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The Respiratory System: Structure, Function, and Homeostasis

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A. Introduction

1. Rationale for Paper

Knowledge of the respiratory system is essential in understanding how oxygen gets into the

body and carbon dioxide gets out of it. This knowledge is crucial among healthcare

practitioners because it helps diagnose and manage respiratory system issues (Tortora &

Derrickson, 2018). Maintaining oxygen and carbon dioxide balance is a respiratory system

activity critical to cellular respiration and metabolic processes.

2. Brief Introduction to the Chosen Organ System

The respiratory system is made up of organs and structures that have the work of exchanging

gases in the body. Some involved organs are the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,

bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs (Tortora & Derrickson, 2018). The primary purpose of this

system is to deliver oxygen during inhalation and remove carbon dioxide during exhalation.

Also, it is involved in vocalization and the regulation of the acid-base balance of the body

(Santacroce et al., 2020). The system is anatomically classified into the upper and lower

respiratory tracts, which play different roles in moving air and gases.

B. Anatomy and Physiology

1. Describe the Anatomy (Structure) of the Respiratory System

There is upper respiratory and lower respiratory tract differentiation in the respiratory system.

The upper respiratory tract consists of nasal cavities, pharynx, and larynx. The nasal cavity is

located in the anterior part of the skull and has the septum that divides it into two halves with

mucous membranes and cilia (Silverthorn, 2019). Posterior to the nasal cavity lies the

pharynx, a tubular muscular structure through which air and food pass. Inferior to the

pharynx is the larynx found at the top of the trachea, which contains the voice box.
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The lower respiratory tract comprises the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs. The

trachea, or windpipe, extends from the larynx and bifurcates into the left and right main

bronchi at the level of the sternal angle (T4-T5 vertebral level) (Downey, 2023). Each

bronchus enters the corresponding lung at the hilum and branches into smaller bronchi and

bronchioles, ending in alveolar ducts and alveoli. The lungs are situated in the thoracic

cavity, flanked laterally by the rib cage, and are separated by the mediastinum. Each lung is

divided into lobes (three on the right, two on the left) and is encased in a double-layered

pleural membrane, with the pleural cavity in between.

2. Describe the Physiology (Principal Functions) of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system's primary function is to facilitate gas exchange, ensuring oxygen is

delivered to the bloodstream and carbon dioxide is removed. During inhalation, air travels

through the upper respiratory tract, down the trachea, and into the bronchi, bronchioles, and

finally, the alveoli (Peate, 2018). In the alveoli, oxygen diffuses across the alveolar and

capillary walls into the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to

be expelled during exhalation. The respiratory system also plays a vital role in maintaining

the acid-base balance of the blood (Powers, 2023). By regulating carbon dioxide levels,

which form carbonic acid in the blood, the respiratory system helps keep the pH within a

narrow range (7.35-7.45). Additionally, the respiratory system contributes to vocalization

through the vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx, and it aids in olfaction as air passes

through the nasal cavity, allowing odor molecules to be detected by olfactory receptors.

C. Homeostatic Balance

1. Explain Which Homeostatic Process(es) is (are) Regulated by the Respiratory

System:
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The respiratory system regulates the body's acid-base balance by controlling blood pH. This

is primarily achieved by modulating the levels of carbon dioxide (CO₂ ) in the blood (Libretti,

2023). Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of cellular respiration, and when dissolved in blood, it

forms carbonic acid, which dissociates into hydrogen ions (H⁺) and bicarbonate ions

(HCO₃⁻). By adjusting the rate and depth of breathing, the respiratory system can increase or

decrease the exhalation of CO₂ , thus helping to maintain the blood pH within the narrow

range necessary for optimal enzyme function and metabolic processes.

2. Trace the Receptors, Control Centers, and Effectors Involved in the Respiratory

System’s Homeostatic Process:

The homeostatic regulation of blood pH by the respiratory system involves a coordinated

effort between receptors, control centers, and effectors:

 Receptors: Chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies (near the bifurcation of the

common carotid arteries) and the aortic bodies (located in the aortic arch) detect

changes in blood pH, CO₂ , and oxygen (O₂ ) levels (Guyenet & Bayliss, 2015).

Central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata are particularly sensitive to changes

in CO₂ and H⁺ concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid.

 Control Centers: The information detected by the chemoreceptors is transmitted to the

respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and the pons (Guyenet & Bayliss, 2015).

The medulla houses the primary respiratory control center, the medullary rhythmicity

area, and the dorsal (DRG) and ventral respiratory group (VRG). The pons contain the

pneumatic and apneustic centers, which regulate the rhythm and rate of breathing.

 Effectors: The control centers in the brainstem send signals via the phrenic and

intercostal nerves to the effectors, which are the respiratory muscles. The primary

effectors include the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles (Guyenet & Bayliss,
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2015). During increased CO₂ levels (hypercapnia), the control centers stimulate these

muscles to increase the rate and depth of breathing (hyperventilation), promoting the

expulsion of CO₂ . Conversely, when CO₂ levels are low (hypocapnia), the control

centers reduce the respiratory rate and depth (hypoventilation), allowing CO₂ to

accumulate and restore the acid-base balance.

D. Summarize the Organ System

The respiratory system is essential for sustaining life by facilitating the exchange of gases,

primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide, between the body and the external environment. Its

anatomical structure, encompassing the upper and lower respiratory tracts, optimizes airflow

and gas exchange (Kia'i, 2023). The respiratory system's physiological functions include gas

exchange and the regulation of blood pH, vocalization, and olfaction (Santacroce et al.,

2020). The respiratory system maintains the acid-base balance critical for metabolic

processes through complex homeostatic mechanisms involving receptors, control centers, and

effectors (Kia'i, 2023). This intricate interplay of structure and function highlights the vital

role of the respiratory system in overall health and homeostasis.

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References

Downey, R. P. (2023, July 24). Anatomy, thorax, Tracheobronchial Tree. StatPearls

[Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556044/

Guyenet, P. G., & Bayliss, D. A. (2015). Neural control of breathing and CO2 homeostasis.

Neuron, 87(5), 946–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.08.001

Kia’i, N. (2023, May 1). Histology, respiratory epithelium. StatPearls [Internet].

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541061/

Libretti, S. (2023, May 1). Physiology, homeostasis. StatPearls [Internet].

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559138/

Peate, I. (2018). Anatomy and physiology, 10. the respiratory system. British Journal of

Healthcare Assistants, 12(4), 178–181. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjha.2018.12.4.178

Powers, K. A. (2023, January 23). Physiology, pulmonary ventilation, and perfusion.

StatPearls [Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539907/

Santacroce, L., Charitos, I. A., Ballini, A., Inchingolo, F., Luperto, P., De Nitto, E., & Topi,

S. (2020). The human respiratory system and its microbiome are at a glimpse. Biology,

9(10), 318. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology9100318

Silverthorn, D. U. (2019). Human physiology. Google Books.

https://books.google.co.ke/books/about/Human_Physiology.html?

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Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2018). Principles of anatomy and physiology. Google

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https://books.google.co.ke/books/about/Principles_of_Anatomy_and_Physiology.html?

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