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 Fig. 401.—Lunaria
biennis. Fruit, the valves of
which have fallen off.
Fig. 402.—Camelina
sativa. Fruit.
 Fig. 403.—Subularia aquatica.
Longitudinal section through the
flower.
◯ =: Thlaspi (Penny-Cress) has a flat, almost circular silicula,
emarginate or cordate, with a well-developed wing round the edge
(Fig. 406). Iberis and Teesdalia: the racemes during flowering are
especially corymbose, and the most external petals of the outer
flowers project radially and are much larger than the other two (the
flower is zygomorphic).—Biscutella, Megacarpæa.
◯ ‖: Capsella (Shepherd’s-Purse) has a wingless, obcordate or
triangular silicula (Fig. 407). Lepidium (Pepperwort) has a few–(2–4)
seeded, slightly winged, oval silicula. Senebiera has a silicula
splitting longitudinally into two nut-like portions; its cotyledons are
folded.—Anastatica hierochuntica (“Rose of Jericho”) is an annual, silicula-
fruited, desert plant (Arabia, Syria, N. Africa). After the flowering all its then
leafless branches bend together upwards, forming a kind of ball; this spreads out
again on coming in contact with water, and the fruits then disseminate their seeds,
which germinate very quickly, often in the fruit.
 3. Siliqua (Siliquosæ). The fruit is a true siliqua, several times
longer than broad. The seeds in most are borne apparently in one
row.

Fig. 404.—Transverse
section of a silicula with
broad replum: s replum; k
the valves.

Fig. 405.—Transverse section of a silicula with

narrow replum.
◯ >>: Brassica (Cabbage). The seeds are placed apparently in
one row in each loculus (Fig. 398 C); the style is long and round; the
valves have only 1 strong, longitudinal rib.—Melanosinapis (M. nigra,
Black-mustard); the style is compressed, two-edged; the valves of
the siliqua are one ribbed.—Sinapis (Mustard); quadrangular or flat
style (in which in most cases there is a seed) and 3–5 strong,
longitudinal ribs on the valves.—Eruca differs from Brassica by the
shorter siliqua, broad, sword-like “beak” and seeds in two rows.
 ◯= (Fig. 399): Cardamine (Bitter Cress) has a long, linear siliqua,
with flat, unribbed, elastic valves. The leaves are most frequently
pinnatifid or pinnate. C. pratensis reproduces by buds formed in the axils of
the leaves.—Arabis (Rock Cress); Matthiola (Stock); Cheiranthus
cheiri (Wallflower); Barbarea (Winter Cress) (double-edged,
quadrangular siliqua); Nasturtium (N. officinale, Water-cress); the
siliqua of the latter genus is in some species short, in others long.

Fig. 406.—Thlaspi arvense.

 Fig. 407.—Silicula of Capsella bursa-pastoris.
◯ ‖ (Fig.400): Sisymbrium (Hedge Mustard) the valves of the
siliqua are 3-ribbed.—Erysimum; Hesperis; Schizopetalum (with
fimbriate petals).
4. Fruit jointed (Lomentaceæ). The fruit is divided by transverse
walls into as many spaces as there are seeds, and dehisces at
maturity, generally transversely, into a corresponding number of nut-
like joints (“articulate-siliqua.”)
◯ =: Crambe (Kale, Fig. 408). The fruit has only 2 joints. The
lower one resembles a short, thick stalk, and is barren, the upper
one is spherical, and has 1 seed.—Cakile (C. maritima, Sea-kale);
the lower node is triangular, 1-locular, the upper one more ensiform,
1-locular (Fig. 409).
Fig. 408.—Fruit of Crambe
maritima.

Fig. 409.—Cakile
maritima. Fruit (2/1).
Fig. 410.—Raphanus
raphanistrum.
 Fig. 411.—Raphanus
sativus.
◯>>: Raphanus has a long siliqua, which, in the garden Radish
(R. sativus), is spongy and slightly abstricted (Fig. 411), but neither
opens nor divides transversely (a kind of dry berry), and which in the
Wild Radish (R. raphanistrum) (Fig. 410) is abstricted in the form of a
string of pearls, and separates into many joints. R. sativus; the “Radish”
is formed by the hypocotyl, after the bursting of its external, cortical portions (of
which there are generally two patches at the top of the Radish).
5. Siliqua indehiscent (Nucumentaceæ). The fruit is a short,
unjointed, unilocular and 1-seeded nut, and the fruit-stalks are often
long, slender, and drooping. (Sometimes a thin endosperm is
present).—Isatis (Woad) has most frequently an oblong, small-
winged nut; ◯‖ (Figs. 412, 413).—Bunias; Neslia.
[The systematic division of this order given above is founded upon that of A. P.
de Candolle. Prantl (Engler and Prantl, Nat. Fam.), 1891, adopts a somewhat
different system, which may briefly be summarised as follows:—

A. Hairs unbranched or absent; no glandular hairs.

 1. Thelypodieæ. Stigma equally developed on all sides; style undivided or
prolonged above the middle of the carpels, or turned back.—
Stanleyinæ; Heliophilinæ.
2. Sinapeæ. Stigma strongly developed above the placenta; style beaked
or two-lobed.
a. Cotyledons arising behind the bend of the embryo.—Lepidiinæ.
b. Cotyledons arising at the bend of the embryo.
α. Only lateral nectaries. Generally a silicula or indehiscent fruit.
—Cochleariinæ.
β. Generally a siliqua, more rarely a silicula or transversely-
divided or indehiscent fruit. Nectaries generally lateral and
median.—Alliariinæ; Sisymbriinæ; Vellinæ; Brassicinæ;
Cardamininæ.
B. Hairs collectively or partially branched, very rarely entirely absent;
glandular hairs are sometimes also present.
1. Schizopetaleæ.
2. Hesperideæ. Stigma strongly developed above the placenta; style
undivided or prolonged above the placentæ into shorter or longer
lobes.
a. Surface cells of the replum, not divided diagonally.—
Capsellinæ; Turritinæ; Erysiminæ; Alyssinæ.
b. Surface cells of the replum divided diagonally.—Malcolmiinæ;
Hesperidinæ; Moricandiinæ.
 Fig. 412.—Isatis tinctoria. Fruit (Fig.
412); and in longitudinal section (Fig.
413). (Mag.)
Pollination. Honey is secreted by the nectaries mentioned above; but the
position of the stamens is not always the most favourable for pollination by insects
(in these flowers the honey-seeking insect must touch the anthers with one of its
sides and the stigma with the other), and self-fertilisation is common. In some
species (Cardamine pratensis) the long stamens turn their anthers outwards
towards the small stamens, so that 3 anthers surround each of the two large
entrances to the nectaries.
1200 species (180 genera), especially in the cold and temperate parts of the
Old World (Europe, W. Asia). Many are weeds in this country, e.g. Wild Cabbage
(Brassica campestris), Charlock (Sinapis arvensis), Wild Radish (Raphanus
raphanistrum) and others.—The order is acrid and oleaginous. Oil is obtained from
many of the oil-containing seeds, especially of the Rape (Brassica napus),
Summer-Rape (the oil-yielding cultivated form of the Field-Cabbage) and
Camelina. Several are pot-herbs or fodder plants, e.g. Cabbage
(Brassica oleracea) with its numerous varieties: Cauliflower (var. botrytis; the
entire inflorescence is abnormally branched and fleshy), Kohlrabi (var. gongylodes,
with swollen, tuberous stem), Kale, Red-Cabbage, White-Cabbage, etc.; B.
campestris, var. rapifera (Turnip); B. napus, var. rapifera (Swede); Raphanus
sativus (Radish from W. Asia), R. caudatus (long Radish); Nasturtium officinale
(Water Cress), Lepidium sativum (Garden Cress), and Barbarea præcox (Early
Cress); Crambe maritima (Sea-Kkale). The seeds of the following are especially
used as spices: (the flour of) Melanosinapis (Black-mustard), and Sinapis alba
(White-mustard), which are officinal like the root of Cochlearia armoracia (Horse-
radish, E. Eur[**.]). The herbaceous parts of Cochlearia officinalis and danica are
medicinal.—A blue dye (woad) is extracted from Isatis.—Ornamental plants:
Cheiranthus cheiri (Wallflower), Matthiola (Stock), Iberis, Hesperis, Lunaria, and
others (especially from S. Eur.). Sweet-scented flowers are rare.

Fig. 414.—Gynandropsis
pentaphylla.
 Fig. 415.—Capparis spinosa.
Order 4. Capparidaceæ (Capers). The relationship with the Cruciferæ is so
close that certain forms are with difficulty distinguished from them. The diagram of
the flower is the same in the number and position of its parts, but it differs in the
modifications which occur in the development of the stamens. In some genera all 4
stamens are undivided; in others both the 2 median ones are divided as in the
Cruciferæ (6 stamens, but not tetradynamous) (Fig. 414); in other genera only 1 of
these; in other instances again they are divided into more than 2; and finally the 2
lateral ones also may be found divided, so that indefinite stamens occur (Fig. 415).
The bicarpellate gynœceum is unilocular (without replum), but more than 2 carpels
may occur. The ovary is elevated on a stalk (sometimes as much as 1 foot in
length); also between the stamens and corolla a similar stalk may be found (Fig.
414). The fruit is long and siliquose (Cleome, Polanisia, Gynandropsis), or a berry
(Capparis). Endosperm absent. Some have zygomorphic flowers. Gamosepalous
calyx and perigynous flowers also occur.—350 species; especially in the Tropics.
The majority are trees and shrubs, and they differ also from the Cruciferæ in
having distinct stipules present in some species.
“Capers” are the flower buds of the climbing, thorny shrub, Capparis spinosa
(Fig. 415), which grows in the Mediterranean.

Family 11. Cistifloræ.

 The flowers in this family are perfect, regular (except Resedaceæ,
Violaceæ), hypogynous, the perianth-leaves free (a few have them
slightly united), æstivation most frequently imbricate; they are
eucyclic in the andrœcium, and most frequently in the other parts,
and generally 5-merous with S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3, but other numbers
also occur; several have indefinite stamens, but the stamens arise
(where the development is known) in centrifugal order and are
arranged, often very distinctly, in bundles; in other words, the large
number of stamens is formed by the splitting of a small number
(most frequently 5); a true spiral arrangement is never found.
Gynœceum syncarpous, multicarpellary (Dilleniaceæ and a few
Resedaceæ are apocarpous), most frequently the number of carpels
is 3, forming a unilocular ovary with parietal placentæ, but parallel
with this, multilocular ovaries, with the ovules placed in the inner
angle of the loculi, are also found, and a few genera have a free,
centrally-placed placenta. The fruit is most frequently a capsule. The
dehiscence is never with a “replum,” i.e. the persistent frame of the
placenta, as in the family Rhœadinæ. One half of the orders has
endosperm (Violaceæ, Cistaceæ, Droseraceæ, Bixaceæ,
Ternstrœmiaceæ, etc.), the other has no endosperm (Resedaceæ,
Hypericaceæ, Elatinaceæ, Tamaricaceæ, etc.); some have a curved,
the majority a straight embryo. The family is scarcely quite natural; in the
future the orders will probably be arranged differently.
Order 1. Resedaceæ (Mignonettes).—Herbs or small shrubs
with spirally-placed leaves and very small, gland-like stipules (as in
Cruciferæ); the ☿, hypogynous flowers are zygomorphic, and
arranged in racemes or spikes typically without bracteoles. The
zygomorphic structure is produced by the greater development of the
posterior side of the flower, especially the petals and the nectary
(“disc,” in Fig. 416 d) which is situated between the petals and
stamens; in general there are 5–8 free sepals and petals, the latter
consisting of a large scale-like sheath with a fimbriated blade (see
Fig. 416); stamens numerous; carpels 6–2 united together; ovary
unilocular with parietal placentæ, but the cavity of the ovary is not
closed at the top. In Astrocarpus the gynœceum is apocarpous. The
fruit is most frequently a capsule; the seeds are reniform, without
endosperm, and the embryo is curved.
This order connects the Rhœadinæ with the Cistifloræ. It is closely allied to the
Rhœadinæ by its external appearance, even by the smell and taste, the parietal
placentation, structure of the seeds, the inflorescences, etc., whilst by the irregular
flowers and the disc placed at the posterior side of the flower, it is allied to
Capparidaceæ, but differs from this order in not having its characteristic number
(2–4) and by the very different mode of dehiscence of the fruit, etc. It differs from
the other orders of this family chiefly in the fact that the number of the perianth-
leaves is not constantly 5. In Reseda luteola both the calyx and corolla appear to
be 4-leaved, because the posterior sepal is suppressed, and the 2 posterior petals
are united. Where there are 10 stamens, they stand in 2 whorls, i.e. in front of the
sepals and petals; if there are several, their position depends upon the splitting.—
Astrocarpus is remarkable for its apocarpous fruit and the position of the ovules on
the dorsal suture of the carpel.
The yellow, flat disc at the back of the flower serves as a nectary, the honey
being protected by the lobes of the petals. If pollination by insects is not effected,
then self-pollination may take place, at all events in R. odorata.
45 species; the majority in the Mediterranean and in Persia. Reseda odorata
(from Egypt) is cultivated on account of its sweet scent; R. luteola (“Dyer’s Weed”)
yields a yellow dye.
 Fig. 416.—Diagram of Reseda
odorata.
Order 2. Droseraceæ (Sundews). Herbs, chiefly living on moors
or in water, and whose leaves are adapted to catch and digest small
animals. With regard to the flower, they are closely allied to the
Violaceæ, especially to those with regular flowers. Drosera (Sundew)
has a long-stalked scorpioid cyme with regular, ☿, hypogynous
flowers, 5-merous as in Viola. S5, P5, A5, G3 (in a syncarpous
gynœceum, with free, bifid styles and basal or parietally-placed
ovules in the unilocular ovaries). The capsule opens also as in Viola,
but, among other differences, the styles are free, the seeds very
small, and surrounded by a loosely lying, thin shell. Drosera has radical,
long-stalked leaves with the blade (Fig. 417) covered by numerous strong
glandular hairs, placed on the edge and in the middle; when small animals are
caught by these hairs, the latter and the entire blade close slowly over them
dissolving and absorbing all the digestible matter as nourishment.
 Fig. 417.—Leaf-rosette of Drosera rotundifolia (nat. size), and a leaf (magnified).
Dionæa muscipula (Fly-trap; N. Am.) has the same appearance as Drosera, but
the leaves are constructed as in Fig. 418. The stalk is flat and winged, the blade
small, circular, with powerful, pointed teeth along the edge, and on its surface are
6 small bristles (A), which are very sensitive. When these are touched the blade
quickly closes, folding along the midrib (B, C) and imprisoning the irritating object,
the teeth round the edges fitting like the teeth of a trap. If it happens to be an
insect or similar body, a digestive fluid is secreted which, like the gastric juice,
dissolves the digestible portions. Aldrovandia vesiculosa (Central and S. Europe)
captures small aquatic animals in a similar manner; it is a floating, aquatic plant,
the two halves of its leaves also close together when irritated (Fig. 419).—
Drosophyllum.
About 110 species; most of them in the temperate regions.
 Fig. 418.—Dionæa muscipula. Leaves (nat. size).
Orders 3 and 4. Sarraceniaceæ and Nepenthaceæ. These two orders are
perhaps most closely allied to the Droseraceæ and agree with these, among other
things, in the manner of taking nourishment. Like the Droseraceæ they absorb
nitrogenous food from dissolved animal matter by means of their leaves, which are
specially constructed both to catch, to retain, and to digest any small animals
which may be caught. The Sarraceniaceæ are North American marsh-plants (10
species) which have pitcher-like leaf-stalks, in the cavity of which a fluid (with
properties approaching those of gastric juice) is secreted, and which bear at the
apex a small, lid-like blade; these leaf-stalks are the catching and digestive
organs.—Sarracenia, Darlingtonia.
 Fig. 419.—Aldrovandia vesiculosa: A a plant (nat. size). B Leaf
(mag.); the blade is closed; the winged stalk is prolonged into 4–6
irritable bristles.

Fig. 420.—Nepenthes (reduced).

 Nepenthaceæ has only 1 genus, Nepenthes (the Pitcher-plant; about 35
species), especially found in tropical E. Asia; the majority are climbing shrubs. The
leaf-stalks are twining organs, and terminate either simply in a tendril, or in
addition to this, with a pitcher-shaped body (which in some species may be as
much as a foot in length) on whose upper edge a lid-like structure is found (Fig.
420). In this pitcher, as among the Sarraceniaceæ, a fluid is secreted which is able
to digest the animals captured (sometimes rather large) and which corresponds in
some degree to the gastric juice.

Order 5. Violaceæ (Violets). The flowers are ☿, and generally

zygomorphic, hypogynous, with S5, P5, A5, G3 (Fig. 421). The
stamens are closely applied to the ovary, they have a very short
filament, and at their summit generally a membranous appendage
formed by the prolongation of the connective (Fig. 422 g). The ovary
is unilocular with 3 parietal placentæ; style undivided (Fig. 422 B).
The fruit is usually a 3-valved capsule, opening along the dorsal
sutures (Fig. 423). Embryo straight; endosperm fleshy (Fig. 425).—
Many are herbaceous plants (e.g. Viola), but in the Tropics shrubs
are also found (e.g. Ionidium); a few are lianes; the leaves are
scattered, with stipules, and involute in the bud.

Fig. 421.—Diagram of Viola.