A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

ON
DUAL-AXEL SOLAR TRACKING DEVICE

UNIVERSITY POLYTECHNIC RGPV BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GUIDED BY: - SUBMITTED BY:-
LECH. RAJENDRA AHIRWAR OMANSHU MANIKPURI
(0006ME201019)
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work embodied in this Project entitled"DUAL-AXEL SOLAR TRACKING
DEVICE " has been satisfactorily completed by OMANSHU MANIKPURI(0006me201019)
It is a bonafide piece of work, carried out under our guidance in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering. University polytechnic RGPV, Bhopal for the partial fulfillment of the
Diploma in Mechanical Engineering during the academic year june 2024.

(Lec.SwatiGupta) (Lec.Rajendra Ahirwar)

HOD Project Guide
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University Polytechnic, RGPV
Bhopal (M.P.)

(Dr. RAVINDRA RANDA)

Principal
University Polytechnic, RGPV Bhopal(M.P.)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us immense pleasure to express our deepest sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to
our greatly respected guide Lec. Rajendra Ahirwar, of the Department of Diploma in
Mechanical Engineering. University Polytechnic RGPV, Bhopal, for his valuable guidance
encouragement and help for this work

We express our deep sense of gratitude to Miss. Swati Gupta (H.O.D.) , Mechanical
Engineering. University Polytechnic RGPV. Bhopal (M.P.) for her keen interest, continued
encouragement and support.

Apart from above, we would also like to thanks Dr. RAVINDRA RANDA,PRINCIPAL, University
Polytechnic RGPV, Bhopal for his continuous support.

We are also thankful to all the staff members of the Department of Mechanical Engineering.
University Polytechnic RGPV, Bhopal, for their cooperation in our work.
 DECLARATION

Omanshu Manikpuri (0006ME201019) Student Diploma in Mechanical

Engineering University Polytechnic RGPV, Bhopal hereby declare that the work
presented in this "Project is outcome of our own work, is Bonafide, correct to the
best of our Knowledge and this work has been carried out taking care of Diploma
in Mechanical Engineering.

OMANSHU MANIKPURI (0006ME201019)

CONTENT Page no.

Abstract----------------------------------------------01
Introduction-----------------------------------------02
Objective---------------------------------------------03
Working----------------------------------------------04
Apparatus Required-------------------------------06
Future Scope ---------------------------------------24
Result& Calculation ------------------------------25
Refrence--------------------------------------------- 27
 ABSTRACT
Solar energy is fast becoming a very important means of renewable energy resource. With
solar tracking, it will become possible to generate more energy since the solar panel can
maintain a perpendicular profile to the rays of the sun. Even though the initial cost of
setting up the tracking system is considerably high, there are cheaper options that have been
proposed over time. This project discusses the design and construction of a prototype for
solar tracking system that has a single axis of freedom.
Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are used for sunlight detection Silicon solar cells
produced an efficiency of 20% for the first time in 1985. Whereas there has been a steady
increase in the efficiency of solar panels, the level is still not at its best. Most panels still
operate at less than 40%. As a result, most people are forced to either purchase a number of
panels to meet their energy demands or purchase single systems with large outputs. There
are types of solar cells with relatively higher efficiencies but they tend to be very costly.
One of the ways to increase the efficiency of solar panels while reducing costs is to use
tracking. Through tracking, there will be increased exposure of the panel to the sun, making
it have increased power output. The trackers can either be dual or single axis trackers. Dual
trackers are more efficient because they track sunlight from both axes. The microcontroller
used in this device is ATMEGA8 which is a variant of AVR series microcontrollers and
also program by arduino uno board.
 INTRODUCTION
Solar energy is clean and available in abundance. Solar technologies use the sun for
provision of heat, light and electricity. These are for industrial and domestic applications.
With the alarming rate of depletion of depletion of major conventional energy sources like
petroleum, coal and natural gas, coupled with environmental caused by the process of
harnessing these energy sources, it has become an urgent necessity to invest in renewable
energy sources that can power the future sufficiently.
The energy potential of the sun is immense. Despite the unlimited resource however,
harvesting it presents a challenge because of the limited efficiency of the array cells.
The best efficiency of the majority of commercially available solar cells ranges between 10
and 20 percent. This shows that there is still room for improvement. This project seeks to
identify a way of improving efficiency of solar panels. Solar tracking is used. The tracking
mechanism moves and positions the solar array such that it is positioned for maximum
power output. Other ways include identifying sources of losses and finding ways to
mitigate them. When it comes to the development of any nation, energy is the main driving
factor. There is an enormous quantity of energy that gets extracted, distributed, converted
and consumed every single day in the global society. Fossil fuels account for around 85
percent of energy that is produced. Fossil fuel resources are limited and using them is
known to cause global warming because of emission of greenhouse gases. There is a
growing need for energy from such sources as solar, wind, ocean tidal waves and
geothermal for the provision of sustainable and power. Solar panels directly convert
radiation from the sun into electrical energy. The panels are mainly manufactured from
semiconductor materials, notably silicon. Their efficiency is 24.5% on the higher side
 OBJECTIVE.
Clearly defined objectives of the project, including:

Optimizing solar panel orientation and tilt angles for various geographical locations.

Implementing efficient energy storage solutions to store excess solar energy.

Developing intelligent control systems for managing solar power distribution and
consumption.

Clearly defined objectives of implementing a dual-axis solar tracker system,

including:

Maximizing solar energy capture by precisely orienting solar panels to follow the
sun's movement.

Enhancing energy generation efficiency by reducing shading and optimizing panel

angles.

Investigating the economic feasibility and practicality of deploying dual-axis solar

trackers in various applications.

WORKING
The working principle of a dual-axis solar tracker system involves continuously
adjusting the orientation of solar panels along two axes, azimuth and elevation, to
maximize the amount of sunlight received by the panels throughout the day. Here's a
detailed explanation of how a dual-axis solar tracker system operates:

Sensing Sunlight: The solar tracker system utilizes sensors or detectors to

continuously monitor the position of the sun relative to the solar panels. These
sensors detect the intensity of sunlight and provide feedback to the control system,
which includes:-

Azimuth Tracking:

Azimuth Axis Control: The azimuth axis is responsible for tracking the sun's east-
west movement. The control system calculates the sun's azimuth angle, which
represents its horizontal position relative to a reference direction (typically true
north).

Movement Control: Based on the azimuth angle information, the control system
adjusts the azimuth axis of the solar tracker to align the panels perpendicular to the
sun's rays. This adjustment ensures that the panels receive maximum sunlight
exposure throughout the day as the sun moves from east to west.

Elevation Tracking:

Elevation Axis Control: The elevation axis tracks the sun's vertical movement
throughout the day. The control system calculates the sun's elevation angle, which
represents its height above the horizon.

Movement Control: Using the elevation angle information, the control system
adjusts the elevation axis of the solar tracker to tilt the panels at an optimal angle
relative to the sun's position. This adjustment compensates for the sun's changing
altitude, ensuring that the panels maintain an optimal angle of incidence for
maximum solar energy capture.

Tracking Algorithm:

The control system employs sophisticated tracking algorithms to determine the

precise azimuth and elevation adjustments required to keep the solar panels aligned
with the sun.
These algorithms may take into account factors such as geographical location, time
of day, date, and solar position calculations to optimize the tracking accuracy and
efficiency.

Actuation Mechanism:

The solar tracker system is equipped with mechanical motors responsible for
adjusting the azimuth and elevation axes of the solar panels.

These motors receive control signals from the tracking algorithm and move the
panels accordingly to maintain alignment with the sun.

Real-Time Monitoring:

The system continuously monitors the performance of the solar tracker, including the
positions of the azimuth and elevation axes, sunlight intensity, and tracking
accuracy.

Real-time feedback allows the control system to make dynamic adjustments as

necessary to optimize solar energy capture and system efficiency.

Energy Storage (Optional):

Some dual-axis solar tracker systems may incorporate energy storage solutions, such
as batteries, to store excess energy generated during periods of peak sunlight.

Stored energy can be used to power the actuators and control system, ensuring
continuous operation even during periods of low sunlight or inclement weather

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Solar Pannel - A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by
using photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that produce
excited electrons when exposed to light. The electrons flow through a circuit and
produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices
or be stored in batteries. Solar panels are also known as solar cell panels, solar
electric panels, or PV modules

Electrical Resistance-.

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the passage of

an electric current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical
conductance, the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance
shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI unit
of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in
Siemens (S).

An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and
length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some
resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance (R) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it (V) to current
through it (I), while the conductance (G) is the inverse:

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, V and I are directly proportional to
each other, and therefore R and G are constant (although they can depend on other
factors like temperature or strain). This proportionality is called Ohm's law, and
materials that satisfy it are called "Ohmic" materials.
In other cases, such as a diode or battery, V and I are not directly proportional, or in
other words the I–V curve is not a straight line through the origin, and Ohm's law
does not hold. In this case, resistance and conductance are less useful concepts, and
more difficult to define. The ratio V/I is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a
"chordal resistance" or "static resistance",[1][2] as it corresponds to the inverse slope of

a chord between the origin and an I–V curve. In other situations, the derivative
may be most useful; this is called the "differential resistance

P–n junction diode

A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor

material, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. It is created by
doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy
(growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal
doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this
would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that severely inhibits
its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.

p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor electronic

devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are
the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a
common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p–n
junctions in series, in the form n–p–n or p–n–p.

Properties of a p–n junction

The p–n junction possesses some interesting properties that have useful applications
in modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same
is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become
depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative
voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive
layer, p–n junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow
of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. This property
is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias, where the term bias refers to
an application of electric voltage to the p–n junction.

PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width.

Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in
potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking
charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed with increasing forward bias.
 With a battery connected this way, the holes in the P-type region and the
electrons in the N-type region are pushed toward the junction. This reduces the width
of the depletion zone. The positive potential applied to the P-type material repels the
holes, while the negative potential applied to the N-type material repels the electrons.
As electrons and holes are pushed toward the junction, the distance between them
decreases. This lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage,
the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field
cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, as a consequence
reducing electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the P-
type material (or holes that cross into the N-type material) will diffuse in the near-
neutral region. Therefore, the amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones
determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode.

Only majority carriers (electrons in N-type material or holes in P-type) can flow
through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the
flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the
electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the
depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject
into the P-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the P-type
material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine with
holes. The average length an electron travels through the P-type material before
recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of
micrometers.

Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the P-type material, the
electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin
to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole
currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over
time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the P-type region into
the N-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons
and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed).

Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves
electrons flowing through the N-type region toward the junction, holes flowing
through the P-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two
species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The
electrons and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges,
so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required.

The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a

p–n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.

Reverse bias mode

A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.

Connecting the P-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and theN-
type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a

diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is higher than that at the anode.
Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks down. Reverse-bias usually
refers to how a diode is used in a circuit. The connections are illustrated in the
diagram to the right.

Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power
supply, the 'holes' in the P-type material are pulled away from the junction, causing
the width of the depletion zone to increase. Likewise, because the N-type region is
connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the
junction. Therefore, the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly with
increasing reverse-bias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high
resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to
cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the
junction behaving as an insulator.

The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage
increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n
junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either
the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes
are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does
not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal
damage.

This effect is used to one's advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes
have a certain – low – breakdown voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is
for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cathode can never be more than
5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode, because the diode will break down – and
therefore conduct – if the voltage gets any higher. This in effect regulates the voltage
over the diode.

Another application of reverse biasing is Varicap diodes, where the width of

the depletion zone (controlled with the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance
of the diode.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A

voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative
feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC
or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies
where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators
control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage
regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all
customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the
line.

The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed linear
voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits
requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family,
the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt
output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they
produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line
of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be
used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor,
although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These
devices support an input voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended
output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the make, and
typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages may
have a lower or higher current rating).

Part Output Minimum Input

Number Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
7805 +5 7.3
7806 +6 8.3
7808 +8 10.5
7810 +10 12.5
7812 +12 14.6
7815 +15 17.7
7818 +18 21.0
7824 +24 27.1

Light-emitting diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that
resembles a basic pn-junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. When an
LED's anode lead has a voltage that is more positive than its cathode lead by at least
the LED's forward voltage drop, current flows. Electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components
may be used to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted

low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting
elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide
variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low
intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing
small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the
form of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task

lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller
size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as
diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general
lighting,traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful enough for
room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while
their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

Technology
The inner workings of an LED, showing circuit (top) and band diagram (bottom)

Transistor

A transistor is a semi-conductor device used

to amplify and switch electronicsignals and electrical power. It is composed
of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a
transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in 1947 by John
Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the transistor revolutionized the
field of electronics, and paved

Simplified operation

A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a n–p–n bipolar transistor

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal
applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another
pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in
proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the
transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit
elements.

There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used
in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A
small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter)
can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter
terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source,
and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will
flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base.
Because internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor
diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current
exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made
from, and is referred to as VBE.

Transistor as a switch

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power

applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications
such as logic gates.

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the

base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector
voltage drops because of reduced resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage
difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector
current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply
voltage. This is called saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter
freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on. Providing sufficient base drive
current is a key problem in the use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor
provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector to be
switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents
varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies
depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the
resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be
saturated.

DC motor:-

A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current

electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the
direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types produce rotary motion; a
linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight line.

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can
be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by
changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in
tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a
lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors
are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel
rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors
with AC motors possible in many applications.

A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field

aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field
produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current
flowing through it.A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in

Crystal Oscillators and Applications

A mechanical or electronic device that works on the principles of oscillation is an
oscillator. In other words, oscillator can be defined as the periodic fluctuations
between two things based on changes in energy. The practical applications of
oscillators include Computers, clocks, watches, radios etc. An example for simple
type of mechanical oscillator is a clock pendulum. According to the oscillation
within atoms, the atomic clock keeps time. In order to generate signals in computers,
wireless receivers and transmitters and audio-frequency equipments, electronic
oscillators are mainly used. Particularly it is used in music synthesizers. Different
types of electronic oscillators are available. All the electronic oscillators operate
according to the same basic principle. An oscillator always employs a sensitive
amplifier, whose output signal is fed back to the input signal in phase. Hence, the
signal itself regenerates and sustains. This is called as a positive feedback. Thus the
oscillator uses a positive feedback for working. This is almost same to the unwanted
"howling" in public-address systems.
A quartz crystal determines the frequency at which an oscillator works. When a
direct current is applied, these crystals vibrate at a frequency that depends on its
thickness value and on the manner in which it is cut from the original mineral rock.
To determine the frequency, some oscillators employ combinations of inductors,
resistors, and capacitors. But, the use of quartz crystals gives the best stability
(constancy of frequency) in oscillators.
In a computer the clock serves as a sort of pacemaker for the microprocessor. The
clock is nothing but a specialized oscillator. The clock frequency (also called as
clock speed) is usually specified in megahertz (MHz) frequency. The clock
frequency is an important factor in determining the rate at which a computer can
perform the execution of instructions.
Figure shows the equivalent electronic circuit diagram of a crystal. The equivalent
diagram of a crystal consists of a resistor, an inductor and two capacitors.

The two capacitors are named as Cs and Cp

Battery

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with

external connections provided to power electrical devices. A discharging battery has
a positive terminal, or cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode. The terminal
marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit
will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a battery is connected to an
external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical
reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the
external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work.[3] Historically the term "battery"
specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has
evolved to additionally include devices composed of a single cell. Primary (single-
use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are
irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery
used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary (rechargeable
batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition
of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid
batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power
for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.According to a 2005 estimate, the
worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year,[5] with 6%
annual growth. Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass)
than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher
efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work, compared to combustion
engines.

 Light Dependant Resistor Circuit

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor
circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as
1000000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops
dramatically. Electronic onto sensors are the devices that alter their electrical
characteristics, in the presences of visible or invisible light. The best-known devices
of this type are the light dependent resistor (LDR), the photo diode and the
phototransistors. Light dependent resistor as the name suggests depends on light for
the variation of resistance. LDR are made by depositing a film of cadmium sulphide
or cadmium selenide on a substrate of ceramic containing no or very few free
electrons when not illuminated .The longer the strip the more the value of resistance.
When light falls on the strip, the resistance decreases. In the absence of light the
resistance can be in the order of 10K ohm to 15K ohm and is called the dark
resistance. Depending on the exposure of light the resistance can fall down to value
of 500 ohms. The power ratings are usually smaller and are in the range 50mw
to .5w. Though very sensitive to light, the switching time is very high and hence
cannot be used for high frequency applications. They are used in chopper amplifiers.
Light dependent resistors are available as discs 0.5cm to 2.5cm. The resistance rises
to several Mega ohms under dark conditions. The device consists of a pair of metal
film
contacts separated by a snakelike track of cadmium sulphide film, designed to
provide the maximum possible contact area with the two metal films. The structure is
housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external light.
Practical LDRs are available in variety of sizes and packages styles, the most popular
size having a face diameter of roughly 10mm. When an LDR is brought from a
certain illuminating level into total darkness, the resistance does not increase
immediately to the dark value. The recovery rate is specified in k ohm/second and
for current LDR types it is more than 200k ohm/second. The recovery rate is much
greater in the reverse direction, e.g. going from darkness to illumination level of 300
lux, it takes less than 10ms to reach a resistance which corresponds with a light level
of 400 lux. A LDR may be connected either way round and no special precautions
are required during the time of soldering. Darkness: Maximum resistance, about
1Mega ohm. 16 Very bright light: Minimum resistance, about 100 ohm. The LDR
is a variable resistor whose resistance decreases with the increase in light intensity.
Two cadmium photoconductive cells with spectral response are very similar to that
of the human eye. The cell resistance falls with increasing light intensity

12x CHARACTER LED

An LCD is an electronic display module which uses liquid crystal to produce a

visible image. The 16×2 LCD display is a very basic module commonly used
in DIYs and circuits. The 16×2 translates o a display 16 characters per line in 2
such lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in a 5×7 pixel matrix.
16X2 LCD pinout diagram

Pin
Function Name
No.
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
Contrast adjustment; the best way is to use a variable resistor
such as a potentiometer. The output of the potentiometer is
3 Vo / VEE
connected to this pin. Rotate the potentiometer knob forward
and backwards to adjust the LCD contrast.
Selects command register when low, and data register when RS (Register Select
4
high )
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given;
Extra voltage push is required to execute the instruction and
EN(enable) signal is used for this purpose. Usually, we make it
6 Enable
en=0 and when we want to execute the instruction we make it
high en=1 for some milliseconds. After this we again make it
ground that is, en=0.
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-
RS (Register select)

A 16X2 LCD has two registers, namely, command and data. The register select is
used to switch from one register to other. RS=0 for command register, whereas RS=1
for data register.

Command Register: The command register stores the command instructions given
to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task.
Examples like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position,
controlling display etc. Processing for commands happens in the command register.

Data Register: The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The
data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. When we send
data to LCD it goes to the data register and is processed there. When RS=1, data
register is selected.

Important command codes for LCD

Sr.No. Hex Code Command to LCD instruction Register
1 01 Clear display screen
2 02 Return home
3 04 Decrement cursor (shift cursor to left)
4 06 Increment cursor (shift cursor to right)
5 05 Shift display right
6 07 Shift display left
7 08 Display off, cursor off
8 0A Display off, cursor on
9 0C Display on, cursor off
10 0E Display on, cursor blinking
11 0F Display on, cursor blinking
12 10 Shift cursor position to left
13 14 Shift cursor position to right
14 18 Shift the entire display to the left
15 1C Shift the entire display to the right
16 80 Force cursor to beginning ( 1st line)
17 C0 Force cursor to beginning ( 2nd line)
18 38 2 lines and 5×7 matrix

Displaying Custom Characters on 16X2 LCD

Generating custom characters on LCD is not very hard. It requires the knowledge
about custom generated random access memory (CG-RAM) of LCD and the
LCD chip controller. Most LCDs contain Hitachi HD4478 controller.
CG-RAM is the main component in making custom characters. It stores the custom
characters once declared in the code. CG-RAM size is 64 byte providing the option
of creating eight characters at a time. Each character is eight byte in size.

CG-RAM address starts from 0x40 (Hexadecimal) or 64 in decimal. We can generate

custom characters at these addresses. Once we generate our characters at these
addresses, now we can print them on the LCD at any time by just sending simple
commands to the LCD. Character addresses and printing commands are below

In the table BELOW you can see starting addresses for each character with their
printing commands. The first character is generated at address 0x40 to 0x47 and is
printed on LCD by just sending simple command 0 to the LCD. The second
character is generated at address 0x48 to 0x55 and is printed by sending 1 to LCD.
Future Scope and Applications
Solar Energy is one of the most popular renewable sources nowadays. It is being widely used also,
and within some more years it will be very popular that it will be used for many purposes, in
industries and household as well.
So it is most important fact to utilize the maximum energy of the sun so that maximum power can
be generated. The thought behind this project is also derived from this fact. In many places
experiment is being done on this fact how it is possible to make full use of the day light. In many
places application of this project can be seen also. This project has got a bright future scope further.
Accuracy of this solar panel can be increased further and number of steps can be increased as well
to get more accurate desired output. Timer circuit can also be integrated with this so that this
system responses more accurately. Even in a cloudy day when intensity of sunlight may vary at
different time of a day, the timer circuit can be more that handy to drive the solar panel correctly in
that low light. As per energy concerned solar energy is one of the most promising energy which is
going to be a main source of energy in near future
 Results and Conclusion
In conclusion, the Solar tracking system was successfully able to increase the
efficiency of the solar panel. A threshold condition of 400 lux was set above which
the system would turn on, and motor would be rotated in the direction of the sun
accordingly. When the device is turned on, reading displayed on the LCD screen is
the voltage generated by the solar panel without tracking. After the initialization of
the device, it starts showing the voltage readings on the LCD screen when the sun is
being tracked. As the intensity of light decreases to zero (i.e. dark) since the
threshold condition is not being met, motor rotates to its original position and
remains in it until the threshold gets crossed again. After examining the information
obtained by the real time testing of the prototype, it can be said that the proposed
way of a dynamic solar tracking system, is a practicable method of maximizing the
mean intensity of sunlight received by a solar energy system. The location of the sun
was successfully tracked down and thus increasing the efficiency of the solar panel.

Fig Results and Conclusion

Table :- Results and Conclusion

Even though the system is over-designed, appropriate reductions in dimensions such
as frame length and shaft diameter, would decrease the raw material required; thus,
an even cheaper product can be created. Otherwise, the device achieved what it was
aiming.
 References
1.A. K. Saxena and V. Dutta, “A versatile microprocessor based controller for solar tracking,‟‟
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, vol. 2, pp. 1105-1109, 1990

2.B. Koyuncu and K. Balasubramanian, “A microprocessor controlled automatic sun tracker,‟‟

IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 913-917, 1991.

3. Automatic Solar Tracking System, Parasnis N.V., Tadamalle A. P International Journal of

Innovations in Engineering Research and Technology [IJIERT] ISSN: 2394-3696 volume 3,
issue 1, JAN.-2016

4. http://www.solar-facts.com/panels/panel-types.php

5.“7805‟‟ datasheet. [Online].Available: http://www.electrokits.com/ Datasheets/ 7805-

Datasheet

6.“Microcontroller”datasheet.[Online].Available:http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/datashee
ts_pdf/A/T/M/E/ATMEGA 32.shtml.

7.“Photosensor”datasheet.[Online].Available:http://www.ladyada.net/learn/sensors/cds.ht ml.