends may have on the semantic nucleus of a brand and its periphery” (Rossolatos, 2014, p. 27).
Rossolatos also problematizes how a brandosphere sees a brand mutating as a system of signs, “while
paying heed to how the macro-cultural point of view is reflected in the micro-cultural and how culture is in
turn enriched by the texts that are produced on a micro-cultural level” (Rossolatos, 2014, p. 29).
3. The mentioned scholars utilized and combined the semiotic square in different ways from each other and
also different from our proposal. Perusset (2023) studied alternatives of chocolate to analyze its structure as
a semiotic category example by combining the semiotic square with the post-Greimassian interpretative
semantics and tensive grammar to visualize, understand, conceptualize, and classify objects. Galli et al.
(2019) applied the semiotic square to identify six groups of wine consumers and the identity prism to define
six wine brand constructs, aiming to combine tools for positioning fine wines considering product
marketing and consumer-brand relationship. Østergaard et al. (2015) worked with the semiotic square to
reveal the underlying logical structure of brand and anti-brand meaning for two specific cases of shoes and
tobacco brands, searching for generalizable findings for this category type. Rossolatos (2012b) sees the
semiotic square as a method to analyze multifarious textual genres (literature, advertising, or broadcast
news), showing how it has a distinctive usefulness as a dynamic positioning platform and also for
comparison of heuristic value in advertising management in real case studies, for example, a pot noodle
brand. Floch (1993) shares his appropriation of the semiotic square in advertising research, defining four
quadrants of types of consumption values (practical, utopian, critical, and ludic) to work within any
marketing mix or brand communication strategies and putting them into practice on advertisements for
familiar brands such as automobiles.
4. The protocol used by Stock and Marie (2015; 2020), applied in Tim Stocks company Scenario DNA
(https://www.scenariodna.com/culturemapping), is used to feed data into a language model that identifies
and positions trends in a semiotic square with four quadrants (residual, dominant, disruptive, emergent)
that represents a culture map. Although there is no relation between their protocols and our approach and
objectives, since we analyze specific objects and do not identify trends or position them in a semiotic
square, it is interesting to underline these authors’ semiotic approach and contribution to trend analysis via
semiotics.
5. The advertisements selected for each brand are as follows: MEO Natal 2020: “Neste Natal o MEO vem
com tudo” (https://youtu.be/100ZzFNiQ8k) and MEO Natal 2022: “Há Natal nas diferenças” (https://
youtu.be/ykSh57XUFeU); NOS Natal 2020: “A separação” (https://youtu.be/Aa4T3Cop2eM) and NOS
Natal 2022: “O carrossel” (https://youtu.be/b7PLmnIWly4); Vodafone Natal 2020: “Canto de Natal”
(https://youtu.be/d3iiW7sAXPw) and Vodafone Natal 2022: “Partilha o que estás a sentir” (https://youtu.
be/a1zesVBH5yc).
6. This trend highlights mainly two parallel and connected, although sometimes opposed, movements and
mindsets in tension regarding identity(ies). It represents the emergence and clash of categories that resist
hegemony and negotiate power as a mechanism to answer a growing number of identity expressions. On
the other hand, we have an increasing individualism that points to a positive liquid individual construction
of identities, harnessing different elements, practices, and representations. A full description of the macro
trend can be found in the corresponding trend report: https://creativecultures.letras.ulisboa.pt/index.php/
gtc-trends2022/
7. A well-known trace of the last years, we live in a polarized world, a polarization that manifests in political
ideas, economy, identities, communities, and other aspects of daily lives, a counter-force against the
plurality and democratic discussion as a negation movement of something that comes from a collective
environment into the individual. A full description of the micro trend can be found in the corresponding
trend report: https://creativecultures.letras.ulisboa.pt/index.php/gtc-trends2022/
20 International Journal of Market Research 0(0)

8. This trend is one of the oldest registered trends by the team of the Laboratory. It deals with a symbolic
repository that addresses memory, identity origins, and nostalgic elements that act as anchors to fix our
anxieties in a world that is growingly changing. A full description of the macro trend can be found in the
corresponding trend report: https://creativecultures.letras.ulisboa.pt/index.php/gtc-trends2022/
9. This trend points to two parallel but articulated paths: a fast-growing connection between users and
gadgets/artifacts to generate an easier control over our realities; and the growing end of the frontiers
between the physical and digital realities. A full description of the macro trend can be found in the
corresponding trend report: https://creativecultures.letras.ulisboa.pt/index.php/gtc-trends2022/
10. This trend is very different from all the other four macro trends. It is a result of the pandemic and
consequent disasters and challenges that have plagued the World. If today is more about the end of hope
regarding a better future, during the pandemic, it was about reorganizing our daily lives, transforming our
homes into multipurpose spaces, and finding ways to cope. A full description of the trend can be found in
the corresponding trend report: https://creativecultures.letras.ulisboa.pt/index.php/gtc-trends2022/

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