Annals of

Research
Journal
L HEALTH AND P
ANIMA ROD
OF
UC
E
LEG

TIO
OF FEDERAL COL

N TEC
HNOLOGY, IBA
ALS
ANN

DAN

VOLUME 2 August 2022

ISSN: 2811-1842

Editorial Board
Dr. E.G. Kimaro
Division of Livestock and Human Disease Vectors Control
Tropical Pesticides Research Institute.
Ngaramtoni-Area, Arusha
Tanzania

Dr Getinet Mekuriaw Tarekegn

Senior Scientist,
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
SLU,
Uppsala, Sweden

Dr S.A. Aderinoye-Abdulwahab
Department of Agric. Extension and Rural Development
University of Ilorin

Prof. Folorunso Oludayo Fasina

University of Pretoria
South Africa

Dr Jimoh W.A.
Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries
Faculty of Agriculture
University of Ilorin
Kwara State

Dr Tajudeen Yusuf
Department of Mathematical Sciences,
Federal University of Technology Akure,
Ondo state.

Dr Fasanmi O.G.
Department of Veterinary Laboratory Technology
FCAH&PT,
Ibadan

Dr. Caleb Oburu Orenge

Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery
Egerton University
Kenya

Dr F.C. Nworgu
Department of Animal Health and Production Technology
FCAH&PT, Ibadan

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ISSN: 2811-1842

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FACTOR PREDISPOSING CATFISH FARMERS TO MALARIA INCIDENCE IN IBADAN, OYO
STATE, NIGERIA
HAMZAT, O.A., A.G IBRAHIM, O.D. TAIWO, A.E SODEEQ, O.S. OYELERE, T.O. OJEBISI
.............................................................................................................................................................1-6

ATTITUDE OF POLYTECHNIC STUDENTS TOWARDS ENTREPRENUERSHIP COURSE: A

CASE STUDY OF THE POLYTECHNIC IBADAN
1
ADEPOJU, T.O., SIYANBOLA M.F , ONAKOYA, T.D.
.............................................................................................................................................................7-13

GROWTH PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS

OF BROILER CHICKENS FED DIET AND WATER SUPPLEMENTED WITH VITAMIN C AT
STARTER PHASE
Adetoro-Awopetu, B. O., Adetola O. O., Orimogunje, A. A., Falola, O. O., Adedeji, O. Y.
.............................................................................................................................................................14-17

ANTIOXIDANT AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF LACTOBACILLUS PLANTARUM

FERMENTED UNRIPE PLANTAIN FLOUR
Ajao O. Oyedele T. A., Abdulfatai A. I.and Fawole T.A.
.............................................................................................................................................................18-23

ROLE OF INFORMATION SCIENTIST IN INFORMATION LITERACY OF CLOTH TRADERS IN

TWO MAJOR MARKETS IN IBADAN METROPOLIS.
Arilesere, J.I, Oluranti, S.A, Abubakar, H.O, Ojutalayo, S.T and Akinosho, G.A
.............................................................................................................................................................24-28

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN STAR APPLE (CHRYSOPHYLLUMALBIDUM)

LEAF MEAL
Awodola-Peters, O.O., Yahaya, M.O., Saka, A.A. and Bolarinwa, M.O
.............................................................................................................................................................2932-

H E AV Y M E T A L S COMPOSITION O F C H RY S I C H T H Y S A U R AT U S ,
CHRYSICHTHYSNIGRODIGITATUS AND HEMICHROMISELONGATUS OF IVO DAM,
EBONYI STATE
Ayodele, O.P. and Olawepo, K.D.
.............................................................................................................................................................33-36

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HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE GILLS, LIVER AND MUSCLE OF CLARIASGARIEPINUS

AND SCHILBEMYSTUSIN IVO RIVER, EBONYI STATE
Ayodele, O.P., Olawepo,K.D. and Olaoti, K.S.
............................................................................................................................................................37-39

HETEROSIS AND ADAPTATIONAL RESPONSES AMONG YORUBA ECOTYPE CHICKENS

REARED UNDER INTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM IN IBADAN.
Bolarinwa M.O. , Popoola M.A., Awodola-Peters O. O., Yahyah M. O., Saka A. A. and Ijadunola T. I
.............................................................................................................................................................40-43

UDDER MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AMONG SOME OF THE NIGERIAN SHEEP

GENOTYPES
Bolarinwa M. O., Ozoje, M. O., Popoola, M. A., Saka, A. A. and Ijadunola T.I.
.............................................................................................................................................................44-47

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ANDROID BASED APPLIANCE CONTROL SYSTEM

USING BLUETOOTH TECHNOLOGY
Adegbile A. A, Ogunlesi O. O., Dada T.O., Akinosho, G.A., Olanrewaju O.T., Esuola, F.B. Onime F.,
Akintola O.S., Ayobioloja, S.P., Aguda O.O.
.............................................................................................................................................................48-63

KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICES TOWARDS COVID-19 PANDEMIC AMONG

RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN ONDO STATE
Olutumise, A. I., Ishola, O. O. and Ale, T. A.
.............................................................................................................................................................54-62

A 20-YEAR RETROSPECTIVE STUDY ON RADIOGRAPHIC COMPLICATIONS OF

FRACTURES IN DOGS IN NIGERIA
Koleosho, S.A., Adetayo, O. A., Ajayi, J.O., Fagbohun, A.F., Faramade, I. A., Akanbi, O. I
.............................................................................................................................................................63-68

ASSESSMENT OF THE HARMFUL HEALTH EFFECT OF REUSED HEATED PALM OIL

Obero, O. J., Adamu M. M., Shorinmade, A. Y., Okparaocha, F.J., Ojezele, O.J., Oyeleke, P. O., Afolabi, Q.O
.............................................................................................................................................................69-74

GROWTH RESONSE, GUT MORPHOMETRY AND MICROBIAL COUNTS OF BROILER

CHICKENS FED DIET SUPPLEMENTED WITH Garciniakola SEED MEAL AND Petiveriaalliacea
ROOTMEAL
Odetola, M. O., Adejinmi, O.O., Odukoya, S.O, Adekanbi, A.O, Adetola, O.O
.............................................................................................................................................................75-81

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INVESTIGATION OF IONOSPHERIC IRREGULARITIES ACROSS TWO EQUATORIAL

STATIONS IN NIGERIA DURING YEARS OF INCREASING SOLAR ACTIVITY
Ogunlesi, O.O., Ogunlesi, O.O., Odeyemi, O.M., Shittu, S.M.A., Oloruntola, R.F., Adegbile, A.A.,
Akinfoyeku, A.F., Igwe, C.O.,
.............................................................................................................................................................82-89

ANALYSIS OFGARCINIA KOLA (BITTER KOLA) MARKETS IN IBADAN METROPOLIS, OYO

STATE.
Ogunleye,T.B., Hamzat, O. A,Esezobor, O.S. and Taiwo, O.D.
.............................................................................................................................................................90-98

DETERMINANTS OF FOOD WASTE AMONG HOUSEHOLDS IN IBADAN METROPOLIS, OYO

STATE, NIGERIA.
Ogunleye T. B, Ishie D.N. Olatoye O.C. Tasanmi V.T. and Lamidi L.O.
.............................................................................................................................................................99-106

REMOVAL OF LEAD IONS FROM SIMULATED WASTE WATER USING UNMODIFIED,

CARBONIZED AND ACTIVATED Zea Mays (CORN) COBS AS ADSORBENTS
Okparaocha, F. J., Obero, O. J, Oyeleke, P. O, Ojezele, O. J., Ayanda. O. E, Aluko, O. I
.............................................................................................................................................................107-112

SCREENING AND OPTIMIZATION OF ARABINOFURANOSIDASE PRODUCING BACTERIA

USING PALM KERNEL CAKE (PKC) AS SUBSTRATE FOR SOLID STATE FERMENTATION.
1
Olajide, A.A., Afolayan, J.F., Adesina, F.C., Okorafor, J.C., Ogunlesi, O.O., Adetayo, T.O ., Egberongbe
1 1
J.K and Olatise, O.O
.............................................................................................................................................................113-118

HISTOPATHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN LIVER AND INTESTINE OF NILE TILAPIA (Oreochromis

niloticus ) FED ROASTED Cucumeropsis edulis SEEDMEAL BASED DIETS
OLAWEPO K.D, Banjo O.T, Ayodele O.P, FAWOLE W.O ANDIDOWU C.F
.............................................................................................................................................................119-127

PREREQUISITES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE FLUXGATE MAGNETOMETER

Oloruntola R.F Ogunlesi, O.O and Shittu S.M.A.
.............................................................................................................................................................128-136

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PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF Cucurbitapepo

(PUMPKIN SEED and SEED OIL)
SALAMI, O. O., ALUKO, O. I., OKORAFOR J. C. AND ODUSOLA, K. B.
.............................................................................................................................................................137-141

I N F O R M AT I O N A N D C O M M U N I C AT I O N T E C H N O L O G Y ( I C T ) ; TO O L F O R
ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: A REVIEW
Togun, O.A., Akinosho, G.A., Abiola O.J., Olanrewaju, O.T., Adegbile, A. A., Nwufoh C.V., Adewale F.O,
Idowu I. R.,Akintola O.S., Ayobioloja, S.P.
.............................................................................................................................................................142-144

CONSUMERS PREFERENCE FOR DUCK AND LOCAL CHICKEN MEAT IN SELECTED PARTS
OF IBADAN METROPOLIS.
Yahaya, M.O., Awodola-Peters,O.O.
.............................................................................................................................................................145-156

GROWTH RESPONSE, CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS AND BLOOD PROFILE OF BROILER

CHICKEN RAISED ON DIFFERENT STOCKING DENSITIES
Odukoya S.O., Popoola M.A., Saka A.A. and Odetola O.M.
.............................................................................................................................................................157-165

EFFECTS OF REPLACING PERIODS OF FEEDERS ON GROWTH PERFORMANCE, CARCASS

CHARACTERISTICS AND HAEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF BROILER CHICKEN
Odukoya S.O.
.............................................................................................................................................................166-171

MARKETING MARGIN AND STRUCTURE OF DRIED YAM IN IBADAN METROPOLIS, OYO

STATE.
Ogunleye,T.B., Taiwo, O.D., Hamzat, O. A., Ishie D.N.and Esezobor, O.S.
.............................................................................................................................................................173-182

D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F B R O M A T E A N D S E L E C T E D H E AV Y M E T A L S
L E V E L S I N S O M E C O M M O N LY AVA I L A B L E B R E A D S A M P L E S W I T H I N
IBADAN METROPOLIS
Ojezele OJ, Obisesan LO, Odusola KB, Shorinmade AY, Adamu MM, Obero OJ, Oyeleke PO, Okparaocha FJ
.............................................................................................................................................................183-189

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INFORMATION NEEDS, SOURCES AND UTILIZATION BY POULTRY FARMERS IN IJEBU

NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF OGUN STATE
Olarewaju, T.O., Olugbire, O.O., Orumwense, L.A., Awe, F., Oke, S.O. and Adekoya, A.D.
.............................................................................................................................................................190-201

PRODUCTION OF MOSQUITO REPELLENT AND NEEM OIL USING

NEEM LEAVES(Azadirachtaindica)
Shittu S. M. A., Ogunlesi O. O., Oloruntola R. F., Akinfoyeku A. F., Akinade A.A.
.............................................................................................................................................................202-205

CONSTRUCTION OF NITRATE DETECTOR AND ITS PERFORMANCE EVALUATION ON

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Shittu S. M. A., Ogunlesi O. O., Oloruntola R. F., Fajemiroye J. A., Agboola R. O.
.............................................................................................................................................................206-211

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FACTOR PREDISPOSING CATFISH FARMERS TO MALARIA

INCIDENCE IN IBADAN, OYO STATE, NIGERIA

*1
HAMZAT, O.A.,1A.G IBRAHIM,1O.D. TAIWO,1A.E SODEEQ, 1O.S. OYELERE,2T.O. OJEBISI
1
Department of Agribusiness Management, Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology
2
Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan Oyo State Nigeria

*Corresponding Author: hamzatolatunji22@gmail.com, Phone no: +2348133620016

ABSTRACT
Malaria is one of the most common tropical diseases plaguing the African continent and the rural areas of the
continent in particular. This study was conducted to identify the factors predisposing catfish farmers to malaria
incidencein Oyo State, Nigeria. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 120 respondents for the
study. Descriptive statistics was used to profile the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers, malaria
incidence among farmers and constraints farmers are faced with. Tobit regression model was used to identify
the factor predisposing catfish farmers to malaria. The descriptive statistics result revealed that majority
(87.9%) respondents were male while (12.1%) were female with mean age of 45 years. The result further
showed that 70.7% were susceptible to malaria. The Tobit regression model result showed that working hours
per day was positively significant which indicated that the higher the working hour the more susceptible catfish
farmers to malaria. Working hours of catfish farmers should be minimized so as to reduce malaria
susceptibility.

Keywords: Malaria, Catfish farmers, Agricultural Production, Agricultural policy.

Introduction general well-being is profound, and Africa has been

Fish farming contributes significantly to the
economy, creating employment opportunities in
rural and urban areas, serving as a viable source of
protein nutrients in Nigerian households and
improving national food security. In 2009, fish
accounted for 16.6 percent of the world population's
intake of animal protein and 6.5 percent of all
proteins consumed (FAO, 2012). Fish culture is an
efficient means of animal protein production.
Globally, fish provides about 3.0 billion people with
almost 20 percent of their intake of animal protein,
and 4.3 billion people with about 15 percent of such
protein (FAO, 2012). Increasing demand for fish
products has resulted in the growth of fish farms to
meet a substantial part of the world's food
requirement (Olasunkanmi, 2012). The main fish
cultured in Nigeria is the African catfish,
Clariasgariepinus, which is a good source of protein
and other nutrients for human health. It can be found
all over the country, is eaten by most tribes, is
immune to harsh environmental conditions, has a
high market value, is tasty, and can be kept alive for
days during marketing.
Malaria and agriculture are closely related and tends
to have causal relationshipdue to favorable
environment provided by agriculture which
enhances the breeding vector which causes malaria
in human beings (Oluwatayo, 2014). The global
impact of malaria on human health, productivity, and
particularly hard hit (Kwadwoet al., 2011).The study
of Alaba and Alaba(2010) also revealed that Malaria
is one of the greatest threats facing Africa
development today. It attacks an individual on
average of four times in a year with an average of 10
to 14 days of incapacitation.Malaria's effect on fish
farmers can be devastating. Farm households may
also withdraw savings, sell productive assets, or
borrow money to pay for treatments. The fight
against malaria is far from over the population at risk
continues to be significant (nearly 300 million
clinical cases in the world, WHO, 2011), but it is still
not easy to diagnose the disease (Rougemont et
al.,2012).Malaria, is not only a health problem, it is
also an economic problem. Malaria at the farmers'
household level affects productivity of the people
and their assets acquisition capacity. Farmers also
frequently spend substantial share of their income
and time on malaria prevention and treatment as well
as an effort to control mosquitoes (Coluzzi, 2012).
The cost of prevention and treatments consumes
scarce catfish farmer's resources. Also as some
farmers spend their productive time caring for those
under malaria attack, they themselves in turn seek
rescue from the onslaught of the disease (Mills,
2012). Malaria also results into loss of agricultural
knowledge and skills especially if it kills an
experienced farmer (Oluwatayo, 2014). Based on
the problems mentioned above, this study sought to

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identify factor predisposing catfish farmers to
malaria incidence inOyostate,Nigeria.This study
sought to evaluate factor predisposing catfish
farmers to malaria incidence in Ibadan Metropolis.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted in Ido and Ibadan South
West Local Government areas, Oyo state, Nigeria.
The two local government areas were chosen for this
study because of it is an agrarian area and possess the
preponderance of catfish farmers.Data were
collected using questionnaire and interview
schedule to obtain information from the respondents.
Simple random technique was used to select one
hundred and twenty (120) catfish farmers from the
list of three hundred and five (305) registered Catfish
Farmers Associations of Nigeria (CAFAN), Oyo
State Chapter. Ninety nine (99) questionnaires were
completely filled and analyzed. The data obtained
from the questionnaire were subjected to descriptive
statistics and Tobit regression model.
The data analyses involve the use of frequency,
mean, median and percentage to present the result.
This method of data analysis was used to profile the
socioeconomic characteristics, malaria incidence
and constraints militating against catfish farmers.
Tobit regression model
The Tobit regression model used in this study to
determine the effects of some variables on malaria
incidence of catfish farmers can be simplified as
follows:
2
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Results and Discussion
Socioeconomic and production characteristics of
Catfish farmers
Table 1 shows the distribution of socioeconomic and
production characteristics of catfish farmers like
age, gender, household size, level of education,
household size, experience and number of
fingerlings stocked.The personal and production
information of the catfish farmers in Table 1 showed
that majority of the catfish farmers(28.3%) were
within the age of 40-49 years with the mean age of
45years. This revealed that the farmers were in
economic active age. Sex plays a vital role in
agricultural production processes as most of the
activities in catfish production are energy
demanding. Most (87.9%) of the catfish farmers
were male. This is in tandem with the result of Adisa
and Okunade (2005). Large household sizes enhance
family labor availability, because it reduces labor
constraints in catfish production. Majority of the
respondents (54.5%)had a family size of 2-5
members with mean household size of 3
members.Education level of farmers had direct
influence on the adoption of improved technologies
(Zaki, 2006). The result for education level showed
that most (42.4%) of the catfish farmers had tertiary
education. The mean year of farming experience of
the catfish farmers was 7years.This implies that
farmers were not new to the business and would be
more efficient and expected to run a more profitable
agribusiness. Most (65.7% and 62.6%) of the
respondents had no access to extension services and
credit. This showed that the farmer had little capital
to invest in catfish production which could lead to
low productivity and return. The average number of
fingerlings stocked was 1346.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Table 1: Distribution of socioeconomic and production characteristics of catfish farmers

Variable Frequency Percentage Mean
Age 45
20-29 9 9.1
30-39 27 27.3
40-49 28 28.3
50-59 19 19.2
60-69 10 10.1
≥70 6 6.1
Total 99 100
Sex
Male 87 87.9
Female 12 12.1
Total 99 100
Household size 3
2-5 54 54.5
6-9 39 39.4
≥10 6 6.1
Total 99 100
Education
Non-formal 15 15.2
Primary 9 9.1
Secondary 27 27.3
Tertiary 42 42.4
Total 99 100
Experience 7
1-10 72 72.7
11-20 21 21.2
21-30 5 5.1
≥30 1 1.0
Total 99 100
Fingerling stocked 1346
500-1499 58 58.6
1500-2499 33 33.3
2500-3499 7 7.1
≥3500 1 1.0
Total 99 100
Field survey,2021

Malaria Incidence among Catfish farmers
Malaria incidence attack among catfish farmers in
Table 2 revealed that most (70.7%) of the
respondents indicated that they had malaria in the
last production season. This is in tandem with the
work of Oluwatayo (2014). Majority of the farmers
(69.7%) were incapacitated for between 1-3days.
This is in line with work of AlabaandAlaba (2010)
that showed how terrible malaria is to wellbeing of
farmers as they cannot work or command any
economic value during the days of
incapacitation.Source of malaria treatment among
catfish farmers revealed that most (30.3%) of the
respondents go to the hospital or health centers to
receive treatments. This is consistent with the
findings ofEyoet al (2006) that most farmers are
enlightened on the use of hospitals when they are
sick. Majority(20.2%) of the respondents used
mosquito nets for preventive measure. The most
common symptom of malariaexperienced among the
catfish farmers was coldness, followed by fever.

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Table 2: Malaria Incidence distribution of catfish farmers

Variable Frequency Percentage
Susceptibility
Yes 70 70.7
No 29 29.3
Total 99 100
Days of incapacitation
1-3 39 55.7
4-7 22 31.4
=8 9 12.9
Total 70 100
Symptoms Yes No Mean Rank
Stomach ache 46(65.7) 24(34.3) 0.99 13th
th
Headache 30(42.9) 40(57.1) 1.11 5
nd
Fever 22(31.4) 48(68.6) 1.19 2
Dry cough 27(38.6) 43(61.4) 1.14 4 th
Sweating 38(54.3) 32(45.7) 1.03 7 th
th
Weakness 42(60) 28(40) 0.99 10
st
Coldness 12(17.1) 58(82.9) 1.29 1
Vomiting 26(37.1) 44(62.9) 1.15 3 rd
Chills 30(42.9) 40(57.1) 1.11 5 th
th
Joint pain 43(61.4) 27(38.6) 0.98 12
th
Constipation 42(60) 28(40) 0.99 10
th
Loss of appetite 37(52.9) 33(47.1) 1.04 9
Dizziness 38(54.3) 32(45.7) 1.03 7 th
Field survey,2021

Factor influencing malaria incidence among

catfish farmers
Factor predisposing catfish farmers to malaria
incidence in Table 3 showed that the working
hours per day was positively significant at 1%. It
implied that the higher the number of working
hours per day, the more the likelihood of the
farmers' susceptibility to malaria attack due to
their farms' environment that were favorable to
breed mosquitoes. This is in line with the
findings of Oluwatayo (2014).

Table 3: Factor predisposing catfish farmers to Malaria

Variable Marginal effect Standard error P>/Z/
Constant -0.944 0.238 0.000
Age -0.002 0.003 0.482
Gender 0.0827 0.086 0.344
Education -0.003 0.006 0.585
Household size 0.0004 0.010 0.974
Experience -0.0039 0.012 0.521
Working hours per day 0.1903*** 0.012 0.000
Income -8.42 2.49 0.736
Number of ponds -0.011 0.028 0.704
LR Chi (8) = 99.78
Prob> = 0.0000
Pseudo R2 = 0.8387
Log likelihood = 9.5925
Field survey, 2021
***significant at 1% level (p>0.01)

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Constraints militating against catfish farmers high cost of input, lack of access to extension
The constraints militating against catfish production services, theft, low water supply, pests and diseases,
in Table 4 indicated that adverse weather was the cannibalism, lack of government intervention, lack
major constraint condition; other constraints include of capital.
Table 4: Distribution of constraints militating against catfish farmers
Constraints Yes No Mean Rank
Lack of capital 61(61.6) 38(38.4) 1.38 9th
Pest and diseases 52(52.5) 47(47.5) 1.47 6th
Lack of govt intervention 55(55.6) 44(44.4) 1.44 8th
nd
High cost of inputs 50(50.5) 49(49.5) 1.49 2
Low water supply 51(51.5) 48(48.5) 1.48 5th
Adverse weather condition 42(42.4) 57(57.6) 1.58 1st
Lack of experience 66(66.7) 33(33.3) 1.33 10 th
Lack of access to extension service 50(50.5) 49(49.5) 1.49 2nd
th
Cannibalism 52(52.5) 47(47.5) 1.47 6
Theft 50(50.5) 49(49.5) 1.49 2nd
Field survey, 2021

Conclusion
Good health is an asset for agriculture. This research
work found that malaria is a disease threatening the
health of most catfish farmers, malaria being a
predominant cause of illness among catfish farmers
because of the water area therefore causing a
drawback in agricultural production. The numbers of
workday lost as a result of malaria illness poses a
very serious threat to the farmers' efficiency. It was
also found that majority (70.7%) of catfish farmers
was susceptible to malaria and most (31.4%) of
catfish farmers were incapacitated for between 4-
7days. The result also showed that there was a
positive relationship between malaria incidence and
number of working hour per day which agrees with
the a priori expectation that the longer farmers stays
on the farm, the higher the likelihood of being
infected.
Recommendations
From the findings of this study, it is recommended
that catfish farmers should maximize their working
hours so as to reduce malaria susceptibility and
incapacitation. Farmers should also invest in climate
change adaptation strategies to mitigate the risk of
adverse weather condition.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to appreciate the Catfish Farmers
Association of Nigeria, Oyo State chapter for
providing the necessary data used in this study.

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Alaba, O.A. and Alaba, O. B. (2010).“Malaria in Children; Implications for the productivity of female
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Eyo, E.O., Ele, I. E. Eyo, O.I. (2006): Occupational Health Problems, cited in Ogana M. U. (2010): Effect of
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Fourie, J.J. (2006): “A practical investigation into catfish (Clariasgariepinus) farming in the Vaalharts
Irrigation Scheme”, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Faculty of
Natural and Agricultural Sciences.
KwadwoAsenso-Okyere, Felix A. Asante, JifarTarekegn, and Kwaw S. Andam (2011). “Addressing the link
between Agriculture, Malaria and Development in Nigeria” Conference paper for Levering
Agriculture for improving nutrition and health. Pg 16.

Mills, A. (2012): Operational Research on the Economics of Insecticide Treated mosquito nets: Lesson of
Experience. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 92(4).

Olasunkanmi, J.B. (2012): “Economic Analysis of Fish Farming in Osun State, South –Western Nigeria”,
Proceedings of The International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade, Tanzania, 1 – 10.

Oluwatayo I. B. (2014). Socioeconomic Burden of Malaria on Productivity of Rice Farmers in Rural

Southwest, Nigeria Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy Vol 5
No 15 July 2014
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Development.Ph.D.Thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension
,UsmanuDanfodiyo University, Sokoto

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ATTITUDE OF POLYTECHNIC STUDENTS TOWARDS ENTREPRENUERSHIP

COURSE: A CASE STUDY OF THE POLYTECHNIC IBADAN

1 2 3
ADEPOJU, T.O., SIYANBOLA M.F , ONAKOYA, T.D.
1.
Department of Library and Information Science, The Polytechnic Ibadan
2.
Department of Biology, The Polytechnic Ibadan
3.
Department of Library and Information Science, The Polytechnic Ibadan

*Corresponding Author: oadepojutolulope@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
This aim of this study is to examine student's attitude toward entrepreneurship course in Polytechnics. Four
Research questions were formulated to guide the study. The total population of the study was 250 while the
sample size of 50 students was chosen from the five (5) departments chosen among the five (5) faculties in The
Polytechnic Ibadan. The instrument used for the study was questionnaire which was constructed by the
researchers. A total of 250 questionnaires were distributed out of which 200 questionnaire were returned.
Frequency counts and simple percentage were used to analyse the obtained data. The descriptive research
design was adopted for this study. The findings revealed that entrepreneurship course has positive impacts on
polytechnic student as it prepares them to be their own boss. Also, lateness to class, truancy, noise making and
unpreparedness has been identified to be the different attitudes exhibited by polytechnic students toward
entrepreneurship course. More so, the study revealed that over populated class, lack of money to procure
learning materials, long distance of entrepreneurship center and inconvenient lecture time are the reasons
behind student's attitude towards entrepreneurship course. The study also states some challenges facing the
teaching and learning of entrepreneurship course in polytechnics. Several recommendation were also made
from the study.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Attitude, Polytechnic

INTRODUCTION aspiring entrepreneurs particularly in the

The emergence and introduction of entrepreneurship
education in higher institutions of learning as a
course, has taken a rapid growth, because of its
contributions to economic development and the
nation at large. The evolution of entrepreneurship
education as course of studies in tertiary institutions
by government is the right step in a right direction for
students to properly plan their career and future.
Entrepreneurial businesses have for long been
recognized as engines of economic growth and
industrialization. Consequently, given the
widespread acceptable of the role of
entrepreneurship and new firm formation as engine
of growth and innovation, several developing
countries public policies paying increasing attention
to private development (Okpara, 2011).
Entrepreneurship education has caught much
interest and provides a body of knowledge to
Polytechnics. Read and Sarasvathy (2005) reported
that studying entrepreneurship as a form of expertise
promises to shed light not only to how new
businesses and markets are created but also how to
make existing large enterprises more entrepreneurial
as well.
In 2006, the Nigerian National Council on Education
(NCE) during its 53rd meeting directed that all
higher education institutions in Nigeria should
introduce entrepreneurship education as a
compulsory course for all their students (irrespective
of their course of studies) from 2007/2008 academic
session. Entrepreneurship education is expected to
equip students (graduate and non-graduate) from the
system with appropriate skills, competence, ability
and disposition to compete globally with their
counterparts and also contribute meaningfully to

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Nigeria's social-economic developments. National
Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in
collaboration with Polytechnics and Colleges of
Technology ensures that the introduction of
entrepreneurship education is complied with in all
the institutions across the nation. Nigerian
Polytechnics, therefore, have great responsibility to
encourage students to imbibe the entrepreneurial
culture that encourages them to be creative,
innovative, develop or find new solutions, ideas and
ways of doing things and believe in their ability to
excel.
In the prevailing circumstances, entrepreneurship
has been widely seen as a key element, crucial to
economic revitalization. This is due to the fact that
research has shown that entrepreneurship is
responsible for the creation of innovations that
improve competitiveness of firms, creation of
wealth, jobs and economic growth (Acs and
Audretsch, (2003). Literature has cited lack of
entrepreneurship as the main cause of a country's low
levels of economic activities, entrepreneurship is
receiving more attention from governments and
organisations in economic planning and
development. However, graduates of tertiary
education system who reside in countries
characterized by high population growth and low
level of industrialization are inherently
disadvantaged in terms of work prospects, hence
their susceptibility to poverty. This necessitates the
introduction of entrepreneurship education in the
curriculum of higher institution.
Attitudes are habitual ways of reacting to situations.
The term 'attitude' is generally reserved for an
opinion which represents a person's overall
inclination towards an object, idea or institution.
Attitudes can be positive, negative or neutral and
also dormant and more generalised. But, in
entrepreneurship context, an attitude has been
defined as the extent to which one perceives
entrepreneurial behaviour and its consequences as
valuable, beneficial and favourable(Ajzen, 2002).
Understanding students' behavior and attitude
towards entrepreneurship in schools will help
develop entrepreneurship education programs that
suit the nation and are student centred. It is important
to note that positive behavior and attitude of students
towards entrepreneurship course, fuels
entrepreneurship education in schools where it is
8
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
been taught.
According to Hannan, et al., (2004), positive
attitudes towards entrepreneurship is useful for the
development of high level entrepreneurial initiative
among students. Students' attitude towards
entrepreneurship will influence the way they
approach the entrepreneurship course and
consequently their entrepreneurial intention. Thus if
the attitude of students towards entrepreneurship
education is positive, then the probability of them
engaging in entrepreneurial activities will be high.
Positive attitude is a vital mind-set that should be
possessed by every aspiring entrepreneur. Likewise,
students' attitude towards entrepreneurship will
determine how they approach the course and the
benefit they will derive from the course. Students
with positive attitude towards the course will be full
of drive, eagerness, enthusiasm and inquisitiveness.
The Vocational Skills and Enterpenueship study
centre, The Polytechnic Ibadanwas established in
compliance with the Federal Government's initiative
through National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE)that all tertiary institutions in Nigeria must
establish Entrepreneurship Development Centres
(EDC) to solve graduatesunemployment crises by
ensuring that they acquire functional entrepreneurial
skills, desirable work habit in addition to their formal
education which will enable them to be self-reliant,
self-employed and productive members of the
society. To this end, Vocational Skills and
Entrepreneurship Study Centre (VSESC) was
resuscitated by the school management in June2008
after the extinction of the old Vocational Skills
Improvement Unit (VSIU) to serve as community
service and revenue generating outfit. This is a
double barrel conception viz: skill acquisition
programme and entrepreneurship development of
graduates of this institution. In fact, Vocational Skills
and Entrepreneurship Study Centre (VSESC) is to
ensure that all graduates of the Polytechnic, Ibadan
are practically sound in at least one
vocational/entrepreneurial skill before graduation so
that they can be self-reliant, self-employed and
employer of labour rather than job seekers. The
centre is composed of Water factory, Garment and
Clothing factory, Barbing and Hairdressing factory,
Shoe Making and Soap Making factory
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Students' attitudes towards entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education can be measured in
terms of three components of entrepreneurship
attitudes namely cognitive, affective and
behavioural attitude components (Pulkaet al, 2014).
The cognitive component relates to beliefs, thoughts
and knowledge students have about
entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education
that shape their attitudes and behaviours (Amdam,
2011). The affective component relates to feelings
and emotions about entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education, that is, how a person
sees the desirability or relevance of something and
hence whether eventually they either like it or not
(Pulkaet al, 2014). The behavioural component
relates to actions, overt responses and willingness to
respond to or accept something (Mani, 2008).
Despite the benefits of entrepreneurship education
course to students in tertiary institutions especially
polytechnics, research has shown that there are some
challenges facing the impartation of entrepreneurial
knowledge and skills in students. Lack of
instructional materials that contains information
needed to train students on entrepreneurial skills and
modern trends in entrepreneurship is one of the
major factor affecting impartation of entrepreneurial
education in polytechnics. Adekola (2010) noted that
instructional materials are one of the factors
influencing functional education in Nigeria. There
are lacks of quality entrepreneurial test books in
Table 1: Sample Size
FACULTY DEPARTMENT
Faculty of Science Science Laboratory Technology
Faculty of Financial Management Accountancy
Studies
Faculty of Engineering Computer Engineering
Faculty of Environmental Studies Survey and Geo-informatics
Faculty of Communication and Mass Communication
Business Studies
TOTAL
Source: Field Data
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Nigerians schools even the teaching methods in use
does not suit the practical aspect of entrepreneurial
education. Inadequacy of facilities and equipment
for teaching and learning of the subject (Ekoh,
2016), Poor societal attitude to vocational and
technical education (Daboer, 2011), incompetence
of teachers (Ogeifo, 2013) amongst others are
problems facing the impartation of entrepreneurial
knowledge in students.
Thus, this study sought to evaluate the attitude of
polytechnic students towards entrepreneurship
course: a case study of The Polytechnic Ibadan
METHODOLOGY
Descriptive research methodology and was adopted.
Data for this study were collected by means of
questionnaire. The questionnaire focused on the
attitude of the students towards entrepreneurship as a
course and the relevance of the course to the
students. A total of 250 copies of questionnaire were
distributed to NDII students of five(5) departments'
chosen among the five faculties in The Polytechnic
Ibadan. NDII students were chosen because they
have more knowledge and experience about the
course. Moreover, the departments were chosen for
equal representation and because the departments
are themost populated in the each faculty. Data
gathered were analyzed using frequency count and
simple percentage.The breakdown of the
distribution of questionnaire is listed below.
NO. OF
QUESTIONNAIRE
50
50
50
50
50
250
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Research question 1: What is the impact of
entrepreneurship course on polytechnic
students?
Results in Table 2 revealed that, 182 students (91%)
agreed that entrepreneurship course has positive
impact on them being a vocational skill. They
confess that it helps them to learn how to be creative
Tab le 2: Imp acts of entrepren eu rship cou rse on polytechnic stu den ts
Positive impact
Negative impact
No idea
Total
Source: Field D ata
Research question 2: What are the different
attitudes displayed by polytechnic students
towards entrepreneurship course?
From the table below, 62 (31%) of the students
always come late to the entrepreneurship class.
Lateness is a sort of attitude that is always exhibited
by polytechnic student. 38 (19%) of students doesn't
attend the entrepreneurship class and they are still in
T ab le 3: D iffe re nt attitude s d isp la ye d by po ly te ch nic s tu de nts tow ar ds en tr ep ren eu rs hip
co urs e
A T T I T U D E S of s tu de nts F REQUE NCY
Late nes s to c las s 62
Truanc y 38
N ois e making 52
U npre pare dnes s 48
T otal 2 00
So urce: Fie ld D ata
Research question 3: What are the reasons for the
attitudes exhibited by polytechnic students
towards entrepreneurship course?
In the table below, 65 (32.5%) explained that the
class they are using for entrepreneurship class is to
small compared to the number of students taking the
course being a compulsory course, hence they
experience heat and noise which affect the learning.
While 56 (28%) said that they don't have money to
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
and become a business owner thereby serving as a
source of income to them as students even after their
graduating. While 10 students (5%) said that they do
not feel the positive impact of entrepreneurship
course, 8 students (4%) did not even know what to
say, which means they are yet to acknowledge the
purpose of entrepreneurship as a course.
Resp on se Freq uency
Yes 182 (91%)
No 10 (5%)
8 (4%)
200
(100.00%)
school. While, 52 (26%) see entrepreneurship class
as a time to discuss with their colleagues and this
causes noise making which is dangerous to learning.
Also, 48 (24%) have been displaying
unpreparedness attitude by not bringing to class the
materials needed to carry out the learning. All these
attitudes prompts the investigation into this research
work.
%
31 %
19 %
26 %
24 %
10 0%
buy listed materials for practical like, soap making,
shoe and bag making etc. 40 (20%) of the students
said that, the location of the entrepreneurship center
is far from the school area where they have their
classes, so they trek to the center under hot sun and
they are tired most of the time. 39 (19.5%) of the
students also complained that the time fixed for the
entrepreneurship class is not convenient as most of
the classes are slated for evening.
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Table 4: Reasons for various attitudes displayed by polytechnic students towards

entrepreneurship course

REASONS FREQUENCY %
Over populated class 65 32.5%
Lack of money to procure learning materials 56 28%
Long distance of entrepreneurship center to class 40 20%
Inconvenient lecture time 39 19.5%
Total 200 100%
Source: Field Data
Research question 4: What are the problems is situated at the extreme end of the school. The
facing the teaching and learning of school buses does not go to the area, so they need to
entrepreneurship course in polytechnic? trek down to the center most times which is very
From the table 5, there are several problems facing stressful. 46 (23%) of the students said that the
the teaching and learning of entrepreneurship course teaching and non-teaching staff of the center are not
in polytechnics. For instance 80 (40%) of students enough to handle the number of students taking the
said that lack of power supply since the price of course, hence, the center needs more personnel to
fuel/diesel has gone up, affects their practical classes work with both teaching and non-teaching staff.
e.g. hairdressing, computer training, tailoring uses Moreover, 20 (10%) students complained that
electricity to operate their machines. 34 (17%) of the people in the society still look down on a one man
students complained that they need money to buy business, thereby depending on white-collar jobs
catering materials, shoes and bad materials for which are limited in the society.
practical. 20 (10%) students affirmed that the center

Table 5: Problem facing the teaching and learning of entrepreneurship course in

polytechnics

PROBLEMS FREQUENCY %
Lack of power supply 80 40%
Lack of money for procurement of learning materials 34 17%
Lack of transportation to the learning center 20 10%
Inadequate personnel staff for teaching and administration of 46 23%
center
Poor societal attitudes towards vocational and technical
20 10%
education
Total
200 100%
Source: Field Data

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CONCLUSION, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS RECOMMENDATION

Based on the findings of this research, it can be
deduced that entrepreneurship course has positive
impacts on polytechnic students. Also, lateness to
class, truancy and unpreparedness are the major
attitudes of polytechnic students towards
entrepreneurship course. More so, overpopulated
class, lack of money to procure learning materials
and the long distance of entrepreneurship centre
amongst others are the reasons behind the attitudes
of students towards entrepreneurship course.
However, the major challenges facing the teaching
and learning of entrepreneurship course are lack of
power supply, inadequate personnel staff for
teaching and administration of entrepreneurship
centre and lack of money to procure learning
materials.
Recommendations were made based on the findings
and conclusion of this research. First, the school
authority should ensure there is adequate stable
power supply. In addition, the money for the
procurement of learning materials needed by
students should be paid along with their school fees.
Also, more hands should be employed at the centre,
both teaching and non-teaching. Moreover, time for
the teaching of practical on entrepreneurship should
not clash with other courses and should be fixed at a
convenient time. Government should also encourage
and empower youth for entrepreneurship and not to
place white collar jobs over private business. In
conclusion, more lecture halls should be built at
vocational centres for the teaching of
entrepreneurship course.

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Daboer, D.G. (2011). Entrepreneurship and functional vocational Education: a catalyst for the
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measure success? Working paper, Queen's University of Belfast.
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Solution to unemployment. Education Review, 14(1) 81-92.
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Kubberød, E., &Pettersen, I. B. (2017). Exploring situated ambiguity in students' entrepreneurial learning.
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Mani, U.A.U, (2008). Customer attitude toward interest free banking in Maiduguri. Unpublished Dissertation.
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Ogeifo, S.A. (2013). Entrepreneurship Education in Nigeria. A panacea for sustainable development in
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Pulka, B.M., Rikwentishe, R. &Ibrhain, B. (2014). Evaluation of Students' Attitude towards entrepreneurship
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students.Canadian Social Science, 6(3): 34-44.

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GROWTH PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS

OF BROILER CHICKENS FED DIET AND WATER SUPPLEMENTED
WITH VITAMIN C AT STARTER PHASE

Adetoro-Awopetu, B. O., Adetola, O. O., Orimogunje, A. A., Falola, O. O. Adedeji, O.Y

Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria.

Corresponding author: bcrown06@yahoo.co.uk

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to investigate the growth performance, proximate and carcass characteristics of
broiler chickens fed diet and water supplemented with vitamin C at starter phase. A total of 200 day-old chicks
were distributed into 4 treatment groups with 6 replicates containing 8 chicks each. The experimental diets
were: (T1) control, (T2) had an inclusion of 0.5grams of Vitamin C per kg of feed, (T3) had 0.5grams of vitamin
C per liter of water and (T4) had 0.25grams of Vitamin C each per kg of feed and liter of water .The experiment
lasted for 35 days. Data on the growth performance, mortality and carcass characteristics such as average life
weight, average bled weight, dressing percentage, primal cuts and organs were recorded. The data was
subjected to Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the significant differences were separated using Duncan
Multiple Range Test of the same software.The results showed that dietary Ascorbic acid did not affect the
growth parameters of broilers (P>0.05). There were significant differences (P < 0.05) in the head, neck,
gizzard, lungs, kidney, liver and crop while all the other carcass parameters were not significant (P>0.05). The
dry matter, crude protein and Ash content of the meat were not affected (p>0.05) but fat was slightly reduced
(p<0.05) by the dietary supplement.It was therefore concluded that supplemental vitamin C in feed and water
had more effect on the carcass dressing percentage compared to others fed in water or in feed only.Chick
mortality also reduced.

Keywords: Poultry, Primal cuts, heat stress, Production

Introduction Materials and methods

One of the most important environmental variables
is temperature especially in the tropics as it causes
heat stress which does not only causesuffering and
death of the birds, but results in reduced or lost
production and hence adversely affects the profit
from the enterprise (Defra, 2003). Heat stress
alsooften results from housing large number of birds
together in poultry and this is very common in
current poultry production methods especially
broiler chickens which makes them more susceptible
to change in environmental conditions compared to
other domestic animals (Abioja, 2010).Vitamin C
had been fed in feed and in water to broiler chickens
with remarkable results especially under heat stress
condition to avert the effect of heat on the
performance of the birds. Though poultry have the
ability to biosynthesize ascorbic acid within their
body, this is however limited in very young birds
(Leeson and Summers 2001) which makes
supplementation of this vitamin essential. Ascorbic
acid supplementation in poultry feeds has been
reported to have positive effects such as weight gain
and improved immune response (Puthpongsiriporn
et al., 2001). There is therefore the need to compare
the combined effect of supplemental vitamin C fed to
broiler chickens in both feed and water on the growth
performance of broiler chickens at starter phase and
on the carcass characteristics of these broiler
chickens at seven weeks which this study centers on.
This experiment was carried out at the student
experiment site, Bora, Federal College of Animal
Health and Production Technology, Moor
Plantation, Apata, Ibadan. The duration of the
experiment was 5weeks. 200 day old chicks were
purchased from a reliable source and were reared
with a commercial starter diet for three days,
followed by respective experimental diets. The
experimental design used was a completely
randomized design, in which chicks were randomly
divided into 4 treatments and each treatment was
subdivided into 6 replicates of 8 birds each.
Commercial feed was used containing 23% and 20%
crude protein for starter (0-3 week) and finisher (4-5
week), respectively, as shown in Table 1. The
treatments were (T1) control, (T2) 0.5g vitamin C/kg
of feed, (T3) 0.5g of vitamin C /liter of water, (T4)
0.25g/kg of feed +0.25g/liter of water. These levels
of Vitamin C in feed and water were compared
considerably.Data was collected on their average
weight gain and Feed intake while FCR was
calculated. Two birds were selected per replicate at
the end of the fifth week andlife weight of the birds
were taken then the birds were slaughtered to
determine their bled weight, de-feathered weight
was determined by noting the weight of the birds
after the feathers have been removed and some other
carcass parameters such as thigh, wing, breast and
shank weights were determined by weighing and

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expressed as percentage of the dressed weights. 10g from the thigh meat of each replicate was collected for
laboratory analysis. Data collected was subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)and means were
separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test according to the proceeding of (SAS 2003).

Table 1: Experimental layout

Results and Discussion
The body weight, daily weight gain and feed
conversion ratio of broilers were not statistically
influenced by the dietary Ascorbic acid at the
experimental period. It is generally assumed that
dietary ascorbic acid supplementation increased
feed intake of birds at the heat stress condition.
However in the present study there was no difference
in terms of Feed intake between control and other
Treatments. The chick results showed that chicks
consumed enough feed ad libitum and Body Weights
was not affected by the heat stress. Since, it is known
that effectiveness of ascorbic acid in poultry diets
have a high value in heat stress but not in normal
condition (Kutlu, 2001). This study showed that 0.25
to 1000 mg/kg dose of Ascorbic acid
supplementation to the diets did not affect body
weight, body weight gain and feed conversion ratio
in broilers which negates Sahin et al. (2003) and
Lohakare et al. (2005) that both reported that dietary
Ascorbic acid (150 to 1000 mg/kg) improved
performance traits of broilers under heat stress.

Table 2: Effect of Vitamin C on Growth Performance of Broiler

Parameter (g) T T T T ± SEM
1 2 3 4

z 154.17 153.75 160.42 159.17 1.22

Final weight 922.09 876.67 839.00 825.00 11.23
W.G. 769.92 722.92 678.58 665.84 11.50
D. W. G. 21.94 20.65 19.38 19.02 0.37
Total feed intake 2319.73 2316.68 2320.89 2317.46 30.29
FCR 2.51 2.64 2.77 2.80 2.94
a b c c
Mortality % 0.53
10.42 6.25 4.17 4.17
abc
– Means along the same row with different superscripts are significantly difference (P< 0.05)
DWG – Daily Weight Gain g/Day
FCR – Feed Conversion Ratio
W.G. - Weight gain

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The proximate composition showed that the dry
matter, crude protein and crude ash content of the
thigh were not statistically affected by the dietary
Ascorbic acid supplementation (P>0.05). However,
dietary Ascorbic acid supplementation decreased
(P<0.05) crude fat content of thigh meat as reported
by Kutlu (2001), who found that dietary Ascorbic
Table 3: Chemical analysis of meat from broiler chickens fed supplement Vitamin C
Table 4 showed that there were significant (p<0.05)
differences in Neck, Head, Gizzard, Lungs, Kidney,
Liver and Crop of the broiler carcass supplemented
with vitamin C in the feed and water. However, there
were no significant effect of vitamin C supplement
on the live weight, bled weight, defeathered weight,
dressing percentage, thigh, wing, drumstick, back,
breast, shank, spleen, heart and intestine of the birds
and this agrees with the report of Abioja et al. (2011)
who stated that addition of vitamin C to drinking
water of broiler chicken had no significant effect on
the relative weight of drumstick, thigh, heart, spleen
and breast while Kutlu (2001) found that dietary
vitamin C supplementation decrease the fat content
in broiler chickens. Though Mbajiorgu et al. (2007)
Table 4: Carcass characteristics of broiler chickens fed supplemental vitamin C
16
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
acid supplementation decreased fat content in
broilers. These experiment results suggested that
additional Ascorbic acid in broiler diets had some
beneficial effects on some examined parameters
such as crude fat of meat in broiler chicks, but most
parameters were not influenced by the dietary
Ascorbic acid supplementation.
reported that increased ascorbic acid
supplementation increases the dressing percentage
of broiler chickens. T3 had the highest value for Neck
a a
(6.62 %) and Head (4.71 %). The Gizzard, spleen
and lung were highest in T4 which were fed
supplemented Vit C in feed and water (3.40%, 0.10%
and 0.54a %) respectively. T1 which was the control
a
had the highest value for kidney (0.24 %), liver
a a
(2.14 %), and crop (0.84 %). Though vitamin C is
necessary for bone development as a co-factor for
the bioconversion of vitamin D3 to its active form
(McDowell, 2000), it did not have significant effect
on the shank across the treatments.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Conclusion and Recommendation
It was therefore concluded that feeding
supplemental vitamin C in feed and water have more
effect on the survival of the birds and reduced the fat
content of the meat compared to others fed in water
or in feed alone.
Based on the present investigation, farmers can feed
supplemental vitamin C to their broiler chickens in
feed and water for better survivability of the birds as
well as improving the meat quality of the broiler
birds.

References
Abioja, M.O., Osinowo, O.A., Smith, O.F., Eruvbetine, D. and Abiona, J.A. (2011). Evaluation of cold water and vitamin
C on broiler growth during hot-dry season in south-western Nigeria. Archivos De Zootecnia, 60, 1095–1103.
Defra: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs(2003). Heat stress in Poultry – Solving the problem_ The
Poultry Site. 5m Editor, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Nobel House, 17 Smith Square,
London SW1P 3JR, PB 10543
Leeson, S. and Summers, J.D. (2001). Scoot's Nutrition of the Chicken. 4th Edn., Nottingham University Press, England.
Puthpongsiriporn, U., Scheideler, S.E., Sell, J.L. and Beck, M.M. (2001). Effect of vitamin E and C supplementation on
performance, in vitro lymphocyte proliferation, and antioxidant status of laying hens during heat stress. Poultry
Science, 80:1190-1200.

Kutlu, H.R., (2001). Influences of wet feeding and supplementation with ascorbic acid on performance and carcass
composition of broiler chicks exposed to a high ambient temperature. Arch. Tierernahrung, 54: 127-139
Lohakare, J.D., Ryu, M.H., Hahn, T.W., Lee, J.K. and Chae, B.J. (2005). Effects of supplemental ascorbic acid on the
performance and immunity of commercial broilers. J. Applied Poult. Res., 14: 10-19.
Mbajiorgu, C.A., Ngambi, J.W. and Norris, D. (2007). Effect of time of initiation of feeding after hatching and influence of
dietary ascorbic acid supplementation on productivity, mortality and carcass characteristics of Ross 308 broiler
chickens in South Africa. Int. J. Poult. Sci, 6 (8): 583-591.
McDowell, L. R. (2000). Vitamins in Animal and Human Nutrition. (2nd Edition).Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Sahin, K., Sahin, N. and Kucuk, O. (2003). Effects of chromium and ascorbic acid supplementation on antioxidantrcass
traits, serum metabolites and antioxidant status of broiler chickens reared at a high ambient temperature (32°C).
Nutr. Res., 23: 225-238

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ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

ANTIOXIDANT AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF LACTOBACILLUS

PLANTARUM FERMENTED UNRIPE PLANTAIN FLOUR
1 1 2 3
* Ajao O. Oyedele T. A. , Abdulfatai A. I. and Fawole T.A.
1
Department of Biology, the Polytechnic, Ibadan
2
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, the Polytechnic, Ibadan
3
Department of Chemistry, the Polytechnic, Ibadan, Nigeria

E-mail: ajaoomobayonle@gmail.com

Abstract
This study was carried out to determine the reducing sugar content and sensory evaluation of Lactobacillus
plantarum fermented unripe plantain flour. Two species of unripe plantain were collected from Oje market. This
was fermented spontaneously for 48h. Isolation and identification of lactic acid bacteria from the samples were
carried out using a standard method. Antioxidant and Sensory properties of raw and fermented samples were
determined. The result of this study showed that the pH decreased from 6.9 at 0h to 4.7 at 48h. No growth was
5 8
observed at 0h but count increased from 6.71 x 10 at 6h to 2.28 x 10 at 48h. Lactobacillus plantarum,
L.fermentum, L.bulgaricus and Leuconostoc mesenteroides were isolated and identified from fermenting
unripe plantain. L.plantarum had the highest percentage frequency of occurrence while Leuconostoc
mesenteroides had the least frequency occurrence. L. plantarum fermented unripe plantain flour sample had
the highest anti-oxidant propertieswhile all samples have the same ratings for organoleptic properties. It can
be concluded that L. plantarum fermented unripe plantain flour sample had the highest anti-oxidant properties
There is need of public awareness by appropriate government authorities on the importance consumption of L.
plantarum fermented unripe plantain flour to increase the consumption of this natural food product at the
expense of orthodox medicine because of its medicinal purpose in the treatment of ailment implication reactive
oxygen species and oxidative stress.

Keywords:Lactobacillus plantarum, Antioxidant properties, Unripe plantain flour and Fermentation

Introduction Plantains are monocotyledonous perennial and

Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers
electrons from one molecule to an oxidizing agent.
Oxidation reactions are known to produce free
radicals. The free radicals are highly reactive species
which contains one or more unpaired electrons in
their outermost shell. Once they are formed, the
chain reaction starts. Antioxidant reacts with these
free radicals and terminates this chain reaction by
removing free radical intermediates and inhibits
other oxidation reactions by oxidizing themselves.
(Teresa et al., 2011).
Though oxidation reactions are crucial for life, they
can also be damaging. Oxidative stress plays a key
role in causing various human diseases, such as
cellular necrosis, cardiovascular disease, cancer,
neurological disorder, Parkinson's dementia,
Alzheimer's disease, inflammatory disease,
muscular dystrophy, liver disorder and even aging.
This calls for the need of antioxidant (molecules that
prevent cellular damage caused by oxidation of other
molecules) in the body. (Akinsanmi et al.,
2015).Plants such as plantain have complex system
of multiple types of antioxidants, such as vitamins C
E as well as enzymes, such as catalase (CAT),
superoxide dismutase (SOD) and various
peroxidases.
important crops in the tropical and subtropical world
regions. They belong to the family 'Musaceae'.
Plantain species are classified either by bunch type,
floral size or size of the pseudostem (false stem). The
bunch type and floral size were classified based on
their characteristics into: French plantain, French
horn plantain, horn plantain and false horn plantain.
The size of the pseudostem was classified into: Giant
plantain, Medium plantain and Small plantain.
(Akinsanmi et al.,2015).
Plantains are highly perishable and subjected to fast
deterioration as the moisture content and high
metabolic activity persist after harvest. This high
perishability after harvest makes it necessary for it to
be processed within the shortest period of time to
avoid post-harvest losses. According toFagbohun et
al. (2010), several processing methods can be used to
extend its storage life, for example, made to flour,
chips, bread, cakes, biscuits and so on. However,
there is an increased interest in the production of
flours from locally available and abundantly grown
dietary staple food (Zakpa et al., 2010).
Fermentation especially lactic acid fermentation is
one of the methods employed by so many people or

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organization in the production of these flours.This
fermentation process meets the requirement of being
low cost, preventing food spoilage and food borne
diseases with respect to consumers living in a
climate which favors the rapid deterioration of food.
It actually holds promise as food processing method
that can be used to diversify the food uses of some
under exploited plant foods like plantain (Adepoju et
al., 2012). Fermentation results in a lower proportion
of dry matter in the food and concentrations,
vitamins, minerals and protein appear to increase
when measured on a dry weight basis. Some studies
have been carried out in Nigeria on the effect of
fermentation on some food materials. The findings
of Evans et al., (2013) showed that in some cases,
there may be enhancement of the nutritive value by
an increase in the level of toxicants in the food.
Useful metabolites such as essential amino acids,
vitamins and other essential nutrients may arise from
the fermentation by microorganisms. (Baiyeri et al.,
2011).
Lactic acid fermentation is performed by lactic acid
bacteria of which the genera are mostly composed of
Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Enterococcus,
Streptococcus, Pediococcus, Leuconostoc, Weisiella
(Wakil et al., 2014). Lactic acid bacteria happily
grow under anaerobic conditions (Michaela et al.,
2009) and have been used for the fermentation of
food and feed products since ancient days and today
their major applications are still in the food and feed
industry as starter cultures (Ogunbanwo et al, 2004).
However, the antioxidant present in the body cannot
cope with the oxidant load present in the body which
necessitates the need for external source of
antioxidant. This study therefore aimed to
investigate antioxidant and sensory Paroperties of
Lactobacillus plantarum fermented unripe plantain
flour.
Materials and Methods
Sample Collection:
Unripe plantain samples (Musa paradisiaca and M.
saba )wereobtained from Oje, Ayeye and Oritamerin
markets in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria and
transported to Postgraduate research laboratory of
Microbiology department, University of Ibadan for
analysis.
Treatment of Samples
This was carried out according to the method of
Fadahunsi and Ajao (2022)
Three thousand gram (3 Kg) unripe plantain samples
were washed, peeled and cut into uniform–sized
pieces of 1cm thick and divided into three groups (A,
B and C).
Group A: One thousand grams (1Kg) of treated
samples was removed aseptically, dried and milled
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
using Hammer mill and its Antioxidant properties
was determined.
Group B: One thousand grams (1 Kg) of treated
sampleswas allowed to ferment naturally for 48hrs
and microbial analysis, pH and total titratable acidity
(TTA) were determined at 6hours intervals. The
plantains slices were harvested, dried and Hammer
milled and the antioxidant properties was
determined
Group C:
LAB Strain
Lab strain (Lactobacillus plantarum) was obtained
from the stock cultures of previous study (Fadahunsi
and Ajao, 2022) maintained at the microbiology
research laboratory at The Polytechnic, Ibadan. This
was revived and then used for controlled
fermentation of unripe plantain slices.
Revival of LAB and Preparation of Inoculum
The Lab strain(L.plantarum) was cultured in 1%
glucose DeMan Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) sterile
broth overnight at room temperature on table top
shaker set at 60 rpm. To separate the cells, the culture
broth was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 minutes at
4ºC. The cells were suspended in normal saline
-1
buffer to a density of 108 cells ml to prepare the pre-
inoculum, after washing twice. From this mixture,
10 ml was used in the controlled fermentation of
unripe plantain
Controlled Fermentation of Unripe plantain with L.
plantarum
One thousand grams of unripe plantain slices treated
as previously described was transferred into 5000ml
sterile Erlenmeyer containing 2000ml sterile
distilled water and steamed in water bath set at 85
°C for 10 min and cooled to 30 °C. It was inoculated
with 10 ml saline suspension of the L. plantarum
6
starter culture (containing 1.84 × 10 inoculum size)
Obtained from previous study. The flask was
incubated at 30°C for 48 hours. Microbial analysis,
pH and Total titratable acidity were determined at
6hr intervals. The fermented unripe plantains were
harvested, dried, hammer milled and antioxidant
properties was determined(Achi and Akubor, 2000).
Determination of pH
The changes in pH of fermenting samples were
monitored at 6hrs intervals for 48hrs using a ROHS
pH meter (HANNAH instrument, Italy),
(Eremoseleet al., 2017).
Determination of Total Titratable Acidity (TTA)
The total titratable acidity (TTA) was determined
using the method described by Eremosele et al.
(2017) by titrating 25ml of supernatant from
fermenting unripe plantain with 0.1m NaOH using
phenolphthalein as indicator. Triplicate
determination was carried out.
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Preparation of fermented unripe plantain flour
The fermenting water from fermented unripe
plantain wasdecanted. The fermented unripe
0
plantain were dried in the oven at 60 C for 24hours,
the dried unripe plantain were milled in a Bentall
attrition mill( model 200L090), the milled flour were
sieved with 0.25mm mesh sieve into fine flour and
kept in an air tight container (Achi and Akubor,
2005)
Antioxidant analysis of fermented unripe
plantain
Twenty gram (20g) of the sample (plantain flour)
was weighed and placed in a beaker containing 60ml
of methanol. It was then left for 2hours in a dark
room. The extract was centrifuged to get a clear
phase, the supernantant was decanted in 100ml
standard flask, and methanol was added to make it up
to the mark. 10ml of 0.1ml/DPPH solution was
mixed with 1ml of the sample extract and was left for
the absorbents for time zero at 517mm was measured
in triplicate using spectrophotometer, the process
was reported for the three and the five. (Rizzelloet
al., 2017).
Ferric Reducing/ Antioxidant Power (FRAP)
Method.
This method measures the ability of antioxidant to
reduce ferric iron. It is based on the reduction of the
complex of ferric iron and 2, 3, 5-triphenyl-1, 3, 4-
triaza-2-azoniacyclopenta-1, 4-diene chloride
(TPTZ) to the ferrous form at low PH. This reduction
is monitored by measuring the change in absorption
at 593mm, using a diode- array spectrophotometer
(Ratsakari, 2015).
DPPH (1, 1- diphenyl-2-picrythydrazylFree Radical
Scavenging Activity Assay
The assay was carried out according to the modified
method of Blois. 1ml of 0.1mm solution of DPPH
(sigma Aldrich, Indian) in methanol was mixed. 2ml
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
of the aqueous extract at different concentration (0.5
– 5.0 mg / ml). The mixture was then incubated at
room temperature for 30mins in the dark. The control
was prepare by mixing 1ml of DPPH solution with
double distilled water. The absorbance was
measured against a blank at 517nm using
spectrophotometer (systronicsvisiscan 167). Lower
absorbance of the reaction mixture indicate higher
DPPH free radical scavenging activity. Ascorbic
acid (Merck, India) was used as the standard.
Samples were prepared and measured in triplicates.
The percentage of scavenging activity of each
extract on DPPH radical was calculated as
%inhibition of DPPH (1%) using the following
equation.
Where Ao is the absorption of the tested extract
solution. (Ratsakari, 2015)
Sensory analysis
This was carried out According to the method of
Olateru et al., (2020). The sensory evaluation was
carried on the dried raw and fermented (spontaneous
and controlled) unripe plantain flour samples. The
flour products were subjected to sensory parameters
of taste, appearance, texture, odor and overall
acceptability using 5 points grading scale rating.
Where five is excellent, four is very good, three is
good, two is fair and one is poor. It was carried out
using 20 men panelists.
Statistical analysis
This was carried out according to the method of
Edema and Fawole (2006). The result obtained was
analysed with a replicate of thirteen samples on each
treatment, using one way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) at F= 0.05 to determine the level of
significance of the treated samples.
RESULT
Table 1 showed the pH and total titrable acidity TTA
of fermented M. saba.The pH decreased from 6.7 at
0h to 4.5 at 48hrs. While TTA increased from 0.054
at 0h to 0.090 at 48hrs in M. saba while similar trend
was observed in M. paradisiaca.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Table 2 showed the total viable count of lactic acid bacteria isolated from M. paradisiaca. No
5 8
growth was observed at 0h, but count decreases from 6.91 x 10 at 6hrs to 2.48 x 10 at 48hrs in
M. saba Similar trend was observed in M. paradisiaca.
Table 2: Total viable count of lactic acid bacteria isolated from M. saba
Time (hrs) Total LAB count (cfu/ml)
0 -
6 6.91 x 10 5
5
12 8.0 x 10
18 2.06 x 10 6
24 2.18 x 10 6
30 1.27 x 10 7
7
36 2.12 x 10
8
42 1.07 x 10
48 2.48 x 10 8

Table 3 showed the result of pH and total titratable acidity obtained from L.
plantarumfermentation of unripe plantain. It was observed that the pH decreased from 6.3 at 0hr
to 5.3 at 42hr with slight increase to 5.3 at 48hr, while the total titratable acidity increased from
0.076 at 0hr to 0.230 at 42hrs with slight decrease to 0.216 at 48hr in M. paradisiaca.

Table 3 pH and Total Titratable acidity L.plantarum fermentation of unripe plantain slices
Fermentation period pH Total titrable acidity
(hr)
0 6.3 0.076
6 5.9 0.083
12 5.7 0.144
18 5.6 0.151
24 5.4 0.151
30 5.2 0.158
36 5.1 0.223
42 5.0 0.230
48 5.3 0.216

Table 4showed the total viable count of lactic acid bacteria during L. plantarum fermentation of
6 8
Unripe Plantain. The count decreased from 1.84 x 10 at 0hr to 2.45 x 10 at 48hrs in M. saba
Similar trend was observed in M. paradisiaca.

Table 4 pH and Total Titratable acidity L.plantarum fermentation of unripe plantain slices

Time (hrs) Total LAB count (cfu/ml)

6
0 1.84 x 10
6 6.41 x 10 5
12 8.0 x 105

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The result ofsensory properties of raw,starter fermented and spontaneous fermented samples of
unripe plantain flourwere shown in table. 6There is no significant different between the sensory
propertiesof raw, starter fermented and spontaneous fermented samplesunripeof plantain flour

Table 6. The result of Sensory Properties of raw, spontaneous fermented and L.plantarum
fermented unripe plantain

Overall
Samples Appearance Taste Odour Colour Texture
Acceptability
Starter 3.90a±1.021 3.85a±1.089 4.10a±1.021 4.00a±0.973 3.80a±1.105 3.80a±1.026
Spontaneous 4.50a±0.688 3.95a±1.234 3.80a±1.152 4.10a±1.021 4.00a±0.795 4.00a±1.261
Raw 4.00a±1.338 3.70a±1.302 3.50a±1.100 3.55a±1.317 3.85a±1.268 3.85a±1.191
The values represent triplicate values of mean
± standard deviation for Antioxidant properties of Raw, Spontaneous
and L. plantarumfermented unripe plantain flour. Values with different
superscript meansstatistically different
from each other;
Starter –L.plantarumfermented unripe plantain flouSpontaneous – Spontaneous fermented unripe plantain
flour
Raw –Unfermented unripe plantain flour

Discussion L. Plantarum fermented samples had the highest

The increase in total titratable acidity observed in
this study could be as a result of the dominance of the
environment by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) which
degrades carbohydrates resulting in acidification.
These observations are in conformity with earlier
studies of Eromosele et al.(2017).
Total increase in viable count of LAB in this work
was in line with the report of Ogunbanwoet
al.(2004). The increase in Lactic acid bacteria count
observed in this study could be attributed to the
production of lactic acid by Lactic acid bacteria.
(Omemu et al., 2017). The lactic acid bacteria
constitute an important group of organisms,
particularly in the food processing industry. (Ishola
and Adebayo-Tayo, 2012). They are present in
fermented foods because they are able to survive
under high acidic condition and also have the ability
to produce a high level of Lactic acid.(Fadahunsi et
al, 2012 and Olateru et al., 2020).
anti-oxidant properties which decreased
significantly more than that of raw and spontaneous
fermented samples. This is not in line with the work
of Chinedum et al., (2011) who reported high
antioxidant activities of raw unripe plantain flour.
According to Mathur and Mathur (2001) antioxidant
have been implicated in the therapeutic effects of
several plants and vegetables that are used in
traditional medicine. The highest anti-oxidant
properties of L. Plantarum fermented samples
showed it is a potential sources of natural antioxidant
and could be of medicinal purpose in the treatment of
ailment implication reactive oxygen species and
oxidative stress.
L. Plantarum fermented samples have the same
organoleptic properties with raw and spontaneous
fermented samples. This showed that consumers will
easily accept both spontaneous fermented and starter
fermented if introduced into the market.

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ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Conclusion: It can therefore be concluded that lactic Recommendations

acid bacteria constitute an important group of
organism in food processing industry. L.plantarum
fermented unripe plantain flour sample is a potential
sources of natural antioxidant and could be of
medicinal purpose in the treatment of ailment
implication reactive oxygen species and oxidative
stress. All samples have the same organoleptic
properties which showed that consumers will easily
accept both spontaneous fermented and starter
fermented samplesif introduced into the market.
There is need of public awareness on the importance
consumption of L. plantarumfermented unripe
plantain flour to increase the consumption of this this
natural food product at the expense of orthodox
medicine because of its medicinal purpose in the
treatment of ailment implication reactive oxygen
species and oxidative stress.

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“apen” plantain (Musa sapientum) .var. paradisiacal , French horn growth in Ghana. Journal of Agricultural
Biotechnology and Sustainable Development2(6): 92 – 99.

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ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

ROLE OF INFORMATION SCIENTIST IN INFORMATION

LITERACY OF CLOTH TRADERS IN TWO MAJOR MARKETS IN
IBADAN METROPOLIS.
1
Arilesere, J.I, 2Oluranti, S.A, 3Abubakar, H.O, 1Ojutalayo, S.T and 1Akinosho, G.A
1
Federal college of Animal Health and Production Technology(FCAH&PT) Ibadan.
2
Institute of Agricultural, Research and Training(IAR&T) and
3
National Centre for Genetics Resources and Biotechnology(NACGRAB) Ibadan.

Corresponding author email: arilesereiyabo@yahoo.com

Abstract
Information Scientist is one who is trained and vast in the art and science of collection, categorization, storage,
retrieval and distribution of information for utility purposes. They deal with the database of knowledge at any
given organization, and make sure that this information is accessible to the people that need to get hold of it at
any given time. This study examined role of information scientist in information literacy of cloth traders in two
major markets in Ibadan metropolis. A structured questionnaire were used to collect data from two hundred
traders. Collected data were analysed using frequency counts and percentages. The study revealed that traders
need information on various areas to make their businesses improved, such areas on financial matters, where to
get credit facilities, forming of cooperatives societies, how to know current trends, that is what is going on in the
society so that they can adapt. The study as well analysed the extent at which information provided by scientist
satisfied the traders, methods of marketing products apart from staying in shop expecting customers to
partronise them through the use of numerous skills identified by information scientist. It also identified
constraints facing by information scientist to pass information to traders which includes non-challant attitudes
towards change, lack of Android phone and network problem.

Keywords: Information,Information literacy, Traders and Role of Information scientist

Introduction
Scott (2015) defines Information as “data which
have been recorded, classified, organized, related, or
interpreted within the framework so that meaning
emerges”. Lucey, (2005) defines information as
data that has been processed and communicated in a
such a way that can be interpreted and understood by
the receiver.Scott (2015) observed that information
literacy ethically answer an information need
because it encompasses knowledge of one's
information concerns and needs, and the ability to
identify, locate, evaluate, organize and effectively
create, use and communicate information to address
issues or problems at hand.Underwood (2009) also
identify information literacy as a set of abilities to
know when information is needed, to be able to find
and evaluate information and use the information
that was found. It is a set of abilities that are used
everyday in the workplace, at home, at university
and school.
David and Katty(2017) opines that people need and
used information in every aspect of their lives, such
as in marketing, farming, trading, health and so on
a n d s o f o r t h t h r o u g h t h e
InformationScientist.Okpokwasi,(1977) defines
Information scientist as an individual qualified in
natural or applied science responsible for the
dissemination of information in his specialized
field.This is one who is trained and vast in the art and
science of collection, categorization, storage,
retrieval and distribution of information for utility
purpose.Therefore, it is on the background that this
study sought to assess the role Information scientist
in Information literacy of cloth traders in two major
markets in Ibadan metropolis.
Methodology
The study was conducted in two major markets in
Ibadan, Oyo state. Ibadan is the largest city of Oyo
state in Nigerian. It is the third-largest city by
population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano, with a
total population of 3,649,000 as of 2021, and over 6
million people within its metropolitan area. Ogunpa
and Gbagi markets was chosen because they are well
known for selling both Made in China and locally
produced goods such as clothes, household objects
and so on.Also, they are the biggest fabrics market in

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Nigeria. Two stage sampling was used for the study.
The first stage involvepurposive use of two major
fabrics markets in Ibadan. The second stage
involvedrandom selection ofone hundred traders in
each market to give a total of Two hundred (200)
respondents.
A well-structured questionnaire was used to obtain
information from the respondents. Data were
collected on socio-economic characteristics of
respondents, information needs of the traders, using
information literacy in marketing
products,information satisfaction by traders,method
of marketing products and Constraints in passing
information to traders. Data collected were subjected
to descriptive statistics such as frequency tableand
percentages.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table I shows the results of the socio-economic
characteristics of the respondents. Result revealed
that most (65.0) of the respondents were within age
range of 30-39 years.This showed that majority of
the respondents were still in their economical active
age. The result also shows that most of the
respondents (58.3%) were female while 41.7% of
them were male this shows that trading was female
dominated in the community. Majority of the
respondents (50.0%)were married, this marital
status indicates that most of these traders already
have families they were responsible to and they
engaged in trading to provide food for their families
and earn income to meet family commitment. Also,
majority of the respondents (56.7%) traders were
educated and had post primary education. The
implication of this is that traders in the area are likely
be readyget necessary information to boost their
trading activities.It was also revealed that (52.5%) of
respondents had been in the business within 10-19
years of trading experience. This is an indication that
traders have a relative experience in trading to
qualify them to get necessary information and
information literacy skill they need.

Table 1: Socioeconomic characteristics of the traders(n-200)

Variables Frequency Percentage Mean

Age(years)
20-29 41 20.5
30-39 65 32.5
40-49 56 28.0
50-59 25 12.5
60 and above 13 6.5
Sex
Female 105 52.5
Male 95 47.5
Marital status
Single 50 25.0
Married 100 50.0
Widowed 30 15.0
Divorced 20 10.0
Level of Education
No formal education 30 15.0
Primary education 50 25.0
Secondary education 100 50.0
Tertiary education 20 10.0
Trading experience
Less than 10 years 65 32.5
10-19 years 105 52.5
20 years and above 30 15.0

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Table 2 shows the information needs of cloth traders
as perceived by the respondents. Result revealed that
majority of the respondents perceived that traders
require information on market related (57.5%),
supplier of goods (65.5%), markets of
products(57.0%), credit facilities (85.5%),
cooperative societies (50.0%). Respondents opined
that information on credit facilities were mostly
needed by traders followed by information on
government policies while information on
cooperative society was the last information needed.
The result implies that respondents perceived
information needs of traders on the areas where they
can get credit facilities to improve their business.

Table 2: Information needs of Traders as perceived by respondents

Traders Information needs N R O OF VO

Market related Information - 4(2.0%) 8(4.0%) 115(57.5%) 73(36.5%)

Goods related Information 1(0.5%) 5(2.5%) 6(3.0%) 120(60.0%) 68(34.0%)

Supplier of goods 3(1.5%) 7(3.5%) 9(4.5%) 130(65.5%) 51(25.5%)

Marketing of products 6(3.0%) 2(1%) 8(4%) 114(57.0%) 70(35.5%)

Current trends - 2(1%) 16(8%) 122(61.0%) 60(30.0%)

Credit facilities - 6(3.0%) 7(3.5%) 170(85.5%) 17(8.5%)

Government policies 4(2%) 3(1.5%) 11(5.5%) 143(71.5%) 39(19.5%)

Cooperative societies - 5(2.5%) 5(2.5%) 100(50.0%) 90(45.0%)

Competitors in market 2(1.0%) 1(0.5%) 15(7.5%) 133(65.5%) 49(24.5%)

Advertisement - 4(2.0%) 11(5.%%) 110(55.0%) 75(37.5%)

N-Never, R-Rarely, O-Occasionally, OF-Often, VO-Very Often

Using of information literacy in marketing products
by the respondents is presented in Table 3. Result
showed that Traders are aware of needed information
through information literacy(75.0%), they are able
to locate information needed (50.0%), it makes them
evaluate (67.5%) and use information
effectively(74.0%). The implication of this is that to
be information literate traders will be able to identify,
locate, evaluate and use information at their disposal
effectively.

Table 3:How traders use information literacy in marketing products.

Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Undecided
Agree Disagree
Information literacy enable 150(75.0%) 50(25.0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
traders aware of needed
information
It enables traders have ability to 100(50.0%) 45(22.5%) 20(10.0%) 17(8.5%) 18(9.0%)
locate information needed
It makes them have ability to 135(67.5%) 35(17.5%) 10(5%) 15(7.5%) 5(2.5%)
evaluate information
It enables them have ability to 148(74%) 42(21%) 10(5%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
use informationeffectively

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Table 4 shows the extent of information satisfaction as perceived by the respondents. Result revealed that
majority of the respondents were satisfied with information on loan/credit facilities (85.0%), followed by
information on current affairs (83.0%), then information on good related information while information on
exchange rate was the last. The implication of this is that respondents depend majorly on loan or credit
facilities to improve their business.

Table 4: Extent of information satisfaction by traders

Statement Satisfied Not Satisfied Undecided
Good related information 160(80.0% 30(15.0%) 10(5.0%)
Information on financial matters 120(60.0%) 50(25.0%) 30(15.0%)
Information on marketing products 140(70.0%) 30(15.0%) 30(15.0%)
Information on social event e.g festival & others 150(75.0%) 40(20%) 10(5.0%)
Information on current affairs 166(83.0%) 20(10.0%) 14(7.0%)
Information on exchange rate 110(55.0%) 60(50.0%) 30(15.0%)
Information on Cooperative society 130(65.0%) 40(20.0%) 30(15.0%)
Information on Loan/credit facilities 170(85.0%) 17(8.5%) 13(6.5%)

Methods introduced by information scientist to traders for marketing their products as perceived by the
respondents was shown in Table 5. The result revealed that out of methods introduced by information scientist
to traders for marketing their products Instagram is most accepted (88.0%), followed by Twitter(81.5%),
Facebook (78.0%),Whatsapp messages and status(67.5%)while physical shop was the last option for traders to
operate. This implies that the respondents prefers social media as introduced by information scientist to be a
way of boosting their sales so far it can reach larger customers at a glance.

Table 5: Method introduced by information scientist to traders formarketing their

products
Statement Strongly Agreed Strongly Disagreed Undecided
Agreed Disagreed
WhatsApp 135(67.5%) 65(32.5) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
messages/Status
Twitter 163(81.5%) 20(10%) 10(5%) 4(2%) 3(1.5%)
Instagram 176(88%) 15(7.5%) 5(2.5%) 3(1.5%) 1(0.5%)
Blog 90(45%) 100(50%) 4(2%) 5(2.5%) 1(0.5%)
Facebook 156(78%) 34(17%) 6(3%) 4(2%) 0(0%)
Physical Shop 85(42.5%) 37(18.5%) 39(19.5) 30(15%) 9(4.5%)
TikTok 125(62.5%) 27(13.5%) 17(8.5%) 16(8%) 15(7.5%)

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The distribution of constraints facing traders to adopt methods introduced by information scientist to market
their products. Result revealed that network problem is the major problem of using social media to market cloth
trading (88.5%), followed by non-challant attitude of some traders to adapt to changes (81.5%), financial
problem (72.5%), lack of android phone (66.5%) and lack of required skills to use the social media (56.5%).
The result implies that respondents faced some problems in using social media to market their products.

Table 6: Constraints to adopt methods for marketing trader’s product

Constraints Stongly Agreed Stongly Disagree Undecided
Agreed Disagree

Non-challant attitude 163(81.5%) 33(16.5) 4(2.0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)

towards change
Lack of Android Phone 133(66.5%) 45(22.5%) 10(5.0%) 7(3.5%) 5(2.5%)
Network problem 177(88.5%) 17(8.5%) 3(1.5%) 3(1.5%) 0(0%)
Financial constraints 145(72.5%) 35(17.5%) 13(6.5%) 7(3.5%) 0(0%)
Lack of skills 113(56.5%) 73(36.5%) 7(3.5%) 5(2.5%) 2(1%)

Conclusion expecting customers. Considering the findings of the

Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded
that information scientist offers tremendous
opportunities to cloth traders by making them aware
of areas they need information to boost their
businesses. These includes information on credit
facilities,marketing products, cooperative societies,
financial matters and current affairs. Based on the
result of this study, it is therefore concluded that
WhatsApp messenger, Tweeter, Instagram, TikTok,
and Facebook were methods introduced to traders
for marketing their products so that they will not
stick to theold method of staying in one place and
study upon which the conclusionwas drawn, the
following recommendations were made:Cloth
tradersshould acquire skills such as numeracy,
adaptability, self-control and teamwork to build
good relationship and effectively develop strategies
to reduce risk in businesses. Also, information
scientist should facilitate improvement of faster
means by which information get to traders.
Information provider should improve on their
services to build good network so that there will free
flow of information.

References
David H. and Katty W. (2017). (Information Literacy Concepts An Open Educational Resource.
https://media.lib.ecu.edu/DE/tutorial/OER/Information_Literacy_Concepts.pdf.

Lucey, (2005). Management Information System- An overview of Information, Data and

Communication. Available at https://www.worldcat.org/title/management-information-
systems/oclc/622639
Okpokwasi N.P.(1977).What it takes to be an Information Scientist? Journal of Vocational,
Science and Educational Development, February, 2008, 8(1), 25 -32
Scott, L. (2015). Concise Guide to Information Literacy. What is Information and Why is it
important.Available athttps://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/brandon.hodge/reading-list/readings/what-
is-information-literacy-why-is-it-important.
Underwood P. (2009). Navigating information literacy: your information society survival toolkit.
South African Journal of Libraries and Information. University of Cape Town.

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NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN STAR APPLE

(CHRYSOPHYLLUMALBIDUM) LEAF MEAL

Awodola-Peters, O.O., Yahaya, M.O., Saka, A.A. and Bolarinwa, M.O

Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Moor Plantation, P.M.B 5029,
Ibadan Oyo state, Nigeria.

Corresponding author:ooawodolapeters@gmail.com;+2348168168218

Abstract
The nutritional composition of African star apple (Chrysophyllumalbidum) leaf meal was examined in this
study. Fresh leaves of African star apple were harvested, air-dried, milled and subsequently analysed for its
proximate composition, mineral contents and qualitative analysis of the phytochemicals. Results obtained
showed the percent crude protein, ash, ether extract and crude fibre to be 11.02%, 7.21%, 3.41% and 8.85%
respectively. The carbohydrate was 61.24% and calorific value of the leaf meal was 274.06 Kj/kg. Mineral
content analysis showed calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium to be 3.55%, 1.87%, 0.13% and 1.21%
respectively. The qualitative analysis showed that alkaloids were noticeably present in appreciable amounts,
tannin, flavonoids and phenols were present in moderate amounts while saponins and steroids were observed to
be present in trace amount. The results showed that African star apple leaf meal could be a source for nutrients
and can be further exploited and utilized in diets of animals.

Keywords: African star apple leaf meal, phytochemicals, nutrition, minerals

Introduction cancer (Obidike, 2021; Onyeakagbu, 2022). This

Plants of medicinal value play a significant role in
the health of humans and animals (Sofowora 1993).
Most of the conventional medicines, dietary
supplements, ethno-medicines and pharmaceutical
intermediates are obtained from medicinal plants
(Ogbonniaet al., 2003). The fact that many of these
medicinal plants are affordable, accessible, have
wider acceptability factor as well as low toxic profile
has negated the numerous problems associated with
synthetic therapeutics (Ilodigweet al., 2012).
African star apple (Chrysophyllumalbidum) also
called African cherry is one of the native fruits
indigenous to tropical African countries like Nigeria.
It is commonly known as 'Agbalumo' in Yoruba,
'Udara' in Igbo, 'agwaluma' in Hausa, 'agonzugwe' in
Benin and 'alasa' in Ghana. When ripe, the fruit peel
is golden orange or yellow and the pulp within the
peel is orange. The name African star apple is taken
from the central arrangement of the seeds inside the
fruit pulp. It contains five to six seeds shaped in the
form of a star, hence the name Star apple (Faluyi,
2019).
The fruit contains loads of vitamins, minerals, fiber
and antioxidants which are beneficial to health.
Africa star apple is used in treating high blood
pressure, diarrhea, digestive issues and fever among
other disorders. African star apple is a rich source of
vitamin C which acts as an antioxidant and control
collagen production, protects the heart, healing
wounds, enhances vision, improves immune health
and decreases blood sugar levels. The rich vitamin C
properties help neutralize the harmful effect of free
radicals and prevent diseases like heart diseases and
research is aimed at determining the proximate
composition, mineral contents and qualitative
phytochemical components in African star apple leaf
meal.
Materials and methods
Source and preparation of test ingredient
Fresh African star apple leaves were harvested
between November and December around Oyo
metropolis (latitude 7051' 9.25'' N and longitude 30
55' 52.50'' E). The leaves were air-dried for five days,
and ground into fine particles using a simple hammer
mill and kept in a clean air tight container until when
it was used.
Determination of proximate composition of African
star apple leaf meal
Proximate analysis were carried out using the AOAC
(1990) methods.
1. Dry matter content was determined by
drying 20g of the pulverized leaves in an
oven at 105°C until constant weight is
attained.
2. Ash content determination: 5g of pre-dried
sample was weighed into a crucible (pre-
weighed) and then in a fume cupboard for
charring. After the sample had been
completely charred, it was withdrawn from
the fume cupboard, allowed to cool off in a
desiccator, weighed and then transferred to
the muffled furnace and ignited at 550°C for
1 hour; then cooled off in a desiccator before
weighing.

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3. Protein Determination: 5g of the sample was
weighed into a Kjeldahl flask, to aid
breakdown of the sample, concentrated
Sulphuric acid with Selenium catalyst were
added. The mixture was heated till the black
coloured material became a colourless
viscous liquid. This liquid was poured into a
distillation set where concentrated Sodium
hydroxide was added to neutralize the acid
and release ammonia. The ammonia was
collected into Boric acid and titrated against
hydrochloric acid.
Percent crude protein was calculated using the
formula:
4. Crude fat determination: 5g of sample was
weighed into a conical flask and 10mls of
Hydrochloric acid was added slowly while
shaking vigorously. The tube was set in
water bath which was heated to 70°C and
brought to boil for 30mins while shaking
after every 5minutes. The lower bulb of the
tube was filled with water and cooled at
room temperature. The fat was extracted by
the addition of 25mLs of ether and 25mLs of
redistilled petroleum ether followed by
mixing. The mixture was left to separate into
two layers. The topmost layer (clear layer)
was then drawn off in a beaker, dried in an
oven, allowed to cool in a desiccator and
weighed.
5. Crude fibre: 2g of dried sample were
digested with 0.25M sulphuric acid and 0.3
M sodium hydroxide solution. The insoluble
residue obtained was washed with hot water
and dried in an oven at 100C until constant
weight. The dried residue was then
incinerated and weighed for the
determination of crude fibre content.
6. Carbohydrates: carbohydrates and calorific
values were calculated using the formula by
FAO (2002):
Carbohydrates: 100 – (%moisture +
%proteins + %lipids +%ash +%fibres)
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Calorific value: (%protein x 2.44) +
(%carbohydrates x 3.57) + (%lipids x 8.37)
The result of ash, fibre, protein, lipid and
carbohydrate contents were expressed on
dry matter basis.
Determination of mineral contents in African star
apple leaf meal
The mineral content was estimated by dry ashing 5g
of dried powdered sample in a muffle furnace. The
ash obtained was dissolved in 5 mL of HCl/HNO3
and analyzed using the atomic absorption
spectrophotometer.
Determination of the qualitative phytochemicals
in African star apple leaf meal
1. Alkaloids: using methods described
byHikinoetal.(1984).Extractionofcompone
ntfrom2grams of the sample was carried out
using 5% tetraoxosulphate(VI)acid (H2SO4)
in50%ethanol by boiling for 2 minutes and
filtered through Whatman filter paper
number 42 (125mm). The filtrate was made
alkaline using 28% ammonia solution (NH3)
in a separating funnel. Equal volume of
chloroformwas used in further solution
extraction in which chloroform solution was
extracted with two portions of 1.0M dilute
tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid. This final acid
extract was then used to carry out the
following test of Dragendorff's reagent
(Bismuth potassium iodide solution) was
mixed with of acid extract and precipitated
orange colour signifies the presence of
alkaloid.
2. Saponin:Using methods reported by
Ejikemeet al. (2014). Distilled water was
added to leaf sample (0.30g) and boiled for
10 minutes in water bath and filtered using
Whatman filter paper number
42(125mm).Amixtureofdistilled water and
filtrate was agitated vigorously for a stable
persistent froth. The formation of emulsion
on addition of three drops of olive oil
showed positive result.
3. Tannins: Analysis used was the method
reported by Ejikemeet al. (2014). 0.30 g of
the sample was weighed into a test tube and
boiled for 10 minutes in a water bath.
Filtration was carried out after boiling using
number 42(125mm) Whatman filter paper. 3
drops of 0.1% ferricchloride was added to
the filtrate. A brownish green or a blue black
colouration showed positive test.
4. Flavonoids: The test for flavonoid used was
a s
reportedbySofowara(1993)andHarborne(1
973). 0.30g of the sample was weighed into
a beaker and extracted with 30cm3 of
ISSN: 2811-1842
distilled water for 2 hours and filtered with
Whatman filter paper number 42 (125mm).
To 10cm3 of the aqueous filtrate of the
sample was added 1.0M dilute ammonia
3
solution followed by the addition of 5cm of
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
Appearance of yellow colouration which
disappeared on standing shows the presence
of flavonoids.
5. Steroid: Analytical method used is
according to Ejikemeet al. (2014). 0.30g of
the sample was weighed into a beaker was
3
mixed with 20cm of ethanol; the
component was extracted for 2 hours. To the
ethanolic extract of the sample was added
3 3
2cm acetic anhydride followed with 2cm
of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
31
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
A violet to blue or green colour change in
sample(s) indicates the presence of steroids.
6. Phenols: to 2g of sample, 2ml of distilled of
distilled water was added followed by 10%
FeCl3 solution. Bluish black colour indicates
the presence of phenol.
Results
Presented in table 1 is the result obtained for the
proximate composition and mineral contents of
African star apple leaf meal. The proximate analysis
showed that Crude protein, ash, ether extract, crude
fibre and percent dry matter were 11.02±0.16,
7.21±0.08, 3.41±0.02, 8.85±0.50 and 91.73±0.08
respectively. The mineral contents examined
showed the presence of Calcium (3.55%),
magnesium (1.87%), Sodium (0.13%) and
potassium (1.21%).
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Discussion anthraquinone, tannin and cardiac glycoside,

African star apple has been reported to be an
available source of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and
oils, vitamins and iron (Amusaet al., 2005). The
fruits were reported by Okwu et al. (2018), to contain
73.33, 2.64, 3.61 and 16.99% for moisture, ash,
crude fibre and protein contents respectively.
Iheanyichukwuetal. (2017) reported the presence of
zinc and copper in leaves of African star apple,
however, in this study, presence of calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium were reported.
Results for qualitative phytochemical analysis is in
concordance with reports of Ushieet al. (2014) on the
plant's methanol leaf extracts were the presence of
flavonoids, phenols, glycosides, terpenoids,
saponins, steroids and alkaloids were observed.
Presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and
tannins were also reported by MacDonald et al.
(2014). According to Duyilemi and Lawal, (2009),
leaf extract of African star apple also contains
however, these three were not observed in this study.
Flavonoids are known to have antioxidant effects
and have been shown to inhibit the initiation,
promotion, and progression of tumors (Kim et al.,
1994); reduction of coronary heart disease has been
reported to be associated with intake of flavonoid
(Hertoget al., 1993) as well as phenols. Alkaloids are
beneficial for their anti-inflammatory properties
(Kuraset al., 2009) and saponins possess
hypocholesterolemic property by their ability to
form insoluble complexes with cholesterol
significantly reducing its absorption (Aletor, 1993).
Conclusion
African star apple leaf meal because of their
biochemical composition are potentials for ethno-
medicine. This research result has established
through the investigation of the nutrient composition
and qualitative phytochemistry analysis that they
have potentials and can be incorporated as dietary
supplements in livestock production.

References
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Amusa, N. A., Ashaya, O. E., and Oladapo, M. O. (2005). Biodeterioration of the African star apple
(Chrysophyllumalbidum) and the effect on its food value. African Journal of Biotechnology, 11(3), 56-59.
AOAC 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th Edition. Methods 932.06, 925.09, 985.29. Association of Official
Analytical Chemists. Washington D.C, USA.
Ejikeme, C. M., Ezeonu, C.S. and Eboatu, A.N. 2014. “Determination of physical and phytochemical constituents of some
tropical timbers indigenous to Niger Delta Area of Nigeria,” European Scientific Journal, 10(18); 247–270.
Faluyi, O. 2019. Natural benefits of African star apple. Retrieved from www.punchng.com, accessed on 12th April 2022.
FAO 2002. Food energy: methods of analysis and conversion factors, Food and Agricultural Organisation edition.
Harborne, H. B. 1973. Phytochemical Methods: A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis, Chapman and Hall,
London, United Kingdom.
Hertog, M.G.L., Feskens, E.J.M, Hollman, P.C.H., Katan, J.B and Kromhout, D. 1993. “Dietary antioxidant flavonoids
and risk of coronary heart disease: the Zutphen Elderly Study,” The Lancet, 342 (8878), pp.1007–1011.
Hikino, H., Kiso, Y. Wagner, K. and Fiebig, M. 1984. “Antihepatotoxic actions of flavonolignans from Silybummarianum
fruits,” PlantaMedica, 50(3);248–250.
Iheanyichukwu, E., Caleb, N. J., Uche, O. I., Ezkwa, A. S., and Nkechinyere, E. A. (2017). Nutritional Properties and
Antioxidant Activity of Chrysophyllumafricanum Leaves and Pulp. Journal of Molecular Pharmaceutical
Organization Process Research, 5, 139.
Ilodigwe, E.E, Ndunagu, L.U., Ajaghaku, D.L. and Utoh-Nedosa, U.A. 2012. Evaluation of wound healing activity of
a polyherbal remedy. Annals of Biological Research. 3(11):5393-5398.
Kim, S.K., Kim, J.H., Kim, S.H., Oh, M.J. and Jung, M.Y. 1994. “Antioxidant activities of selected oriental herb extracts,”
Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 71(6), pp. 633–640.
Kuras, M., Pilarski, R., Nowakowska, J., Zobel, A., and Brzost, K. (2009). Effect of alkaloid-free and alkaloid-rich
preparations from Uncariatomentosa bark on mitotic activity and chromosome morphology evaluated by Allium
test. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 121, 140147.
Obidike, J. 2021. African star apples: 8 impressive health benefits and uses. Healthfulwonders.com accessed 12th April
2022
Ogbonnia, S.O., Mbaka, G.O., Nwozor, A.M., Igbokwe, H.N., Usman, A. and Odusanya, P.A. 2003. Evaluation of
microbial purity and acute and sub-acute toxicities of a Nigerian commercial Polyherbal formulation used in
the treatment of diabetes mellitus. British Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 3(4):948-962.
Okwu, C., Osazuwa, E., and Igberaese, S. (2018). Nutritional and Chemical Composition of three Fruit Tastes of
Chrysophyllumalbidum (African Star Apple) in Nigeria. Inter. J. Adv. Res. Sci. Eng. Tech. 5(1)
Onyeakagbu, A. 2022. Five interesting health benefits of Agbalumo (African star apple). Retrieved from www.pulse.ng,
accessed on the 12th of April 2022
Sofowora, A. 1993. Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa. 2nd Edn. Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan,
Nigeria. 1-153.

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HEAVY METALS COMPOSITION OF CHRYSICHTHYSAURATUS,

CHRYSICHTHYSNIGRODIGITATUS AND HEMICHROMISELONGATUS
OF IVO DAM, EBONYI STATE
*
Ayodele, O.P. and Olawepo, K.D.
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Ibadan, Oyo State

* tadeayodele@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to determine heavy metals composition of Chrysichthysauratus,
Chrysichthysnigrodigitatus and Hemichromiselongatus of Ivo Dam, Ebonyi State.Samples were collected,
identified and taken to the laboratory for digestion and analysis for heavy metals. Heavy metalswere
determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS).Water samples were also collected and
parameters like electrical conductivity, pH and chloride, was measured.There was no significant difference (p
> 0.05) in the levels of pH and electrical conductivity recorded in the different water samples. C. auratus and C.
nigrodigitatus bio-accumulated higher concentration of manganese than H. elongatus. On the other hand, H.
elongatus accumulated higher level of copper than the Chrysichthys spp. All three species recorded manganese
and copper levels below the regulatory standard limits and does not contain lead. This study has shown that fish
species from Ivo Dam exhibits interspecific variation in their accumulation of heavy metals. Similarly, H.
elongatus, C. auratus and C. nigrodigitatus from Ivo Dam are safe for consumption, containing lower levels of
metals than regulatory standard limits.

KEYWORDS: Heavy metals, bioaccumulation, Chrysichthysauratus,Chrysichthysnigrodigitatus,

Hemichromiselongatus

INTRODUCTION for people living in Aninri Local Government Area

In the last decades, contamination of aquatic systems
by heavy metals has become a global problem.
Heavy metals may enter aquatic systems from
different natural and anthropogenic (human
activities) sources, including industrial or domestic
wastewater, application of pesticides and inorganic
fertilizers, storm runoff, leaching from landfills,
shipping and harbour activities, geological
weathering of the earth crust and atmospheric
deposition (Wahshaet al., 2016). Metals entering the
aquatic ecosystem can be deposited in aquatic
organisms through the effects of bioconcentration,
bioaccumulation via the food chain process and
become toxic when accumulation reaches a
substantially high level (Valkovaet al., 2020).
Pollutants enter fish through a number of routes: via
skin, gills, oral consumption of water, food and non-
food particles. Once absorbed, pollutants are
transported in the blood stream to either a storage
point (i.e. bone) or to the liver for transformation
and/or storage (Ayoola and Adekunbi, 2013). Heavy
metals having penetrated into human being through
food chains might cause various deleterious effects
or serious diseases (Idzeliset al., 2007). Distribution
of metals varies in fish species, depending on age,
development status and other physiological factors
(Ayelojaet al., 2014).
Ivo Dam is the significant source of fish and water
of Enugu State and Ivo Local Government Area of
Ebonyi State. Fish from the lake are sold in major
fish markets in the two local government areas.
However, fish are relatively situated at the top of the
aquatic food chain; therefore, they can accumulate
heavy metals from food, water and sediments (Zhao
et al., 2012; Ayodele et al., 2019). This study
therefore sought to determine heavy metals
c o m p o s i t i o n o f
Chrysichthysauratus,Chrysichthysnigrodigitatus
and Hemichromiselongatus of Ivo Dam, Ebonyi
State
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Location
Ivo Dam is located in Ivo Local Government Area of
Ebonyi State in the South East of Nigeria. The dam is
a tributary of the Ivo River which is the major source
of water for consumption and irrigation in the area.
The River Ivo is located on the latitude of 5°58'13"N
and longitude 7°45'48"E (Obeta, 2017). Ivo River is
the major source of water supply for the people
around Ishiagu in Ebonyi State Nigeria (Chimaet al.,
2009).
Sample Collection
Fish Samples: Twenty (20) adult fish specimens each
of three commercially important fish species,
Chrysichthysauratus,Chrysichthysnigrodigitatus
and Hemichromiselongatus,of the dam
werecollected over a period of 8 weeks.The fish

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species were identified to species level using Technique

standard reference sources (www.fishbase.org). The
total body length (cm) and the body wet weight (g) of
each specimen were measured using a Metler
balance and a measuring board respectively.The fish
species were thereafter put in sterile polythene bags
and taken in icebox to the laboratory for digestion
and analysis for heavy metals thereafter.
Water Samples: Water samples were collected in
600ml sample bottles from three sampling sites.
Before sampling, sample bottles were pre-cleaned
with 10% nitric acid and de-ionized water. The
bottles were rinsed at least three times with water
from the sampling site. The bottles were immersed to
about 20cm below the water surface to prevent
contamination of heavy metals from air. All samples
were immediately taken to the laboratory for
analysis.
Measurement of Water Parameters
Water parameters like electrical conductivity, pH
and chloride, was measured using electrical
conductivity meter, pH meter and vernier chloride
ion-selective electrode respectively in the
laboratory.
Determination of Heavy Metals / Analytical
Table 1: Physicochemical parameters of water samples from Ivo Dam
Samples were poured into auto-analyzer cups and
concentration of heavy metals in each were
determined using Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AAS)Buck Scientific model
210VGP, USA.
Statistical Analysis
Data obtained were subjected to statistical analyses
using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) version 20.0 (IBM Corp., 2011). Mean
values were compared using Analysis of Variance
( A N O VA ) . R e s u l t s w e r e p r e s e n t e d a s
Mean±Standard deviation. Post hoc test was done
using the Student-Newman-Keuls (SNK).
Probability value (p – value) less than 0.05 was
considered to be statistically significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physicochemical Parameters of Water Samples
The results of physicochemical parameters of water
samples from Ivo Dam are shown in Table 1. Level of
chloride was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the
water samples. On the other hand, there was no
significant difference (p > 0.05) in the level of pH
recorded in the different water samples. Similarly,
level of electrical conductivity recorded in the three
water samples were not significantly different.

Chloride (mg/L) pH EC (m/s)

a a a
A 288.00±2.00 5.88±0.08 0.22±0.01
B 135.00±3.00 b 5.25±0.05 a 0.21±0.01a
c a a
C 90.00±1.00 5.70±0.20 0.24±0.01
abc
Means (±Standard deviation) in the same column having similar superscripts are not
significantly different at p < 0.05; EC = Electrical conductivity

Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Fish Samples
Table 2 shows the levels of manganese, copper and
lead in the three fish species (Chrysicthysauratus,
Chrysicthysnigrodigitatus and
Hemichromiselongatus) from Ivo Dam. Result
showed significantly lowest level of manganese in
H. elongatus. However, level of manganese recorded
in C. auratus and C. nigrodigitatus were not
significantly different. On the other hand, level of
copper was significantly highest in H. elongates than
the other fish species encountered. Level of copper
recorded in C. auratus and C. nigrodigitatus were not
significantly different. Lead was not recorded in all
the three fish species encountered in Ivo Dam.
Levels of heavy metals recorded were below the
standard regulatory limits.

Table 2: Concentrations of heavy metals (g/kg) in three fish samples from Ivo Dam

Manganese Copper Lead

a b a
Chrysicthysauratus 0.084±0.001 0.003±0.000 0.000±0.000
Chrysicthysnigrodigitatus 0.085±0.012a 0.003±0.000b 0.000±0.000 a
b a a
Hemichromiselongatus 0.050±0.009 0.004±0.001 0.000±0.000
*WHO 1989, Mokhtar, 2009 1 30 2
abc
Means (±Standard deviation) in the same column having similar superscripts are not
significantly different at p < 0.05

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This study has evaluated the levels of some heavy
metals in three fish samples from Ivo Dam. Result
revealed that C. auratus and C. nigrodigitatus bio-
accumulated higher concentration of manganese
than H. elongatus. On the other hand, H. elongatus
accumulated higher level of copper than the
Chrysicthys spp. This supports the earlier claim that
the accumulation of metals in fish species exhibits
interspecific variation. The report of El-Moselhyet
al. (2014) also showed a wide inter-specific variation
in metals accumulation in the fishes of the Red sea,
Egypt. Inter-specific variations in metals
accumulation have been attributed to the feeding
habit of fishes. For example, an herbivore would
accumulate higher concentrations of metals in their
muscles than the carnivore (Khaled, 2004). Also,
heavy metal uptake occurs mainly from water, food
and sediment (Canliet al., 1998). However, reports
have shown that the efficiency of metal uptake from
contaminated water and food may differ in relation
to ecological needs, metabolism, and the
contamination gradient of water, food and sediment,
as well as other environmental factors such as
salinity, temperature and interacting agents (Heath,
1987; Pagenkopt, 1983). Thus, the difference in the
concentration of manganese and copper in the flesh
of the fish species from Ivo Dam could be attributed
to their feeding preference, biological position and
needs.
Previous reports have described the feeding
preference of Chrysichthys spp. this fish species can
occur in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over
mud and fine sand bottom, in rivers and in swamps.
They were also regarded as benthic omnivorous
feeder, having the ability to feed on a variety of
benthic food items such as seeds, insects, bivalves
and detritus (Asuquoet al., 2010; Unekeet al., 2015).
Although, very few studies have been carried out on
the food ecology of Hemichromisspp, Kouadioet al.
(2019) reported that this fish species has pelagic
feeding behaviour. The report also showed that
Hemichromisspp are omnivorous tending towards
insectivorous with a predominance of Chaoboridae.
Therefore, the difference in feeding behaviour and
ecological niche in the three studied fish species (H.
elongatus, C. auratus and C. nigrodigitatus) from Ivo
Dam could be responsible for the variations
observed in the metal concentration of the fish
species.
Also, the three fish species from Ivo Dam recorded
manganese and copper levels below the regulatory
standard limits (WHO 1989; Mokhtar, 2009) and
does not contain lead. This is an indication that the H.
elongatus, C. auratus and C. nigrodigitatus from Ivo
Dam are safe for consumption and does not pose a
threat to human health. Therefore, proper monitoring
of this Dam is highly essential in order to prevent
anthropogenic contamination of the fish species
from this Dam.
CONCLUSION
Results of this present study has shown that fish
species from Ivo Dam exhibits interspecific
variation in their accumulation of heavy metals.
Similarly, H. elongatus, C. auratus and C.
nigrodigitatus from Ivo Dam are safe for
consumption, containing lower levels of metals than
regulatory standard limits.

REFERENCES
Asuquo, P.E., Enin, U.I. and Job B.E. (2010) Ontogenetic variation in the diet of Chrysichthysnigrodigitatus
(Lacepede 1808) in a tropical estuarine ecosystem in Nigeria. In: 25th Annual Conference of the
Fisheries Society of Nigeria (FISON), Lagos, Nigeria, 314-318.
Ayeloja, A.A., George, F.O.A., Shorinmade, A.Y., Jimoh, W.A., Afolabi, Q.O. and Olawepo, K.D. (2014).
Heavy metal concentration in selected fish species from Eleyele reservoir Ibadan Oyo State South-
western Nigeria. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. Vol.8(7),pp.422-427
Ayodele, O.P.,Fafioye, O.O. and Oladunjoye, R.Y. (2019).Physico-Chemical Parameters and Heavy Metals
Composition of Water, Sediment and Fish Species of Oyan Lake, Nigeria”. ActaScientific Agriculture
3.6 (2019): 190-195.
Ayoola, S.O. and Adekunbi, F.O. (2013). Haematological and Serum Enzymes Biomarkers of Heavy Metals in
Chrysichthysnigrodigitatus and Cynoglossus senegalensis. African Journal of Livestock Extension,
12:8-13
Canli, M., Ay, O. and Kalay M. (1998). Levels of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Cu, Cr and Ni) in tissues of
Cyprinuscarpio, Barbuscapito and Chondrostomaregium from the Seyhan river, Turkey. Turk. J. of
Zool. 22:149-157.
El-Moselhy, K.M., Othman,A.I., AbdEl-Azem, H., El-Metwally, M.E.A. (2014). Bioaccumulation of heavy
metals in some tissues of fish in the Red Sea, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 1:
97-105
Heath, A.G. (1987). Water pollution and Fish physiology. CRC press, Florida, USA, 245 pp.
IBM Corporation (2011). IBM SPSS statistics for Windows, version 20.0. Armonk, NY:IBM Corp.
Idzelis, R.L., Ladygien, R. and Sinkevicius, S. (2007). Radiological investigation of meat of game and dose
estimation for hunters and members of their families. J. Environ. Eng. Landsc. Manage. 15(2):99-104.

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Khaled, A. (2004). Seasonal determination of some heavy metals in muscle tissues of Siganusrivulatus and
Sargussargus fish from El-Mex Bay and Eastern Harbor, Alexandria, Egypt. Egypt J AquatBiol Fish,
8(1):65-81.
Kouadio, A.N., Konan, Y.A., Yao, S.S., Gogbé, Z.M. and Gooré, G. (2019). Food and feeding habits of
Hemichromisfasciatus Peters, 1857 and Heterotisniloticus (Cuvier, 1829) in Lake Ehuikro (Côte
d'Ivoire). Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(7): 3039-3052
Mokhtar, M. (2009). Assessment level of heavy metals in Penaeus monodon and Oreochromis spp. in selected
aquaculture ponds of high densities Development Area.European Journal of Scientific Research.
Obeta, M.C. (2017). The Hydrology Of And Agricultural Development Opportunities In Ivo-River Basin Of
Southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 8, Issue 6.
Pagenkopf GK. (1983). Gill surface interaction model for trace metal toxicity to fish. Role of complexation,
PH, water hardness. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17/ 6: 342-347
Uneke B.I., Uhuo C. and Nwangbo K.N. (2015) Helminth Parasites of Chrysichthysnigrodigitatus (Lacepede:
1803) in the Mid-Cross River Flood System, South Eastern Nigeria. Health Sciences Research 2(4), 34-
38.
Valkova, E., Atanasov, V. and Veleva, P. (2020). Content of Fe and Mn in waters and zebra mussel (Dressena
poly-morpha) from Ovcharitsa Dam, Stara Zagora region, Bulgaria. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci., 26 (4), 870–876
Wahsha, M., Al-Absi, E., Bini, C., BaniYassen, A., Al-Zyoud, W. and Al-Jawasreh, R. (2016). Effects of toxic
elements on leaf morphology of Halophilastipulacea grown in mine dump sediments in southeast
Jordan. International Journal of Environmental Quality. 21,33-40.
World Health Organization (1989). Heavy metals-environmental aspects. Environment Health Criteria. No.
85. Geneva, Switzerland.
Zhao, S., Feng, C., Quan, W., Chen, X., Niu, J. and Shen, Z. (2012). Role of living environments in the
accumulation characteristics of heavy metals in fishes and crabs in the Yangtze River Estuary, China.
Mar Pollut Bull, 64:1163-1171.

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HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE GILLS, LIVER AND MUSCLE OF

CLARIASGARIEPINUSAND SCHILBEMYSTUSIN IVO RIVER,
EBONYI STATE
* 1 1 2
Ayodele, O.P., Olawepo, K.D. and Olaoti, K.S.
1
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Ibadan, Oyo State
2
Federal College of Agriculture, Ishiagu, Ebonyi State

* tadeayodele@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Histopathological assessment of fish organs has been a useful indicator for early signs of disease and long-
term injury before obvious manifestations. Therefore, this study conducted histopathological assessment of two
available fish species (Schilbemystus and Clariasgariepinus) of Ivo River. Fish species were collected and
dissected; the gills, liver and muscles collected and fixed in 10% formalin for 24 hours. Histological evaluation
was done using standard methods. The gills of the two fish species showed varying degrees of mucosal erosion
of the secondary lamellae. Liver of the fish species from Ivo Amagu also showed varying degrees of hepatic
degeneration, necrosis and degeneration of the hepatocytes. Liver of the fish species from Ivo Okue showed no
visible lesions. Similarly, the muscle of the two fish species showed no visible lesions. This study has shown that
Ivo River could contain some pollutants which adversely affects the gills and liver of S. mystus and C.
gariepinus.

KEYWORDS: histology, organs, river, clarias, schilbe

INTRODUCTION aims to determine the levels of histopathological

Agricultural, industrial and domestic effluents
mostly contain a wide variety of organic and
inorganic pollutants (Pandey et al., 2003) which are
often discharged into small rivers and streams
without proper treatment. Such contaminants change
water quality and may cause many problems to fish,
such as diseases and structural alterations (Chang et
al., 1998).Aquatic pollution causes severe
morphologic and physiologic alterations in aquatic
organisms (Mazonet al., 1999).
Morphological examination of fish organs has been
used to evaluate effect of pollutants on fish
(Poleksicand Mitrovic-Tutundzic, 1994). For this
reason, histopathological assessment of fish has
been a significant indicator for early warning signs
of disease and detection of long-term injury in cells,
tissues and organs before obvious manifestations
(Schwaigeret al., 1997; Tehet al., 1997). Further
studies have also shown that disease manifestations
based on histological sections form the most
important tool in fish disease (Camargo and
Martinez, 2007). Rodrigues and Fanta (1998)
affirmed that histopathological analysis is a very
sensitive aspect and is crucial in the determination of
cellular changes that may occur in target organs,
such as the gills, gut, liver and gonad.
Ivo River constitute the main source of water use for
Ishiagu and its surrounding villages and its widely
impaired by anthropogenic activities. It receives
diffuse and point source discharges of industrial,
domestic and agricultural wastes. However, the
health of the available fish species in this river has
not been properly evaluated. This study therefore
alterations in the gill, muscle and liver of two
available freshwater fish species of Ivo River.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Location
Two points along river Ivo, Ivo, Ebonyi State Nigeria
was used in this study. These locations include Ivo
Amagu and Ivo Okue.
Sample collection
Fish collections were done during three consecutive
months (March, April and May) representing the
peak of dry season and early rainfall periods. Gill
nets were set in the different locations along the river
course to trap the fish species. Collected fish species
were placed in sterile polythene bags and transferred
in icebox to the laboratory. In the laboratory,
collected fish samples were dissected using a sterile
scissors to remove gills, muscle and liver for
histological analysis.
Histological Analyses
Fish organs were fixed in 10% formalin for 24 hours
and then decalcified in 10% nitric acid, dehydrated
in increasing concentrations of alcohols, cleared in
xylene, impregnated and embedded in paraffin.
Tissues were immediately fixed in Bouin solution
prior to histopathological processing using standard
method of paraffin embedding, 5ìm thick sections
were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Prepared
slides were viewed under a light microscope at
various magnifications (40X and 100X
magnifications) for lesions or histopathological
changes and photomicrogh taken.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Histopathology of the gills, liver and muscle
Gills
The result of the histopathological evaluation of the
gills of Schilbemystus and Clariasgariepinusfrom
two points along the Ivo River are shown in Plate 1.
The gills of Schilbemystus from Ivo Amagu showed
severe mucosal erosion of the secondary lamellae
while the gills of Schilbemystus from Ivo Okue
showed moderately stunted secondary lamellae.
Result also showed a mild to moderate diffuse
mucosal erosion in the gills of
Clariasgariepinusfrom Ivo Amagu. However, a
severe mucosal erosion of the secondary lamellae
was observed in the gills of Clariasgariepinusfrom
Ivo Okue.Previous reports have shown that the gill
surfaces are the first target of water pollution.
Exchange of gases and absorption of heavy metals
takes place from external aquatic to internal body
environment through gills (Wepeneret al., 2001).The
microenvironment of the gill surface consists of an
epithelial membrane which primarily contains
phospholipids covered by a mucous layer (Boliset
al., 1984). According to Reid and McDonald (1991)
the gill surface is negatively charged and thus
provides a potential site for gill-metal interaction for
positively charged metal. Several degrees of the
degeneration of the gills tissue recorded in the
Clariasgariepinusand Schilbemystus from Ivo
Amagu and Ivo Okue along the course of Ivo River in
this study could be an indication of heavy metal
accumulation in the gills of these fishes from the
surrounding water.
A B
Schilbemystus Schilbemystus
A B
Clariasgariepinus Clariasgariepinus
Plate 1: Histopathology of the gills of Schilbemystus
and Clariasgariepinusfrom two points along the Ivo River;
arrow shows the lamellae; A = Ivo Amagu; B = Ivo Okue
Liver
Plate 2 shows the histopathological evaluation of the
liver of Schilbemystus and Clariasgariepinusfrom
two points along the Ivo River. The liver of
Schilbemystus from Ivo Amagu also showed
moderate portal congestion with diffuse vacuolar
degeneration of the hepatocytes (Plate 2). On the
38
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
other hand, there was no visible lesion seen in the
liver of Schilbemystus from Ivo Okue. The liver of
Clariasgariepinusfrom Ivo Amagu showed a
moderate diffuse hepatic degeneration and necrosis
while those from Ivo Okue showed no visible
lesions. According to Miller and Harley (2001), the
liver performs major metabolic functions such as the
removal of organic amino acids from organic
compounds, formation of urea from proteins and
conversion of excess amino acids into urea,
manufacturing of plasma proteins, forming fetal
erythrocytes and destroying worn-out erythrocytes
among others. The observed degeneration observed
in the liver of Clariasgariepinusand Schilbemystus
from Ivo Okue could be an indication of alteration in
the normal liver functioning of the fish species.
A B
Schilbemystus Schilbemystus
A B
Clariasgariepinus Clariasgariepinus
Plate 2: Histopathology of the liver of Schilbemystus and
Clariasgariepinusfrom two points along the Ivo River;
A = Ivo Amagu; B = Ivo Okue
Muscles
The result of the histopathological evaluation of the
muscles of Schilbemystus and
Clariasgariepinusfrom two points along the Ivo
River are shown in Plate 3. There was no visible
lesion seen in the muscles of Schilbemystus from Ivo
Amagu and Ivo Okue. Similarly, there was no visible
lesion found in the muscle of Clariasgariepinusfrom
both Ivo Amagu and Ivo Okue. This could be an
indication that the two fish species are fit for
consumption, since the muscle of the fish is the main
edible part of the fish. Previous studied have shown
that the fish are excellent dietary sources of vitamins,
fatty acids, minerals and relatively cheap proteins
that are essential for healthy living (Bahnasawyet al.,
2009). Fish protein provides a good combination of
amino acids which is highly suited to man's
nutritional requirements and compares favourably
with that provided by meat, milk and eggs (FAO,
2016). The muscle (flesh) of Clariasgariepinusand
Schilbemystus from Ivo Amagu and Ivo Okue along
the course of Ivo River used in this study retained
their normal structure and therefore would make a
good dietary protein source for human consumption.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

A CONCLUSION
B This study has shown that the water bodies at Ivo
Amagu and Ivo Okue along the course of Ivo
River could contain some degree of pollutants
causing varying degree of degeneration in the
gills and liver of Clariasgariepinusand
Schilbemystus Schilbemystus Schilbemystus. Also, the muscles of
Clariasgariepinusand Schilbemystus from the
A B study sites did not show any visible
degeneration and thus could be safe for human
consumption.

Clariasgariepinus Clariasgariepinus

Plate 3: Histopathology of the muscle of Schilbemystus and

Clariasgariepinusfrom two points along the Ivo River;
A = Ivo Amagu; B = Ivo Okue

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Bolis, C.L., Cambria, A. and Famam,M. (1984). Effects of Acid Stress on Fish Gills. In: L. Zadunaisky and R.
Gilles, Eds., Toxins, Drugs and Pollutants in Marine Mammals. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 122-129.
Chang, S., Zdanowicz, V.S. andMurchelano, R.A.(1998). Associations between liver lesions in winter flounder
(Pleuronectes americanus) and sediment chemical contaminants from north-east United States
estuaries. Journal of Marine Sciences, 55: 954-969.
Mazon, A. and Fernandes, M.N.(1999). Toxicity and differential tissue accumulation of copper in the tropical
freshwater fish P. scrofa (Prochilodontidae). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and
Toxicology, 63: 794-804.
Poleksic, V. and Mitrovic-Tutundzic, V.(1994). Fish gills as a monitor of sublethal and chronic effects of
pollution. Pp. 339-352. In: Müller, R.and R. Lloyd (Eds.). Sublethal and Chronic effects of pollutants
on freshwater fish. Oxford, Fishing News Books.
Pandey,S.,Parvez,S.,Sayeed, I.,Haque, R., Bin-Hafeez, B. andRaisuddin, S. (2003). Biomarkers of oxidative
stress: a comparative study of river Yamuna fish Wallago att (Bl. &Schn.). Science of the total
environment, 309: 105-115.
Teh, S.J., Adams, S.M. and Hinton, D.E. (1997). Histopathological biomarkers in feral freshwater fish
populations exposed to different types of contaminant stress. AquaticToxicology, 37: 51-70.
Schwaiger, J., Wanke, R.,Adam,S., Pawert, M., Honnen, W. and Triebskorn, R. (1997). The use of
histopatological indicators to evaluate contaminant-related stress in fish. Journal of Aquatic
Ecossystem, Stress and Recovery, 6:75-86.
Rodrigues, E.L. and Fanta, E. (1998). Liver histopathology of the fish Brachydanio rerio after acute exposure to
sublethal levels of the organophosphate Dimetoato 500. RevistaBrasileira de Zoologia, 15: 441-450.
Camargo, M.M.P. and Martinez, C.B.R.(2006). Biochemical and physiological biomarkers in
Prochiloduslineatussubmitted to in situ tests in an urban stream in southern Brazil. Environmental
Toxicology and Pharmacology, 21: 61-69.

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HETEROSIS AND ADAPTATIONAL RESPONSES AMONG

YORUBA ECOTYPE CHICKENS REARED UNDER INTENSIVE
PRODUCTION SYSTEM IN IBADAN.
1 1 1 1
Bolarinwa M.O. , Popoola M.A. ,Awodola-Peters O. O. , Yahyah M. O. ,
1 1
Saka A. A. and Ijadunola T. I
1
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Tech., Moor Plantation, Ibadan.

*Corresponding author: polymeragro@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to evaluate the performance and adaptability of the crossbreds of three Nigeria
Indigenous Chicken Genotypes (NICG)(Yoruba ecotype) under intensive production system. Pure breeds of
Naked neck(NN), Frizzle feather(FF) and Normal feather(NF) were sourced from reputable sources in south-
western Nigeria and cross breeding programme was carried out to generate the crossbreds: Naked neck X
Frizzle feather(NN X FF), Frizzle feather X Normal feather(FF X NF) and Normal feather X Naked neck(NF X
NN). Ninety (90) crossbreds consisting of 30 (NN X FF), 30 (FF X NF) and 30 (NF X NN) crossbreds were
utilized while each crossbred represented a treatment with three replicates each and 10 birds per replicate.
Data were collected from day one on the percentage mortality, live body weight, FCR and heterophyl to
lymphocyte ratio (H/L) as a welfare indicator to determine the level of adaptation. Results showed that
thenaked neck X normal feather(NNXNF) had the highest mortality percentage of 20%, whereas the naked neck
x frizzle feather (NNXFF) and normal feather x frizzle feather (NFXFF) has the same mortality percentage of
10%. Results showed that there were no significant differences (p>0.05) across the treatments on all the
parameters taken on the performance of the crossbreds.Moreover results also showed that there were no
significant differences (p>0.05) among the heterophyl to lymphocyte ratio (H/L) of the crossbreds. Itis
therefore concluded that the evaluated crossbreds responded to the intensive production system in a similar
way considering all the parameters considered.

Key words: frizzle feathered, naked neck, normal feathered, genotypes, crossbreds.

INTRODUCTION and Frizzle feather genes are associated with early

Village poultry production is mostly based on the
scavenging indigenous domestic chicken (Gallus
domesticus). The genetically unimproved local
chickens remain predominant in African villages
despite the introduction of exotic and crossbred
types. This is due to the fact that local farmers have
not been able to afford the high input requirements of
the introduced exotic breed (Fraga, 2002).
According to (Osaiyuwu et al., 2010), the adaptive
value for the local environment, are centered on
genes such as the feather distribution gene, Naked
Neck (Na), the feather structure gene, Frizzle feather
(FF) and spur gene(S) are among these major genes
which are economically interesting in modern
breeding system as they act as sex maker genes and
diseases resistance factor. These cause a reduction in
tropical heat stress by improving the breed's ability
of convection, resulting in improved feed conversion
and better performance. Fayeye et al., (2006)
showed that individuals with Na and FF genes both
singly and/or in combination were superior to those
individuals with normal feathering for egg
mass/weight and forty weeks body weight in tropical
environments. According Ibe, (1993) Naked Neck
sexual maturity in tropical environment. These great
genetic resources embedded in the indigenous
chicken await full exploitation that will provide basis
for genetic improvement and diversification to
produce breeds that are adapted to intensive
production system for the benefit of farmer in
developing countries, (Fraga, 2002).
These indigenous chickens are of the major sources
of protein in forms of egg and meat for rural populace
but are poor in productivity, slow growing and low in
egg production. The low productivity is also
probably as a result of bird exposure to extreme
weather condition, low standard of nutrition and
dependence on scavenging feed resources which
partly account for their annual heavy mortality and
low production, seasonality in laying and
broodiness. Magothe et al., (2012) stated that several
factors which contribute low productivity of the
indigenous chicken are manifested in terms of very
high mortality, low growth rate, small mature weight
and low egg production. They contain a highly
conserved genetic system with high level of
heterozygosity (Magothe et al., 2012). These
indicate that they are highly important farm animals,

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kept for good source of animal protein, for income
and socio-cultural roles. Ebozoje and Ikeobi, (1995)
reported the adaptive potentials of the Nigerian
indigenous chicken such as scavenging, resistance to
some diseases and adaptation to varied ecological
conditions, stresses and diseases. Ibe, (1993) earlier
reported Nigerian indigenous chickens are more
resistant to infectious diseases than their exotic
counterparts.
According to Bilgili, and Hess(1995), social stress,
chilling, and bacteria infections affect H/L ratio. The
H/L ratio of leghorns rose from 0.38 to > 9 with the
addition of corticosterone in the diet. Also, higher
H/L ratio of socialized hens caged at 1:1 mating
ratios with corresponding elevated plasma
corticosterone have been reported (Bilgili, and
Hess1995).The objectives of this study were to
evaluate the growth performance of the crossbreds of
Nigerian Indigenous Chicken Genotypes under
intensive production system and also to evaluate the
heterophyl / lymphocyte ratio as an indicator of
welfare among the crossbreds
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was carried out at Poultry Research
Unit, Federal College of Animal Health &
Production Technology, I.A.R&T, Ibadan, Oyo
State, Nigeria. The study lasted for twenty (20)
weeks.A total number of 90 Yoruba ecotype chicken
strains were used for this study.
Fig. 1: Frizzle feather x Fig. 2: Normal feather x
Frizzle feather
Naked neck
Fig. 3: Naked Neck x
Normal feather
41
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
At twenty (20) weeks, after the birds had been
adequately restrained at an angle of 45owith their
heads downwards. The chicken strains were bled and
2 - 5 mLs of blood was collected from each through
jugular veinpuncture. The blood samples were then
put in the samples bottles containing ethylene
diamine tetra-acetic (EDTA) acid to prevent the
blood from clotting. The blood samples collected
were then labeled and put in a cooler containing ice-
pack to maintain their stability. The samples were
then taken to the Laboratory for haematological
parameters.Data were subjected to ANOVA and
means were separated using Duncan multiple range
test.
RESULTS
Table 1showed that there were no significant
differences (p>0.05) across the treatments on all the
parameters taken. Although, the naked x frizzle
feathered (NNXFF) has the highest body weight
gain, consumed less feed and also has the lowest feed
conversion ratio when considered with other
crossbreds. These results suggested that all the
crossbreds responded to the intensive production
system in a similar way.Results from this experiment
showed that there were no significant differences
(p>0.05) across the crossbreds for all the parameters
taken on growth performance. Although the NNXFF
had the highest body weight gain of 858.40g
compared to FFXNF with 810.37g and NNXNF with
776.87g. This result indicated that all the crossbreds
of NICG responded to intensive production system
in similar way. However, the NNXFF crossbred is
superior to the other crossbreds in terms of body
weight gain. This result is in line with the work of
Magothe et al., (2012) who found that genotypes
(NN and FF) influenced body weights and growth
patterns. This result also agrees with the work of
Garces et al., (2001) who stated that genotype
possessing the naked neck and frizzle genes, either
singly or in combination are associated with
increased growth rates, superior body weight, better
feed conversion, higher egg production and disease
tolerance in tropical environments.
Naked neck and frizzle feather genotypes have
increased growth rates, body weights, feed
conversion, egg production and disease tolerance in
tropical temperatures above 250C (Magothe et al.,
(2012). From past research, major genes(NN, FF and
NF) have been reported to show pronounced effect
on the performance of indigenous chicken in the
tropics (Ibe, 1993). It has also been reported that the
frizzled feathered and naked neck genes conferred
better feed conversion on these genotypes when
compared to their normal-feathered counterpart
(Garces et al., (2001).
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Also,results from Table 2 showed that there were no significant differences (p>0.05) among the heterophyl to
lymphocyte ratio (H/L) of the crossbreds. This suggested that all the crossbreds of NICG presented optimal
level of (H/L) and optimal adaptation under intensive production system, meaning that they are well adapted to
the intensive production system.In practice, introgression of Naked neck and Frizzling genes in the high
producing layer and broiler populations for improvement of tropical adaptability have been properly
documented (Fayeye et al., 2006). The non significant difference (p>0.05) in the heterophyl to lymphocyte
ratio (H/L)across the crossbreds represent an optimal level of H/L. This is in line with the range given byBilgili,
and Hess (1995), who gave 0.50 as the optimal level of stress.This result suggested an optimal level of
adaptation of all the crossbreds under intensive production system.

Table 2: Heterophyl to lymphocyte ratio as welfare indicator among the crossbreds

Parameters T1(NNXFF) T2(FFXNF) T3(NNXNF) SEM±

Heterophyl(%) 31.14 31.29 28.00 1.41

Lymphocyte(%) 62.14 61.57 66.00 1.35

H/L 0.51 0.44 0.03

a , b, c
means with the same superscript along the same row are not significantly different. (p >0.05) ; SEM - Standard Error of
Mean; H/L - Heterophyl to Lymphocyte ratio; Normal range for H/L : 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 as Low, Optimal and High stress
levels respectively.( Bilgili and Hess, 1995).

CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from this experiment that the tested crossbreds responded to the intensive production
system in a similar way considering all the parameters evaluated. Although, the NN x FF crossbreds gave a
better performance considering all parameters evaluated.
Also, the result indicated that the tested crossbreds of NICG adapted optimally to the intensive production
system.

REFERENCES
Bilgili, S.F, and Hess J.B., (1995). Placement density influences broiler carcass grade and meat yields. J.
Appl. Poultry Res. 4:384-389

Ebozoje, M.O. and Ikeobi, C.O.N. (1995): Productive performance and occurrence of major g e n e s i n t h e
Nigerian local chicken. Nigerian J. Genet., 10: 67-77.

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ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Elagib, H. A. A., and Ahmed, A. D. A. (2011). Comparative study on haematological values of blood of
indigenous chickens in Sudan. Asian Journal of Poultry Sciences 5: 41-45.

Fayeye, T. R., Ayorinde, K. L., Ojo, V. and Adesina, O. M. (2006). Frequency and influence of some major
genes on body weight and body size parameters of Nigerian local chickens, Livestock Research for
Rural Development, 18 (http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd18/3/faye18037.htm).

Fraga, L. M. (2002). Reasons for the use and conservation of some local genetic resources in poultry. In:
Proceedings of the 7th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, Montpellier,
France, 19th–23rd August 2002.

Garces, A., Casey, N.H. and Horst, P. (2001). Productive performance of naked neck, frizzle and dwarf laying
hens under various natural climates and two nutritional treatments, South African Journal of Animal
Science, 31, 174– 180.

Ibe, S. N. (1993). Growth performances of normal, frizzle and naked neck chicken in a tropical environment.
Nigerian Journal of Animal Production 20(1&2): 25-29

Magothe, T. M, Okeno, T.O, Muhuyi, W.B. and Kahi, A.K. (2012): Indigenous chicken production in
Kenya: Current status. World's Poultry Science Journal. 68: 119-132.

Njenga, S. K. (2005). Production and socio-cultural aspects of local poultry phenotypes in coastal Kenya,
(unpublished MSc thesis, Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Tjele, Denmark).

Osaiyuwu, O.H., Salako, A.E. and Adurogbangba, O. (2010): Body dimensions of Fulani and Yoruba ecotype
chickens under intensive systems of management. Proceedings of the 35th annual conference of
Nigerian society for animal production, March 14-17, 2010, University of Ibadan,Nigeria pp: 55-59.

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UDDER MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS AMONG SOME OF THE

NIGERIAN SHEEP GENOTYPES
*Bolarinwa M. O.1, Ozoje, M. O.2, Popoola, M. A.1, Saka, A. A.1 and Ijadunola T.I. 1
1
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria.
2
Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.

*Corresponding author: polymeragro@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The study focussed on investigation of three different indigenous sheep genotypes (West African Dwarf (WAD),
Yankasa and their crosses) which were compared over a period of twelve weeks with respect to variations in
linear udder traits. The genotypes comprised 22 ewes with 7 Yankasa, 6 WAD and 9 crosses and evaluation was
based on different reproductive phases: Dry phase, pregnancy phase and lactating phase that existed within the
different genotypes. Readings were taken two times per week for a period of twelve weeks using a tape measure
and average readings per week were later calculated and used for the study. The following udder traits were
measured: udder depth, udder attachment, udder length, udder width and teat size at the above-mentioned
reproductive phases. While the following udder traits were scored: udder depth, udder shape, teat size and teat
placement using the 1 point, 5 points and 9 points on the linear scale. The results from this study showed that the
WAD ewes had the highest values and scores for both the udder depth and udder attachment indicating that
WAD ewes had the largest udder size. While the crossbreds had the highest scores for teat placement and there
were negative correlations of udder length and udder width with the other udder linear traits in WAD and
crossbreds between WAD and Yankasa indicating a high level of dependency between these traits, while linear
udder traits in pure Yankasa were positively correlated.

Keywords: indigenous, variations, reproductive phases, readings, negative correlations.

INTRODUCTION modified to improve this are: udder depth, udder

The physiology of lactation includes development of
the mammary gland from the foetal to the adult stage,
with further development during pregnancy and
onset of lactation. At the onset of pregnancy, the
endocrine system undergoes dramatic changes. The
growth of the mammary gland is stimulate by growth
hormone and prolactin adrenocortical steroids,
oestrogens and progesterone, and that of the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract by gastrin, CCK and
secretin. The onset of lactation is accompanied by
increases in the blood volume, cardiac output,
mammary gland flow and blood-flow through the GI
tract and liver, aiming to provide the udder with
nutrients and hormones for the regulation of milk
synthesis (Arranz et al., 1989). Many dairy
conformation systems have evolved over time and
involve highly correlated traits, which needed to be
simplified. Large genetic correlations were found
among udder traits. (De la Fuente et al., 1996; Foster
et al., 1988) all found high genetic correlations
between rearer udder height and rear udder width,
ranging from 0.85 to 0.95. Foster et al., (1988) found
a high genetic correlation between udder depth and
fore udder attachment. Mammary morphology is one
factor that determines aptitude for mechanical
milking because the udder must fit the standard
milking machine (Hovey et al., 2002). The
morphological traits that define mechanical milking
aptitude and the direction in which they should be
attachment, teat placement, teat size and the udder
shape (Hovey et al., 2002). The appraisal of cattle
studs for morphological traits has been solved
efficiently by evaluating the traits on a linear scale
(Klei et al., 1988). Application of a system for
morphological appraisal of the udder using a linear
scale is proposed for dairy ewes for the first time by
(Foster et al., 1988) as an alternative to the
classification by types and the Labussiere methods.
This study sought to assess the variations in udder
traits among some of the Nigerian sheep genotypes.
Materials and Methods
The experiment was carried out at the small
ruminant unit of the Teaching and Research Farms of
the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
Ogun State, Nigeria. Abeokuta occupies a
geographical area of 125 square kilometre, latitude
0 0
3.5 S – 7.5 N with an average rainfall of 1455mm
which is bimodal in nature with peaks in June and
September. Temperature ranges between 270C-320C.
0
Ogun State as a whole is located between latitude 8 N
0
and 7.7 N of the equator and between longitude
0 0
2.8 E and 4.8 E. Situated within the tropical zone
covering some 16,4000 square kilometres, it is
bounded in the West by the Republic of Benin
(Dahomey), in the South by Lagos State and Atlantic
ocean, in the East by Ondo state and in the North by
Oyo state. The 1991 estimate of Ogun state

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population is 2,338,570.

A 12-week investigation on udder traits was carried

out on three sheep genotypes (Yankasa, WAD and
their crosses) using 22 ewes comprising 7 Yankasa, 6
WAD and 9 crosses and evaluation was based on
different reproductive phases (Dry phase, pregnancy
phase and lactating phase) that existed within the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
different genotypes. Readings were taken two times
per week for a period of twelve weeks using a tape
Means for linearly scored udder traits ranged from
measure and average readings per week were later
4.33 for udder shape to 33.62 for udder attachment
calculated, which were used for the study.
(Tables 2-3), observations revealed that the West
African Dwarf sheep has the highest value of udder
The evaluation of the udder traits was based on the
attachment while the crosses have the lowest value.
measurement and scoring patterns according to the
Table 2 shows that WAD sheep has the lowest score
methods described by Lucas et al., (1984). The
for teat placement while the crossbred has the highest
following udder traits were measured: udder depth,
score for teat placement. More so, observed results
udder attachment, udder length, udder width and teat
showed that the lactating animals have the highest
size at various reproductive phases (Dry, pregnant
values and scores for all the linear udder traits
and lactating) for each of the genotypes using a tape
considered except for teat placement and therefore
measure, while the following udder traits were
should be adopted as the evaluation phase during
scored: udder depth, udder shape, teat size and teat
evaluation trials. It was also gathered that the dry
placement using the 1 point, 5 points and 9 points on
animals have the lowest values and scores for all the
the linear scale. These udder traits were scored based
linear udder traits considered except for teat
on the following criteria:
placement and should therefore not be adopted as the
SCORING OF UDDER DEPTH:The udder depth is
evaluation phase during evaluation trials. Table 1
defined by the distance between the rear attachment
shows the ANOVA results for all the linearly scored
and the udder floor, using the hock as a reference.
udder traits. All factors (breed, reproductive phase,
Udder depths above 10cm were scored 9 points,
breed X Repro, phase) were significant for all the
udder depths between 5cm and 10cm were scored 5
udder traits.
points while those that are 5cm and below were
scored 1 point.
The effect of genotype, reproductive phase and
SCORING OF UDDER SHAPE:The udder shape
interaction between genotype and reproductive
measures the morphology of the udder relative to the
phase were significant (Table 1) and should be
size. Udders that are big and globose were scored 9
included in the models destined for genetic
points, medium sized udders were scored 5 points,
evaluation, as has been done for cattle. There was
while udders that are small were scored 1 point.
decrease in udder depth as lactation progresses and is
SCORING OF TEAT SIZE: The size is determined
caused by the decrease in milk production through
by the length of the teat. Teat sizes of 2cm and above
the lactation stage (Hovey et al., 2002). Udder
were scored 9 points, teat sizes of between 1.50cm
attachment decreased is score as lactation and width
and 2cm were scored 5 points while those that are
also evolve regressively throughout lactation (Hovey
below 1.50cm were scored 1 point.
et al., 2002). Right from the end of early lactation,
SCORING OF TEAT PLACEMENT: Teat
udder shape score decreased from month to month,
placement is defined by the teat angle. The optimum
evaluation of animals is recommended during the
is completely vertical teats (9 points), directed
early lactation month. Udder depth increased with
towards the ground that coincide with minimum
parity number, in agreement with findings for ewes
cistern height. Slantly placed teats were scored 5
of other breeds Shi and Chu (2002) and dairy cattle
points while the completely horizontal teats were
(Seykora, and Mc. Daniel, 1986).
scored 1 point. Thereafter the mean (µ) of the
measured and scored values of each of the udder
traits was calculated for each genotype before
subjection to statistical analysis.

Data collected were analyzed by least square analysis

of variance method using the general linear models
procedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS,
1988). The linear model is as presented below:

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Table 1: Analysis of variance for linear udder traits

Variables df TS UD UA UL UW US TP
Breeds 2 25.91* 88.48** 98.39* 9.04* 161.42** 27.05** 27.05**
Reprod. Phase 2 232.46** 258.85** 1402.35** 92.87** 84.21** 65.13** 110.47**
Breeds x Repro. Phase 4 107.63** 29.57* 271.90** 19.82** 14.99* 13.93** 43.85**

** P < 0.0001, * < 0.05

KEY
df: Degree of freedom, TS: Teat Size UD: Udder Depth UA: Udder Attachment
UL: Udder Length UW: Udder Width US: Udder Shape TP: Teat Placement

Table 2: Phenotypic means and standard errors of linearly scored udder traits of indigenous sheep genotypes at
different reproductive phases:
Source TS TP UD US
Breed No of Obs. Means ± SE Mean ± SE Mean ± SE Mean ± SE
WAD 72 5.00 ± 0.39 5.00 ± 0.00 7.00 ± 0.24 4.33 ± 0.33
YANKASA 84 6.14 ± 0.31 5.57 ± 0.15 6.67 ± 0.23 2.71 ± 0.31
WAD X YANKASA 108 4.56 ± 0.34 7.22 ± 0.19 3.48 ± 0.30 5.44 ± 0.22
Repro. Phase
Dry 40 2.20 ± 0.29 9.00 ± 0.00 1.00 ± 0.00 5.00 ± 0.00
Pregnant 105 5.00 ± 0.29 5.91 ± 0.16 5.46 ± 0.28 3.36 ± 0.29
Lactating 119 6.34 ± 0.30 5.27 ± 0.92 6.95 ± 0.18 4,83 ± 0.28

The phenotypic correlations between the linear udder traits for all the genotypes are shown in Tables 4-6. The highest
correlations were between udder length and width with the other traits in all the genotypes except that teat placement is
independent of other traits in the West African Dwarf sheep. The correlation of udder length and width with the other
traits shows a high level of dependency between them. Udders with vertical teats and lower external cistern height
comply with “udder machine” traits (Seykora, and Mc. Daniel, 1986).

Table 3: Phenotypic means and standard errors of linearly scored udder traits of indigenous sheep genotypes at
different reproductive phases:

Source UA UD US
Breed No of Obs. Means ± SE Mean ± SE Mean ± SE
WAD 72 33.62 ± 0.39 8.85 ± 0.11 7.94 ± 0.19
YANKASA 84 31.17 ± 0.95 8.37 ± 0.22 7.23 ± 0.28
WAD X YANKASA 108 28.46 ± 0.62 7.28 ± 0.17 6.94 ± 0.16
Repro. Phase
Dry 40 22.39 ± 0.38 5.69 ± 0.07 5.50 ± 0.14
Pregnant 105 30.69 ± 0.57 8.13 ± 0.15 7.20 ± 0.17
Lactating 119 33.57 ± 0.62 8.79 ± 0.14 8.01 ± 0.19

Table 4: Phenotypic correlation between linear udder traits of WAD sheep using Pearson Correlation
Coefficients, N = 72

US TS UD UA UL UW

TS 0.59**
UD 0.70** 0.82**
UA 0.42** -0.19** 0.05*
UL 0.45** -0.07** 0.28** 0.88**
UW 0.35** -0.25** -0.11** 0.96** 0.71**
US 1.00** 0.59** 0.73** 0.42** 0.45** 0.35**

** P<0.0001

CONCLUSION
This study showed that the West African Dwarf ewes had the highest values and scores for both the udder depth
and udder attachment indicating that WAD ewes have the largest udder size. Reproductive phases had direct
and positive impact on udder attachment, udder depth and udder shape. Also, the crossbred ewes between WAD
and Yankasa have the highest scores for teat placement and this could be as a result of their possession of
vertically implanted teats.

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REFERENCES

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2. De la Fuente, L. F., Fernandez, G. and San Primitive, F. (1996). A linear evaluation system for udder
traits of dairy ewes. Livest. Prod. Sci., 45: 171-178.
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parameter estimation. J. Dairy sci. 71:223-231.
4. Hovey, R. C., Trott. J. F. and Vonder haar, K. (2002). Establishing a framework for the functional
mammary gland: from endocrinology to morphology. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia. 7:17-38.
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linearised type appraisal scores. J. Dairy Sci. 70: 1027-1035.
6. Lucas, J. L., Pearson, R. E., Vinson, W. E. and Johnson, L. P. (1984). Experimental linear description
type classification. J. Dairy sci., 67: 1767-1775.
7. SAS. (1988). SAS/STATR User's Guide, Release 6.03 Edition 1988. SAS Inst., Inc., Cary, NC.
8. Shi, S. K. and Chu, M. X. (2002). Phenotypic factor analysis for linear type traits in Beijing Holstein
Cows. Asian-Austr. J. Anim. Sci. 15(11): 21527-15030.
9. Seykora, A. J. and Mc. Daniel, B. T. (1986). Genetics statistics and relationship of teat and udder traits,
somatic cell counts, and milk production. J. Dairy Sci., 69:2395-2047.

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DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ANDROID BASED APPLIANCE

CONTROL SYSTEM USING BLUETOOTH TECHNOLOGY
Adegbile A.A*, Ogunlesi O.O.**, Dada T.O., Akinosho, G.A., Olanrewaju O.T., Esuola, F.B. Onime F.,
Akintola O.S., Ayobioloja, S.P., Aguda O.O.
Department of Computer Science, Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology,
Moor Plantation, Ibadan.
**Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology, Moor Plantation, Ibadan.

Email address –alibimpe@gmail.comPhone Number – 08062072959

Abstract
Android-based Bluetooth appliances control system is a system that uses an Android phone to control
appliances via Bluetooth application to save time and effort.The fast advancement of technology. It encourages
individuals to have more appliances in their homes, which requires more effort to handle, necessitating the need
for a remote control system.The use of cutting-edge technology to implement home automation provides us with
greater convenience, security, and safety. Because of their size and portability, smart phones are becoming
more affordable every year and playing an increasingly significant part in our daily lives.The design and
implementation of an android-based appliance control system using Bluetooth technology are shown in this
project.It is appropriate for the elderly and handicapped, as well as for everyone at home as it is low cost and
user friendly. The Arduino board, Bluetooth module, and smartphone application are all used in the project's
design. The Bluetooth module HC-06 is connected to the Arduino board via relays, and the home appliances are
physically attached to the board's input/output ports.When tested, the system's operational performance was
found to be in line with the stated goal of the design.
Keywords: Android, Bluetooth, Home appliances, Automation, Arduino.

1.0 Introduction The phrase "smart home" is often used to describe a

The rapid advancement of technology has
influenced the use of smart phones to manage home
appliances remotely. Because automated devices not
only serve to reduce human labor but also save time
and energy, they have the ability to function with
versatility, diligence, and the lowest error rate.
(Reddy et al, 2018). As a result, an Android-based
wireless appliances control system is a system that
uses the Android operating system, which is
currently being developed by Google, to manage
appliances via wireless applications, thereby
reducing human labor. (Sonaliet al, 2015).
Home automation is defined as a system that
improves the house's safety and coziness, maintains
pleasant indoor conditions energy efficiently,
facilitates inhabitants' residency and coping with
everyday chores, and enables content transfer
connections within the home's internal and external
networks. (Pakanen&Lappalainen, 2006) (Marttila,
2009).Therefore, Home automation systems,
according to Muthukumaran et al. (2019), are the use
of information technologies and control systems to
reduce human labor. Over the last few decades, home
automation systems have evolved from traditional
electrical systems, with the amount of automation
increasing from single stand-alone devices to whole
house systems that can manage practically every
electrical system. (Marttila, 2009).
home that integrates technology and services
through home networking to increase energy
efficiency and living quality (Abd et al, 2014).
According to Ajibola and Balogun (2019), smart
home technology refers to any collection of gadgets,
equipment, or systems that are connected to a
common network and may be controlled
autonomously and remotely.
Many research works had been done to develop an
automatic home appliances control system with few
to be mention and their limitations. Senet al,(2015)
developed a home automatic system which was
controlled through voice using a smart phone
(Android phone) that translates voice for controlling
electrical devices.Ajibola&Balogun, (2019)
developed a smart switch for household appliances
using web-based technology to monitor and regulate
energy usage within a remote building. Abd et al,
(2014) developed a smart home automated control
system using android application and
microcontroller.
This paper presents an android based appliance
control system using Bluetooth technology to
remotely control home appliances using our android
phone at no cost, easy to access and user friendly in
other to reduce human effort and also have access to
home appliances from a mobile control
systemMarttila (2009).

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2.0 Materials and methods
The methodology used in the design and
implementation used the modified system
development life cycle (SDLC) which was a process
of developing, implementing, and organizing
systems through the process of analysis, design,
development coding, implementation, testing and
maintenance.
The blocked diagram in figure 1 shows the major
components that were required for the system. The
controlling device for the whole system was a
microcontroller. Bluetooth module was interfaced
to the microcontroller. The data received by the
module from the phone were fed as input to the
controller. The controller acted accordingly on the
relays to switch connected electrical appliances. In
achieving the task, the microcontroller was loaded
with embedded c language. For controlling devices
of home or office, firstly Bluetooth connection of
mobile phone and Arduino board had been done.
The devices had been connected to the Arduino
Bluetooth module used relays or simply resistors.
The person who wants to switch on/off particular
device would sent the signal from mobile phone to
controller through Bluetooth.
Figure 2 showed the steps needed to accomplish the
goals of this project in a sequential manner. First, all
parts needed to design the project were collected and
a primary concept was designed based on it. Next
was the connection between the Arduino uno and the
Bluetooth via the Bluetooth module which was the
most important part of the project. After all the
connection was done as shown in figure 3, the
Arduino board needed have been programmed and
the Arduino software had have been installed. At the
end, the android based mobile phone was used to
controlled the Arduino uno via Bluetooth
The system was in two parts namely; the hardware
and software part. The hardware part was the part
where various components were soldered on a vero
board and some other components were connected
and were housed in a plastic case. The software part
of the system was the coding of the microcontroller
with c programming language which was a simple
language for embedded system and best to
communicate with components.
The process of designing and constructing the
system were in three phasesand they were:
· Circuit Design:this deals with the drawing
of the circuit diagram and placing of each of
the components in its rightful place where it
had been useful and allowed for easy
function of the proposed system.
· Programming Design: this deals with the
coding of the microcontroller for desired
outputs. The design was programmed used
c language and Arduino software. The tools
used were programmer, laptop while the
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Mikroc and Arduino software were used for
writing and compiling the codes, the codes
were then transferred to the
microcontrollers IC.
· Physical Layout Design: this was the
translation of the circuit diagram,
programming and application design into
physical functional components. The
constructed circuit was put inside a portable
plastic casing. The components used in this
design includes Bluetooth module (hc-06),
Vero board, led (light emitting diode),
resistor, regulated power supply, diodes,
relay, and switch, Arduino-Uno board,
android based mobile phone.
3.0 Results and Discussion
The android based appliance control system using
Bluetooth, presents a possible solution for the
control of home appliances, whereby the user
controls devices by using his or her android device,
where controls are communicated to the
microcontroller from the android phones through its
Bluetooth interface. The application on the android
mobile phone was coded with an integer value (0 or
1), after opening the application, the button pressed
with its integer value is converted to the binary value
as well as sent to the receiver of the Bluetooth
module (HC-06) via the Bluetooth on the android
phone. The binary value from the Bluetooth module
goes to the Arduino. Arduino checks in its database
the equivalent of the binary code. If it is HIGH, the
light should be turned ON and if it is LOW, the light
should be turned OFF.
Operational Requirement
For the system to operate effectively, the following
are the operational requirement;
The application (Home Control) as shown in figure 4
and 5 is to be installed on the android mobile phone
and the Bluetooth module (HC-06) is connected to
the Arduino Uno. Smartphone with Android 4.4 and
above with 1GB+ RAM is required for effective
operation.
After the application is installed on the mobile phone
and the Bluetooth module is connected to the
Arduino Uno, the connection is to be tested to make
sure that the phone is interacting with the Arduino
Uno via the Bluetooth module (HC-06) and that the
appliances are responding as expected.
The steps to test the connection are as follows:
· Open your device's Bluetooth settings and
search for new devices, make sure the LED on
HC-06 module is blinking continuously (pairing
Mode).
· Select HC-06 (or check for address ending
with “C” as shown in the pictures).
· Enter the PIN “1234” and press OK.
· Open the “Home Control Panel” application
and click the Bluetooth button on the top of the
screen.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

· Select “HC-06” from the list. work presented the implementation of an inexpensive
· Use the respective switches to turn ON/OFF home automation system that has at its heart, the
the relays 1,2,3,4. Arduino microcontroller, which has been
· Click the Master to turn all the relays programmed to control a range of home automation
devices based on direct commands by the user from a
ON/OFF in a single click.
Bluetooth enabled Android phone. The system has
Note: If the blinking of the light stops in the Bluetooth
been programmed to have Bluetooth communication
module, then it is working correctly, and the
capability. Demonstrations of the system show that it
connection is established as shown in figure 7 and 8. If
facilitates the control of home-based devices such as
the light continues to blink, the connection needs to be
electrical appliances, lights, fan, heating, and cooling
checked
systems by the intended users as all the appliances of
Conclusion
the house connected to the system were controlled
The purpose of this research work was to design and
successfully via Bluetooth using the application on
implement an android based appliances control
the Android mobile phone.
system using embedded system technology. This

References
Abd, M., Mowad, E., Fathy, A., & Hafez, A. (2014). Smart Home Automated Control System Using Android
Application and Microcontroller. Retrieved from https://www.ijser.org/paper/Smart-Home-
Automated-Control-System-Using-Android-Application-and-Microcontroller.html, Retrieved 23
Apil 2021.
Ajibola, O.O.E. and Balogun, A.O. (2019). Development of Smart Switch for Household Appliances Using
Web-Based Technology. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management. Volume 23 (1)
145–149
Marttila S. (2009). Home Automation – A challenge forelectrical designers, contractors and
electricians,Unpublished master's thesis. Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland.
Muthukumaran, M, Kannusamy, M., Kanagaraj, M, Guruveswaran, A. (2019). Bluetooth based Home
Automation using Arduino. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT),
Volume 7, Issue 2, 1 – 5.
Pakanen, J. and Lappalainen, Veijo. (2006). Home automation and home ICT. Mapping the current state of
technology and development prospects. Pages 50.
Reddy, V. K. B., Srinivas, P.A., Reddy C.A.K. and Mohan, M. (2018). Sophisticated Home Automation System
UsingBluetooth. International Journal of Pure and Applied MathematicsVolume 118 No. 20 2018, 719-
722
Sonali, S., Shamik, C., Raghav T. and Ankita B. (2015). Design of an Intelligent Voice Controlled
HomeAutomationSystem.International Journal of Computer Applications, Volume 121 – No.15, 0975
– 8887)

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Figure 1: The block diagram of the system Architecture

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Figure 3:Circuit diagram of Android Based Appliance Control System

Figure 4: Pairing the HC-06 Bluetooth module to your Android device

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Figure 5: Graphic User Interface of the Software to access the appliance control System

Figure 6: Internal Structure and Physical appearance of the system

Figure 7:Appearance of the device when it is powered ON and with the Android phone

Figure 8:The Device when one of the appliances is connected to it and when
various home appliances connected are turned ON

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KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICES TOWARDS COVID-19

PANDEMIC AMONG RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN ONDO STATE
1
Olutumise, A. I., 2*Ishola, O. O. and 2Ale, T. A.
1Department of Agricultural Economics, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko,
Ondo State, Nigeria;
2Department of Agricultural Extension and Management, Federal College of Agriculture
Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria

*tosinisho@gmail.com; 08067033735

Abstract
Rural households play a crucial role in food security and economic development.Their knowledge, attitude and
practices will influence the control of the pandemic, COVID-19. The study assessed the knowledge, attitude
and practices (KAP) towards COVID-19 among rural households in Ondo state. Structured interview schedule
was used to elicit information from 120 respondents selected through a multistage sampling procedure. Data
were summarized using frequency counts, percentages and mean scores while Chi square was used to draw
inference on hypothesis stated. The study showed that majority (55.0%, 50.0%, 59.1%) were males, farmers
and had acquired formal education. They had a mean household size of 6 persons per household.Radio and
television (41.7%) were the main sources of information on COVID-19. This study found a prevalence of
sufficient knowledge (53.0%), positive attitude (55.4%) and good practices (79.6%). Unavailability of soap
(x¯
= 1.41); lack of safe, running water (x¯= 1.28) and poor access to quality healthcare (x¯= 1.26) constituted the
2
major constraints to respondents' adherence to disease prevention measures. Age (÷ = 100.767, p≤ 0.05),
2 2
household size (÷ = 90.933, p≤ 0.05), and educational status (÷ = 38.530, p≤ 0.05) had a significant
relationship with respondents' KAP. Respondents had sufficient knowledgeable with a positive attitude which
informed their practices. The study recommended greater sensitization campaigns, especially through the
radio and television. There is also the need for improvement ofrural infrastructure such as provision of potable
water and quality healthcare system to uphold positive attitude and good practices for the control of the
COVID-19 pandemic.

Keywords: Knowledge, Attitude, Rural households, COVID-19, Ondo state

It was first reported in Wuhan city of Hubei province

Introduction
of China at the end of 2019 (Wang et al., 2020). The
Across the world, the COVID-19 pandemic has
index case of COVID-19 in Nigeria was reported by
become a major health challenge. This is because it is rd
Nigeria Center for Disease Control (NCDC) on 23
a highly contagious disease caused by the novel
February, 2020 (Lawalet al., 2021).The surge of
coronavirus (SARS-CoV 2) (Reuben et al.,2021).
COVID-19 in Wuhan, China led to the closure of
The main symptoms include fatigue, fever and
public places, halting of public transportation,
cough. Most cases experience mild respiratory
isolation and management of infected persons in
illness which may likely become severe in older
order to curb itsspread (Zhonget al., 2020). These
people and cases with underlying health conditions.
infection prevention and control (IPC) measures
The primary means of transmission of this disease is
were also adopted across the world especially, in
by respiratory droplets of infected people, such as
affected countries. According to Lawalet al. (2021),
saliva or discharge from the nose of an infected
in Nigeria, the government employed media
person (Abdel-Hady, etal., 2020).
campaigns to encourage people to stay at home and
avoid social gatherings. They were also advised to

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maintain personal hygiene, especially frequent hand
washing with soap or hand sanitizers. Consequently,
these infection prevention and control measures led
to the shutting down of economic activities and
economic decline across the globe (Reuben et al.,
2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic, if not promptly
addressed, has the ability to stretch the infrastructure
of a nation, especially that of vulnerable populations
and create new needs while simultaneously
worsening existing poverty conditions(Lawalet al.,
2021; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), 2021). Travel and transport
restrictions during COVID-19 disrupt the
livelihoods of the rural poor, many of whom depend
on mobility, seasonal and migrant work and
remittances (UN, 2021).
According to the OECD (2021), the COVID-19
pandemic is a global health emergency with
economic and social impacts that have disrupted
nearly all aspects of life. It has created new needs for
vulnerable groups while simultaneously
exacerbating existing conditions of poverty.As
stated by United Nations (UN) (2021), poverty is
mainly a rural phenomenon. Most rural households
are involved in the agricultural sector, contributing
immensely to the production of food, raw materials
and consequently, food security (World Health
Organisation (WHO), 2014). Poverty in rural areas
presents itself in terms of land degradation
andinadequate access to public services,
infrastructure, social protection and economic
opportunities (UN, 2021). Many rural communities
lack electrification, safe drinking water and quality
education, health and sanitation services. Rural
communities experience underdeveloped or
neglected infrastructure, including the absence of
information and communication infrastructure
(Tsymbalista, 2016) which are essential to the
acquisition of knowledge and the development of
positive attitude and good practices.Obidike (2011)
also identified the lack of information
communication as one of the major setbacks of
underdeveloped communities, such as the rural areas
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
in Nigeria.
Information is processed data that is capable of
solving human problems (Ezeh, 2020) such as poor
living standards, levels of productivity and national
development (Reitz, 2014). Rural communities need
information on health issues (Anunobiet al., 2014)
such as the COVID-19 pandemic in order to know
the modes of transmission and its prevention
measures so as to avert the perpetuation of the
poverty cycle which is pervasive in rural areas. Since
COVID-19 has the ability to further erode the
meager resources of rural households in their often
impoverished conditions, they therefore, need
accurate information on its prevention and control
measures. Such accurate and reliable information
will facilitate good knowledge, attitude and practices
towards COVID-19 within their communities, build
resilience and help curtail the spread of the disease.
In view of the foregoing, the study assessed the
knowledge, attitude and practices towards COVID-
19 among rural households in Ondo State, Nigeria.
Specifically, it ascertained their sources of
information on COVID-19, determined their
knowledge, attitude and practices towards COVID-
19and constraints to COVID-19 prevention
practices.
Methodology
The study was carried out in Ondo State, Nigeria.
The state is located on latitude 7° 6' 0.0180'' N and
longitude 4° 50' 30.0984'' E. The people engage in
different occupations such as crop and livestock
farming, food processing, feed milling, civil service,
lumbering and craftsmanship among others.
However, agriculture and agro-allied enterprises are
the predominant sources of livelihooddue to
favourable weather and soil conditions.
A multistage sampling technique was used to select
respondents for the study. The first stage involved
the simple random selection of three Local
Government Areas (LGAs)- Akure North, Akure
South and Ifedore. A simple random selection of two
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communities from each LGA gave six communities.
Finally, 20 respondents were selected from each
community to give a total of 120 respondents.Data
were collected using a well-structured questionnaire.
Data collected included respondents' sources of
information on COVID-19, respondents'
knowledge, attitude and preventive
practicestowards COVID-19and constraints to the
observance of COVID-19 preventive practices. Data
collected were summarized into frequency counts,
percentages, and means. Chi-square test was used to
test the existence of relationship between selected
respondents'socio-economic characteristics and
their knowledge, attitude and practices.
The knowledge, attitude and practices towards
COVID-19 (KAP) was the dependent variable for
the study. Respondents were asked to indicate either
Yes or No to a list of 14 statements in order to assess
their knowledge of COVID-19. Correct responses
were given a point each and zero to incorrect
responses.Attitude was determined by asking
respondents to indicate their responses from a list of
6 statements using a five-point Likert-type scale of
Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Undecided (3),
Disagree (2) and Strongly Disagree (0) for positive
statements and vice versa for negative statements.
Respondents were asked to indicate either Yes or No
to a list of 6 precautionary measures in order to assess
their preventive practices towards COVID-19. Each
good practice was scored one point and zero for non-
observance of good practice.

Decision for positive attitudestatement Decision for negative attitude statement

0 – 1.4 : Strongly disagree 0-1.4: Strongly agree

1.5 -2.4: Disagree 1.5-2.4: Agree

2.5 – 3.4: Undecided 2.5-3.4: Undecided

3.5 – 4.4: Agree 3.5-4.4: Disagree

4.5 – 5.0: Strongly agree 4.5-5.0: Strongly disagree

Results and Discussion
Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents
Table 1 shows that there were more males (55.0%)
than females (45.0%). Majority of the respondents
(61.7%) were less than 50 years of age. This implies
that they are in their economically active years,
pursuing their various means of livelihood.
Government stipulated control measures against
COVID-19, such as staying at home as much as
possible to prevent the spread of the infection, may
therefore, affect their livelihoods. Married
respondents accounted for more than half (68.3%) of
the respondents.
Majority (56.7%) of the respondents had a
household size of 1-5 persons with a mean of 6
persons. This is corroborated by Mukailaet
al.,(2021) that the average household size of rural
households is 6 persons and the purpose for having
large household sizes in rural communities is to
ensure the availability of familylabour for
agricultural production. Moreover, members of a
household are expected to influence one another into
good practices where knowledge of good and safe
precautionary practices is available among members
within the household. Half (50.0%) of the
respondents were involved in farming. This is
corroborated by Adamu(2018)that agriculture plays
a dominant role in facilitating livelihoods in rural
areas. The result is also supported by World Bank
(2014) that the labour force in Nigeria is largely
concentrated in agriculture and it is an important
source of rural employment and income.
About 59.1% of respondents had acquired formal
education. This implies that they have achieved a
l e v e l o f l i t e r a c y. E d u c a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e s
enlightenment. This will also encourage them to
seek relevant informationsuch as those affecting
their livelihoods and health.Most (78.3%) of the
respondents belonged to social organizations.
Membership of social organization will facilitate
better access to information and can improve
knowledge of government policies relating to
livelihoods and health, thereby encouraging positive
attitude and good practices towards COVID-19.

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Table 1: Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents (n=120)

Variable Frequency Percentage

Sex
Male 66 55.0
Female 54 45.0
Age (years)
30-39 36 30.0
40-49 38 31.7
50-59 20 16.7
60and above 26 21.6
Marital status
Single 28 23.4
Married 82 68.3
Widow ed 10 8.3
Household size
=5 68 56.7
6-10 34 28.3
Above 10 28 25.0
Primaryoccupation
Farming 60 50.0
Trading 22 18.3
Artisanship 10 8.3
Civil service 27 23.4
Educational level
No education 49 40.8
Primary education 19 15.8
Secondary education 43 35.8
Tertiary education 9 7.5
Membership of social
organization
Yes 94 78.3
No 26 21.7
Source: Field survey, 2021

Information Sources of COVID-19

Table 2 reveals that majority (41.7%) obtained information on COVID-19 from radio or television. This is
corroborated byGuptaet al.,(2020)that the most common sources of information for the rural population are
television and radio. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2021)
posited that radio and television are essential means of disseminating educational broadcasts on issues relating
to health and psychological wellbeing which are important in supporting populations affected by the threat of
COVID-19.

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Knowledge of COVID-19 among respondents

Table 3 shows that about 97.5% of respondents were aware that eating healthy foods like fruits and vegetables
can help build immunity against COVID-19. A total of 95.8% were awarethat the elderly need to take extra care
to avoid contracting COVID-19. About 92.5% were aware that crowded places should be avoided as much as
possible to lower the risk of contracting COVID-19. Whileabout 80.8% were aware that children also need to
take precautionary measures to avoid getting infected,66.7% were aware that the disease cannot be transmitted
by wild animals. About 93.3% were not aware that COVID-19 was transmissible by respiratory droplets. A total
of 95.0% were not aware that it was advisable to wash hands under running water. About 53.0% of respondents
had knowledge of COVID-19. The result indicates that respondents had sufficient knowledge about COVID-
19 and this knowledge is gained mainly through radio or television broadcasts especially by the National
Centre for Disease and Control (NCDC). This is in tandem with Abdel-Hady, et al.(2020) that rural population
had sufficient knowledge about COVID-19 which is important in order to limit the spread of COVID-19.

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Attitude towards COVID-19 among respondents

Table 4 reveals that respondents were undecided (x¯ = 2.90) about nose masks being uncomfortable. They
strongly agreed (x¯= 4.67) that frequent hand washing is essential to protect from COVID-19. Also, they
strongly agreed (x¯ = 4.50) that COVID-19 will eventually be successfully controlled if people abide by
precautionary measures. They agreed (x¯ = 1.81) that hand sanitizers are not readily available due to cost and
availability. They strongly agreed (x¯
= 1.43) that maintaining social distance to prevent COVID-19 among local
community members may not easily achieved. Also, they strongly agreed (x¯ = 4.59) that quarantine for people
that have had contact with COVID-19 is necessary to ensure observation and prompt treatment for people
infected with COVID-19.
A grand mean of 3.32 was obtained and this indicates a positive attitude towards controlling the spread of
COVID-19.About 55.4% had positive attitude towards controlling the spread of COVID-19. This implies that
respondents understand the effects of COVID-19 on their households and different aspects of rural economy.
This will make them better inclined to observing preventive practices to control the spread of the disease.

Table 4: Attitude towards COVID-19 among respondents (n = 120)

Statement SA A U D SD Mean(x¯
)
F (%) F (%) F (%) F (%) F (%)
Nose masks are uncomfortable. 26 (21.7) 33 (27.5) 19 (15.8) 11 (9.2) 31 (25.8) 2.90
(N)
Frequent hand washing is essential 86 (71.7) 32 (26.7) 0(0.00) 0(0.0) 2 (1.7) 4.67
to protect from COVID
-19. (P)
COVID-19 will eventually be 77 (64.2) 35 (29.2) 1 (0.8) 5 (4.2) 2 (1.7) 4.50
successful controlled if people
abide by precautionary measures .
(P)
Hand sanitizers are not readily 56 (46.7) 44 (36.7) 10 (8.3) 7 (5.8) 3 (2.5) 1.81
available due to cost and
availability. (N)
Maintaining social distance to 80 (66.7) 35 (29.2) 4 (3.3) 0(0.0) 2 (1.7) 1.43
prevent COVID-19 among local
community members may not be
easily achieved. (N)
Quarantine for people that have 81 (67.5) 34 (28.3) 2 (1.7) 1 (0.8) 2 (1.7) 4.59
had contact with COVID -19 is
necessary to ensure observation
and prompt treatment for people
infected withCOVID-19. (P)
SA- Strongly Agree A-Agree U-Undecided D- Disagree SD- Strongly Disagree
Source: Field survey,2021
Grand mean: 3.32
COVID-19 Preventive Practices among respondents
Table 5 shows thatregular handwashing (x¯= 1.12) ranked first among the preventive practices to prevent
COVID-19 observed by respondents. The regular use of face mask (x¯ = 1.10) ranked second while staying at
home to stay safe (x¯= 1.08) ranked third. Maintaining physical distance (1.05) ranked fourth while avoidance
of social gathering (x¯= 1.00) ranked fifth. Avoiding touching the face with unwashed hands (0.09) was the least
practiced by respondents.
Good preventive practices were carried out by majority (79.6%) of the respondents. This may due to the
knowledge they acquired on COVID-19 through radio and television broadcasts. This is supported by Fatmiet
al. (2020) that having sufficient knowledge especially among vulnerable groups like such as rural households,
encourages the observance of healthy practices which help to control the spread of COVID-19.

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Table5: COVID-19 Preventive Practices among respondents (n = 120)

Preventive Yes No Mean Rank

(x¯
)
F (%) F (%)
Avoidance of social gathering 90 (75.0) 30 (25.0) 1.00 5th
Regular handwashing 114 (95.0) 6 (5.0) 1.12 1st
Regular use of face mask 108 (90.0) 12 (10.0) 1.10 2nd
Stay at home and stay safe 105 (87.5) 15 (12.5) 1.08 3rd
Physical distanceto prevent COVID-19 97 (80.8) 23 (19.2) 1.05 4th
Avoiding touching the face with unwashed 38 (49.7) 82 (50.3) 0.09 6th
hands as much as possible
Source: Field survey, 2021 Cut-off point: 1.05

Constraints to COVID-19 Prevention Measures

Table 6 reveals that the unavailability of soap for handwashing (x¯= 1.41) was foremost among constraints and
this was followed by the lack of safe, running water (x¯= 1.28). While respondents considered poor access to
quality health care ((x¯= 1.26) as third on the list of constraints, the availability of palliative (x¯= 1.22) was
considered as fourth on the list.Discomfort in the use of hand sanitizers (x¯= 1.20) ranked fifth while discomfort
in the use of face masks ranked sixth (x¯= 1.09). Nature of occupation (1.08) ranked seventh amongst the
constraints.
The result is indicative of the deplorable condition of rural infrastructurewhich affects the quality of life in rural
areas. According to Nwandeet al.(2021), usually, there is an absence of social amenities including potable
water and this may discourage hygiene among rural households.

Table 6: Constraints to COVID-19 Prevention Measures

Constraints Frequency Percentage Mean (x¯
) Rank
Lack of safe and running water 109 90.8 1.28 2nd
Unavailability of soap 110 91.7 1.41 1st
Nature of occupation 86 71.7 1.08 7th
Discomfort in use of face masks 88 73.33 1.09 6th
Discomfort in use of hand sanitizers 70 58.3 1.20 5th
Lack of palliative 93 77.5 1.22 4th
Poor access to quality health
care 95 79.2 1.26 3rd
Source: Field survey, 2021

Association between Respondents' Socioeconomic Characteristics and their Knowledge Attitude and
Practices towards COVID-19
The result of the Chi square test in Table 7 shows that age (÷ =100.767, p ≤ 0.05), marital status (÷ =179.417, p
2 2

≤ 0.05), household size (÷ =90.933, p ≤ 0.05), level of education ((÷ =130.500, p ≤ 0.05), primary occupation
2 2

((÷ =38.533, p ≤ 0.05) and farm size (÷ =50.333, p ≤ 0.05) had significant relationship with respondents'
2 2

knowledge, attitude and practices towards COVID-19. The result implies that age will influence respondents'
knowledge, attitude and practices towards COVID-19. Younger people, being more venturesome (Ayindeet al.,
2020) are more technology savvy (Valor and Sieber, 2003) and may have access to more sources of information
such as newspapers and the internet. This will improve their knowledge and help them to develop better attitude
and practices that can help control the spread of the disease.

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Members of larger households may also find it easier to keep abreast with information on causes and prevention
of COVID-19 transmission as they relate with other members within the household. Higher levels of education
improve literacyand the tendency to develop positive attitude and good COVID-19 prevention practices. This
is corroborated by Reuben et al. (2021) that individuals with higher levels of education such as tertiary
education had good knowledge and positive attitude towards government infection prevention and control
measures.
Table 7: Association between Respondents’ Socioeconomic Characteristics and their
Knowledge Attitude and Practices towards COVID-19

Variable ÷2 Df P-value
Sex 1.200 1 0.273
Age 100.767 36 0.000**
Marital status 179.417 4 0.000**
Household size 90.933 15 0.000**
Level of education 130.500 4 0.000**
Primary 38.533 1 0.000**
occupation
** p = 0.05.

Source: Field Survey, 2021

Conclusion
In conclusion,respondents had sufficient knowledge of the causes and control of COVID-19; positive attitude
towards its control and observed good prevention practices. However, theunavailability of soap; safe running
water and quality healthcare system discouragedthe adherence to good practices that can help prevent the
spread of COVID-19.
In order to curtail the spread of pandemics, such as COVID-19, the study recommended that greater effort
should be channeled into sensitization campaigns, especially through the radio and television. These will
provide accurate information and improve knowledge on COVID-19 among rural households. There is also the
need for improvement of rural infrastructure such as provision of potable water and quality healthcare system
to uphold positive attitude and good practices for the control of the COVID-19 pandemic.

References
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Rural Population about COVID-19: A Community-based Study in Talkha District, Egypt.
International Journal of Novel Research Healthcare and Nursing Vol 7, Issue 2 pp. 525-532. Available
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Adamu, C. O. (2018). Analysis of Access to Formal Credit FacilitiesAmong Rural Women
Farmers in Ogun State, Nigeria.Nigerian Agricultural Journal.Vol. 49 No. 1 pp 109-116
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Anunobi, C. V., Ogbonna, U. A. and Osuchukwu (2014). Information Needs of Rural Dwellers
as a Measure of the Effectiveness of Library and Information Services Provision in Anambra State, Nigeria.
Journal of Applied Information, Science and Technology
Ayinde, J. O., Famakinwa, M and Akeredolu, B. A (2020). Youths' Involvement in Oil Palm
(Elaeisguineensis) Fruit Processing Activities.CercetariAgronomice in Moldovia
Vol.53, No.4(184) pp. 384-399. Available online at ualasi.ro/CERCET_AGROMOLD/
Ezeh, R. U. (2020). Information as Tool for Rural Development : Roles of Information
Professionals.Journal of Academic Library and Information Science.Vol. 8, No. 9 pp 298-307. Available
online at: http://www.academicresearchjournals.org/IJALIS/index.htm
Fatmi, Z., Mahmood, S., Hammed, W., Oazi, I., Siddiqui, M.M., Dhanwani, A and Siddiqui, S.
(2020). Knowledge, Attitude and Practices towards COVID-19 among Pakistani Residents: Information
Access and Low Literacy Vulnerabilities. East Mediterr Health Journal.Vol. 26 No. 12 pp.1446.Available
online at: https//doi.org/10.26719/emhj.20.133

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Gupta, P., Gupta, A., Dixit, S. and Kumar, H. (2020).Knowledge, Attitude and Practices
regarding COVID-19. A Cross-sectional Study among Rural Population in a Northern Indian
District.Journal of Family Medicine and Family Care Vol.9 Issue 9 pp.4769-4773.Available online
at:https://journals.lww.com
Lawal, N., Bello. M. B., Yakubu, Y., Ibrahim, A. M. and Rabiu, S. A. (2021) Appraisal of the
Knowledge, Attitude, Perception and Practices among Northern Nigerians in the wake of the COVID-19
Outbreak.Future Science OA Vol.8 No. 1Available online at: https://doi.org/10.2144/fsoa-2021-0058
Mukaila, R., Falola, A. and Egwe, O, L. (2021). The Determinants of Rural Households' Income
in Nigeria. FiscaeconomiaVol. 5, Issue 3pp 978-989Available online at:
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/fsecon
Nwande,Chukwuma, M and Olorunfemi, G. in C. (2021). The Operation and Maintenance of
Rural Infrastructure for Development in Nigeria.The Policy Option.International Journal of Innovative
Development and Policy Studies.Vol. 9 Issue 4 pp.90-101. Available online at:www.seahpaj.org
Obidike, N. A. (2011). Assessment of Information as a necessary Tool for Community
Development in Nigeria. Nigerian Library Link: A Journal of Library and Information Science: a Bi-
Annual Publication of Enugu State, University of Science and Technology Library, Enugu 7. (1&2), 17-21
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Middle East and North Africa.Supporting Vulnerable Groups and the Continuity of Local and Critical
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Practices Towards COVID-19: An Epidemiological Survey in North Central-Nigeria. Journal of
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Incentive for the Rural Economy Development: The Case OfChernivtsi Region in Ukraine," Agricultural
Economics and Rural Development, Institute of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 13 No.1, pp 25-34.Available
online at: https://ideas.repec.org/a/iag/reviea/v13y2016i1p25-34.html
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Available online at:https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/2021/05/reducing-poverty/
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through Radio and Television in the Time of COVID-19. Available online at: en.https://www.unesco.org
Valor, J. and Sieber, S. (2003). Uses and Attitudes of Young People towards Technology and
Mobile Telephony.IESEWorking Paper No. D/505 Available at:http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.459222
Wang, C., Horby, P. W., Hayden, F.G. and GaoG. F. (2020) A Novel CoronavirusOutbreak of
Global Health Concern.Lancet,Vol. 395 No.10223 pp 470-473. Available online at:
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9
Zhong B. L. , Luo, W., Li, H. M., Zhang, Q. Q., Liu, X. G. and Li, W. T. (2020). Knowledge,
Attitudes andPractices towards COVID-19 among Chinese Residents during the Rapid Rise Period of the
COVID-19 Outbreak: A Quick Online Cross-sectional Survey. International Journal of Biological
Science.Vol.16 No. 10 pp1745–1752. Available online at: https://doi.org10.7150/ijbs.45221

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A 20-YEAR RETROSPECTIVE STUDY ON RADIOGRAPHIC

COMPLICATIONS OF FRACTURES IN DOGS IN NIGERIA

*Koleosho, S.A.1, Adetayo, O.A.1, Ajayi, J.O.1, Fagbohun, A.F.2, Faramade, I. A. 3, Akanbi, O. I3
1 Departmentof Animal Health, Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology.
P.M.B. 5029. Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria
2 Departmentof Veterinary Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology. P.M.B. 5029. Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria
3 Departmentof Animal Health and Production, Federal College of Animal Health and Production
Technology. P.M.B. 5029. Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author Email: doctorkole11@gmail.com

Abstract
This study aimed at evaluating the significance of radiography in the detection of complications of fractures in
dogs. The proper healing and restoration of function to the fractured bone is the primary aim of fracture
treatment. Radiographic interpretation of an impaired fracture healing process is dependent on time, making
the detection of complications difficult. However, complications of fractures are associated with chronic pain,
hence, early diagnosis of such complications mandatory. The data assessed for this work include breed, gender,
age, affected bones as well as the cause of fractureand radiographs of fractured dogs from 1997 to 2017. They
were retrieved from the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Out of 279 radiographs
examined, 192 showed different fractures were included in the study. Chi-square was employed in the analysis
of data to determine the association that existed between breed, age and post-operative complications using
SPSS 15.0. German shepherd had the highest fracture incidence; male dogs were more affected than the
females; fracture locations include the humerus, femur, radius and ulna, and Carpals. There is no association
between breeds of dogs, age and fracture complications. Radiographs revealed complications such as mal-
union, delayed union, ankylosis, non-union and osteomyelitis. Early follow-up of post-operative fractures by
radiography can detect complications for easy correction and prevention of permanent damage.

Keywords: Radiography, long bone fractures, Dogs, Fracture complications.

Introduction in dogs and cats include fractures of the radius and

The perfect healing of a fracture is the expected
outcome for any bone while the primary aim of
fracture treatment is the complete restoration of
function to the fractured bone (Dvorak et al., 2000;
Sousa et al., 2015). The required time for complete
fracture healing depends on factors such as the
degree of injury of adjacent soft tissue, the
displacement of the fracture extremities, the degree
of comminution, the method of choice for the
stabilization of the fracture in conjunction with
patient related factors such as age and presence of
co-morbidities like diabetes, tobacco, malnutrition
and prolong use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) (Sousa et al., 2015). As reported by
Fang in 2018 retrospective study, common fractures
ulna in which 18% fractures occur in dogs and 10%
fractures in cats (Phillips,1979; Parent et al., 2017),
pelvis, femur which accounts for about 45% long
bone fractures and about 15% to 30% of all fractures
in dogs and cats (Piermattei et al., 2006; Fang, 2018)
and tibia were most common in dogs whereas
fractures of femur, pelvis and mandible were more
common in cats. 80% of the fractures occurred in
animals under 3 years of age and 50% of the animals
were under one year of age. Road accidents and fall
and crush injuries were the main causes of fractures
(Fang, 2018).
Radiographic and physical evaluations are common
clinical practices in fracture healing process but this
assessment lack consensus rendering the prediction

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of fracture healing complications difficult
(Hernandez et al., 2012). The interpretation of
radiographic signs of an impaired fracture healing
process is independent and the expected time frame
for these impairments is fickle such that early
diagnosis of fracture healing complications such as
delayed union, non-union, malunion, and cross
union can prove difficult; nonetheless,
complications of fracture healing are usually
associated with chronic pain and functional
impairment, thus making early diagnosis of such
complications absolutely compulsory (Oryan et al.,
2015; Sousa et al., 2015). The costs and cost-
effectiveness of diagnostic imaging for traumatic
skeletal fractures are becoming increasingly
important factors in clinical decision making
(Gerven et al., 2018). This retrospective study aimed
at evaluating the importance of radiography in the
detection of post-operative complications of
fractures in dogs.
Materials and Methods
Data Collection
The data and radiographs of patients (dogs) from the
year 1997 to 2017 were retrieved from the Veterinary
Teaching Hospital, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Searches were made on all fractures within this
period and out of two hundred and seventy nine
(279) radiographs of patients within this time frame,
one hundred and ninety two (192) radiographs
showed different fractures of body parts which
include angulation, false joint, collapse of joint,
abnormal periosteal development, as well as
evidence of persistent fracture line with unresolved
callus and total cessation of healing after eight (8)
weeks of post treatment were all classified as
complicated fractures.
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Patient Information
The basic information of the patients was obtained
from the record office and this includes the breeds,
gender, age, affected bone, and the cause of fracture.
All cases of missing data, death or no follow up
radiographic report were excluded from this study.
Statistical Analysis
The association between breed, and gender with
respect to radiographic post-operative complications
was determined by employing chi-square using
SPSS 15.0, and a p-value lesser than 0.05 was
considered statistically significant.
Result & Discussion
Out of the two hundred and seventy nine (279) cases
examined, one hundred and ninety two (192)
radiographs revealed different degrees of
complicated fractures with male dogs, 118 (61.45%)
and female 74 (38.55%). German shepherd breed
had the highest radiographic fractures 42 (21.90%),
followed by Bull Mastiff and Rottweiler having 31
(16.67%) respectively, NeapolitanMastiff 26
(13.02%), Pitbull 25 (13.02%), Great Dane 18
(9.38%), Caucasian 10 (5.21%) and Boerboel 9
(4.69%). However, Caucasian 3 (30.0%)
radiographs showed percentage of post-operative
complications, followed by Rottweiler breed 9
(29.03%), Great Dane 5 (27.78%), Pit-bull 6
(24.0%), Bull Mastiff 7 (22.58%), Boerboel 2
(22.22%), German shepherd 8 (19.04%), and
Neopolitan Mastiff 4 (15.38%). The total
radiographic post-operative complication was 44
(22.92%) (Table 1)
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Table 1. Basic information of the dogs, total fractures examined and the total radiographic post-
operative complications of fractures.
N=192
Breed Age Total Gender Total Total
Range Radiograph Male Female complication (%)
(months) s (%) (%) (%)
Examined
German 0–4 24 15 9 (37.5) 3 (12.50) 42 (21.90)
Shepherd (62.50)
5–9 18 11 7 (38.89) 5 (27.78)
(61.11)
Bull 0–4 14 13 1 (7.14) 3 (21.43) 31 (16.67)
Mastiff (92.86)
5–9 17 12 5 (29.41) 4 (23.53)
(70.59)
Rottweiler 0–4 11 6 (54.54) 5 (45.46) 4 (36.36) 31 (16.67)
5–9 20 11 (55.0) 9 (45.0) 5 (25.0)
Neapolita 0–4 9 6 (66.67) 3 (33.33) 1 (11.11) 26 (13.02)
n Mastiff 5–9 15 10 5 (33.33) 3 (20.0)
(66.67)
Pitbull 0–4 16 7 (43.75) 9 (56.25) 4 (25.0) 25 (13.02)
5–9 9 6 (66.67) 3 (33.33) 2 (22.22)
Great 0–4 7 4 (57.14) 3 (42.86) 2 (28.57) 18 (9.38)
Dane 5–9 11 6 (54.54) 5 (45.46) 3 (27.27)
Caucasian 0–4 4 3 (75.0) 1 (25.0) 2 (50.0) 10 (5.21)
5–9 6 3 (50.0) 3 (50.0) 1 (16.67)
Boerboel 0–4 3 1 (33.30) 2 (66.70) 1 (33.33) 9 (4.69)
5–9 6 4 (66.67) 2 (33.33) 1 (16.67)

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The radiographs showed different types of post-
operative complications where delayed union was
the most frequent 14 (31.81%), followed by mal
union 12 (27.27%), non-union 8 (18.18%),
osteomyelitis 6 (13.64%) and ankyloses 4 (9.10%).
In addition, the bones commonly affected are the
long bones including the humerus, femur, radius and
ulna as well as carpals.All the dogs with bone
fracture in this study were within one (1) to eight (8)
months of age. This indicates that younger dogs
[within this age range] are more prone to bone
fractures. This observation agrees with the
submissions of Minaret al., (2013) and Abd El
Raoufet al., (2017) respectively that most fractures
occur in dogs less than one year of age. This is
because young dogs are still undergoing
development, and having soft bones which are
Table 2: Association between dog breed, gender, and radiographic postoperative complications.
delicate and more fracture prone with some forces. It
is also due to the fact that young animals are more
active and are inexperienced to cope with hazards
unlike older animals (Minaret al., 2013; Singh et al.,
2015). Furthermore, the observation that, male
(61.45%) dogs were more affected than their female
(38.55%) counterparts in this study is lesser than the
78.95% and 21.05% reported in male and female
dogs respectively by Singh et al., 2015 but
comparable to the findings of Minaret al., 2013 who
reported 54% and 46% in male and female dogs
respectively. This observation may be attributed to
the fact that male dogs have high metabolic activity
and are more aggressive and tend to wander more
than their female counterparts, therefore are more
susceptible to fracture (Singh et al., 2015; Abd El
Raoufet al., 2017), (Table 2).

N=192
Breed Total Gender Total P value
Radiographs Complications
Examined (%) Male (%) Female (%) (%)
German Shepherd 42 (21.90) 26 (61.90) 16 (38.10) 8 (19.05) 0.969
Bull Mastiff 31 (16.67) 25 (80.65) 6 (19.35) 7 (22.58) 0.700
Rottweiler 31 (16.67) 17 (54.84) 14 (45.16) 9 (29.03) 0.959
Neapolitan Mastiff 26 (13.02) 16 (61.54) 10 (38.46) 4 (15.38) 0.606
Pitbull 25 (13.02) 13 (52.0) 12 (48.0) 6 (24.0) 0.409
Great Dane 18 (9.38) 10 (55.56) 8 (44.44) 5 (27.78) 0.196
Caucasian 10 (5.21) 6 (60.0) 4 (40.0) 3 (30.0) 0.778
Boerboel 9 (4.69) 5 (55.56) 4 (44.44) 2 (22.22) 0.858

P>0.05; there is no statistical association between
breed, gender and the radiographic postoperative
complications in dogs.
Among the most common causes of bonefractures in
dogs are automobile accidents and fall from heights
causing fracture especially to the long bones which
include the humerus, radius &ulna and femur which
is in agreement with the group of fractured bones in
the study conducted by Kushwahaet al., 2011;
Minaret al., 2013and Abd El Raoufet al., 2017).
Our result showed that German shepherd is the most
affected breed of dogs and that femoral fractures are
among the most commonly reported post-operative
complications. This conforms to the report of Abd El
Raoufet al., (2017) that German shepherd had the
highest incidence of femoral fractures and this may
be as a result of dog owner's interest in keeping this
breed. The observed cause of fracture in this study is
automobile accident and this may be due to the fact
that dog owners in Nigeria tend to leave their dogs to

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wander about without proper care and this
predisposes these young dogs to automobile
accidents. This observation is in agreementwith the
conclusion of Singh et al., (2015).
Radiographic examination reveals the status of
fracture and the effectiveness of treatment and
management procedure of the case. The radiographs
in this study revealed post-operative complications
of fractures in dogs which included Delayed union,
Non-union, Mal-union, Osteomyelitis and
Ankylosis. Thisfinding is similar to the findings of
Voss et al., (2009) and Yardimciet al., (2018) who
also reported similar complications except ankylosis
in their studies. The overall complication in this
study was 44 (22.92%) and this is slightly higher but
comparable to the 19.7% reported by Voss et al.,
2009 which is relatively low compared to other
fractures that were healed successfully in this study.
These complications were as a result of improper
choice and application of materials as non-union and
mal-union are usually associated with improper
selection and application of immobilization device
in which the later further revealed improperly
positioned neutralization plate and lose
screws.Delayed union was associated with improper
Table 3: Showing the various types of radiographic post
- operative complications.
Complications No. of Radiographs (%)
Delayed Union 14 (31.81)
Mal Union 9 (20.45)
Mal Union 3 (6.82)
Non Union 8 (18.18)
Osteomyelitis 6 (13.64)
Ankylosis 4 (9.10)
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
application of the internal fixation device and
intramedullary pin where the pin failed to reach the
appropriate position in the distal metaphysis of the
bone while fractures of the distal metaphysis of the
humerus treated by external Plaster of Paris
coaptation was associated with collapse resulting in
ankylosis of the elbow joint and non-union of the
fracture. Nonetheless, statistical analysis showed
that there is no association between breed, gender,
and fracture complications as p>0.05 and therefore,
there is no statistical significance among the three
variables.
Effects of fracture complications can be seen in the
post-operative anatomical conformation varying
from abnormal gait, stepping gait on movement to
delayed union, mal union, non-union, muscular
atrophy, tissue and bone necrosis. However, the
earlier the complications are detected and confirmed
through radiography, the easier it will be for the dog
owners to revisit for correction as delayed re-
evaluation and correction can cause permanent
complications such as joint ankylosis, abnormal
angulation, and deviation of limbs as observed in the
radiographs used for thisstudy.
N=44
Affected Bones Cause of fracture
Humerus Automobile Accident
Femur Automobile Accident
Carpals Automobile Accident
Humerus Automobile Accident
Femur Automobile Accident
Radius and Ulna Automobile Accident
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Conclusion radiography as a routine follow-up up to four weeks

Bone fracture is inevitable in dogs in which their
owners have poor management.Young male dogs are
energetic, aggressive, have high metabolism, and
have a higher tendency to wander about predisposing
them to road accidents causing bone fractures, and
when the fractures are operated upon, the essence of
post-operative evaluation cannot be over
emphasized. This is because it is cost efficient and
helps in the early detection of impending post-
operative complications so that proper corrections
could be made to salvage a permanent condition or
state of the fractured bone.

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Parent D.A., Benamou, J., Gatineau M., Clerfond P., and Planté, J. (2017). Open reduction and cranial bone
plate fixation of fractures involving the distal aspect of the radius and ulna in miniature- and toy-breed
dogs: 102 cases (2008–2015). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 250(12),
1419–1426.
Phillips, I.R. (1979). A survey of bone fractures in the dog and cat. Journal of Small Animal Practice, vol.
20(11), 661–674.
Piermattei, D.L., Flo, G.L., DeCamp, C.E. (2006). Brinker, Piermattei, and Flo's handbook of small animal
orthopedics and fracture repair, 4th ed. Saunders/Elsevier, St. Louis, Mo.
Singh P., Chandrapuria V. P., Apra S, Bhargava M. K., Madhu S and Shukla P. C. (2015). Fracture Occurrence
Pattern in Animals. Journal of Animal Research, vol.5 no.3, p. 611-616.
Sousa Cristina P., Isabel R. Dias, Lopez-Pena, Jose A. Csmassa, Paulo J. L, Fernandom. J., Mabnuela E. G.,and
Reis R. (2015). Bone turnover markers for early detection of fracture healing disturbances: A review of
the scientific literature. Annals of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences 87 (2):1049-1061.
Voss, K; Kull, M A; Haessig, M; Montavon, P M (2009). Repair of long-bone fractures in cats and small dogs
with the Unilock mandible locking plate system. Veterinary and Comparative Orthopaedics and
Traumatology, 22(5):398-405.
Yardýmcý C, Önyay T, Ýnal KS, Özbakýr BD, Özak A. (2018). Management of humeral fractures in dogs by
using semicircular external fixator and intramedullary pin tie-in combination. KafkasUniv Vet
FakDerg, 24 (2): 295-300.

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ASSESSMENT OF THE HARMFUL HEALTH EFFECT OF

REUSED HEATED PALM OIL
Obero, O.J*., Adamu M. M., Shorinmade, A. Y., Okparaocha, F.J., Ojezele, O.J.,
Oyeleke, P.O., Afolabi, Q.O
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology, P.M.B. 5029, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria.

*Corresponding author: adamumujitaba90@gmail.com Mobile no: +23408057543758

ABSTRACT
Vegetable oil is a naturally occurring organic molecule that dissolves in a non-polar organic solvent when a
sample of plants or animals is crushed or ground. Practice of reusing oil for repeated frying is common in our
society. Therefore, there is a need to access the values of essential components present in reheated palm oil.
Fish, Plantain and Palm oil were purchased at Bodija market, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.Physico-chemical
and Nutritional value analysis were carried out to determine Free fatty acid (FFA) using Gas Chromatography
(GC), Aldehyde (ALD), Peroxide value (PV), Alkylbenzene (Alkyl), Vitamin E (Vit E) using High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Smoke point (SP), Fire point (FP), Flash point (FLH.P) and Specific
gravity (SG) using a Thermometer respectively . Data were then analyzed using one way analysis ANOVA
using the statistical software SPSS. From the results obtained in fresh palm oil and after heating plantain and
st nd rd th
fish in palm oil after 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 heating. FFA (3.569-4.567%), ALD (0.033-0.167), PV (1.323-1.4
o o
meq/kg), Alkyl (0.00- 0.0389), SP (166.667- 175.000 C), FP (351 .667- 358.333 C), FLH.P (326.667-
o st th
333.333 C) increased after heating of plantain in palm oil from 1 to 4 while SG (0.943-0.933 °C), Vit E
(13.513-8.713) decreased. Palm oil (Fish) FFA (4.1-5.467%), ALD (0.000-1.362), PV (1.300-1.362 meq/kg),
o o o
Alkyl (0.00- 0.067), SP (166.667- 175.000 C), FP (355.000- 365.000 C), FLH.P (328.333- 336.667 C)
st th
increased after heating of fish in palm oil from 1 to 4 while SG (0.943-0.741 °C), Vit E (9.527-8.523)
decreased. Repeated heating of the oil accelerates oxidative degradation of lipids which can have deleterious
health effect. This research work was therefore carried out to assess the harmful health effect of reused heated
Palm oil

Keywords: Assessment, Fish, Harmful effect, Heating, Reused, Palm oil, Plantain

INTRODUCTION (Choe and Min, 2007).

Vegetable oils are food stuff which is composed
primarily of glycerides of fatty acid being obtained
only from vegetable sources. They may contain
small amount of lipid such as phosphatides etc.
Vegetable oil is widely used in the household and
industries for the preparation of foods and for frying.
Deep frying and use of reheated oil is the most
common and one of the oldest methods of food
preparation worldwide, which involves heat and
mass transfer (Rani et al., 2010). Heating causes the
oil to undergo series of chemical reactions like
oxidation, hydrolysis and polymerization (Choe and
Min, 2007). During this process, many oxidative
products such as peroxide and aldehydes are
produced, which can be absorbed into the fried food
Palm oil and Groundnut oil are the most commonly
used vegetable oils industrially and in the household
for deep frying purposes, it is one of the major
constituents of foods, and are important in our diet
for a number of reasons. They are a major source of
energy and provide essential lipid nutrients.
Nevertheless, over-consumption of certain lipid
components can be detrimental to our health, e.g.
cholesterol and saturated fats. Repeated use of this
oil has become a common practice due to its low
level of awareness among the public about the bad
effect of this practice.
Consumption of deep fried food has gained
popularity and this may be detrimental to human
health. Also, to reduce expenses, Vegetable oils tend

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to be used repeatedly for frying. When heated
repeatedly, changes in physical appearance of the oil
will occur such as increased viscosity and darkening
in colour which may alter the fatty acid composition
of the oil and there components (Adam et al., 2008).
The objective of this work is toassess the harmful
health effect of reused heated palm oil.
Materials and method
The palm oil, fish and plantain used for this research
were purchased from Bodija market, Ibadan, Oyo
State, Nigeria.
All chemicals/reagents used for this research are of
analytical grade and include: Potassium iodide,
Sodium thiosulphate solution. The
apparatus/equipment include: sodium iodide
t h e r m o m e t e r, h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e l i q u i d
chromatography BK3502N, separatory funnel,
liquid gas chromatography measuring cylinder,
beaker, cooking gas, frying pan and graduated
sample bottle.
SAMPLE PREPARATION
The oil was heated according to the method of (Owu
et al., 2013) with slight modification. 1kg of sliced
plantain was fried in a stainless steel containing 500
mL of palm oil for 10 minute at the temperature of
180 ° C.Upon completion of the frying process, once
heated oil was obtain. The process was repeated four
times with a cooling interval of at least five hours.
The food quantity was proportionately adjusted with
the amount of vegetable oil left. No fresh oil was
added between the frying processes to make up for
the loss due to uptake by the frying materials. Small
quantity of the oil was extracted for the analysis after
heating.
FAT T Y A C I D C O M P O S I T I O N
MEASUREMENT
Gas chromatography was used to examine the fatty
acid makeup of fresh and heated oils. Before being
injected into the gas chromatographic system, the oil
samples were first transesterified to fatty acid methyl
ester using 1 ml of 1 M sodium methoxide in 1 ml
hexane. One liter of injection was used. The analysis
employed nitrogen at a flow rate of 0.40 ml/min as
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
the carrier gas. The retention durations of fatty acid
methyl ester peaks were compared to authentic
standards to determine their identity. The percentage
of total fatty acids was used to calculate the fatty acid
composition (Kamisah et al., 2012).
PEROXIDE CONTENT MEASUREMENT
Measurement of peroxide values of the heated oils
was done according to the American Oil Chemists'
Society (AOCS) Official Methods Cd 8-53.
Vitamin E Content Measurement
After the heating and cooling procedure, the oil
samples were put directly into the HPLC apparatus
without any processing. The vitamin E standard was
developed by measuring vitamin E in oils for six
samples (n=5) for each of the three related groups:
fresh, once heated, and four times heated. The
anticipated percentage difference between the fresh
oils will also be determined to determine its
normalcy. The measurements were made in
milliequivalents of peroxide per kilogram of
material.
Measurement of Alkylbenzene
Alkylbenzene were determined from a method by
Kamisah et al. (2014).
SPECIFIC GRAVITY MEASUREMENT
Dry pycnometer was used to determine specific
gravity. Specific gravity was measured by Relative
Density of oil to water. Distilled water was added
into the pycnometer followed by measurement using
electronic balance. Similarly, oil weight was
measured. Care was taken to avoid leakage of air into
the pyrometer. The specific gravity value was
calculated as using the formula below:
Specific gravity=Weight of the oil (g) X Weight of
distilled water (g)…………………1
THE SMOKE POINT
A fat is poured into a metal container and heated at a
controlled rate in an oven. The temperature at which
a thin continuous stream of bluish smoke is first
observed is measured (Buda et al., 2014).
THE FLASH POINT
The fat is poured into a metal container and heated at
a controlled rate, with a flame being passed over the
surface of the sample at regular interval (ASTM.
ISSN: 2811-1842
ORG Standard). The temperature at which a flash
appears at any point on the surface of the sample due
to the ignition of volatile gaseous products is
measured.
THE FIRE POINT
The temperature at which there is evolution of
volatiles due to the thermal decomposition of the
lipids proceeds so quickly that continuous
combustion occurs a fire is recorded (NFPA , 2012).
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data were then analyzed using one way analysis
ANOVA using the statistical software SPSS.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figures 1and2 show some physicochemical
properties of palm oil showing the differences
FIGURE 1.0: THE LEVELS OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL
(PLANTAIN) SAMPLES
Keyword: FFA( % ) - Free fatty acid, ALD (mg/kg) –Aldehyde, P.V(meq/kg)- Peroxide value,
S.G – Specific gravity.
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
between the fresh and when the palm oil was heated
with plantain and fish respectively. Free fatty acid
was observed to increase when palm oil was heated
with plantain and fish compared to the fresh samples
(from 3.167 – 4.567 % for plantain and 3.167- 5.467
% for fish). Aldehyde was absent in fresh samples
both gradually increased to 0.167 mg/kg and 1.362
th
mg/kg for plantain and fish respectively after 4 use.
Peroxide value as shown in Figures 1 and 2 increased
from 1.2 (in fresh samples) to 1.400 meq/kg and
1.362 meq/kg respectively. Specific gravity was
present in fresh samples and it decreases when it was
heated with fish (0.947 – 0.741) and plantain (0.947-
0.933).
ISSN: 2811-1842
FIGURE 2.0: THE LEVELS OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL
(FISH) SAMPLES
Keywords: FFA % -Free fatty acid, ALD (mg/kg) –Aldehyde, P.V(meq/kg)-Peroxide value,
S.G – Specific gravity.
Tables 1 and 2 above show the physicochemical and
nutritional properties of palm oil when it was fresh
and when it was heated with plantain and fish
respectively. Alkyl benzene was not present in fresh,
first and second heating of palm oil (0.000) for
plantain but when heated third and fourth time there
was little increase in alkyl benzene (0.033 -
0.038).Significant increase (0.050-0.067) in alkyl
benzene was observed after second to fourth heating
was done for fish and these are above WHO/SON
standards. Smoke point in fresh palm oil was
observed to be 163.333 ?C but increased
from166.667-175.000 ?C when plantain and fish
were heated from first to fourth and are below
standards set by WHO/SON. Flash point in fresh oil
(325.000 ?C), when the plantain was heated from
second to fourth increased from 330.000 – 333.333
o
C but there is no significant difference between
them. When the fish was heated once with palm oil
increase from (325.000 – 336.667?C), when fish was
heated second, third and fourth times with palm oil
there is continuously increases in the values of the
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
flash point, but there is no significant difference
between them and are above WHO/SON standard.
Fire point in fresh palm oil (348.333 ?C), when
plantain was heated first to fourth time, the value
o
increased from 351.667-358.333 C and when
fish was heated once with palm oil the values
increases from 348.333 – 350.000 ?C. After second,
third and fourth heating with palm oil the values
increased from 350.000 – 365.000?C which are also
above standard set by WHO/SON. Vitamin E is one
of the nutritional properties in palm oil and its was
present in fresh palm oil with the values of (26.370),
when plantain was heated once with palm oil, there is
decrease in the values of vitamin E (26.370 –
13.513), when plantain was heated second, third and
fourth times, there is continuously decrease in the
values of the vitamin E (3.513 – 8.713). As also
shown in Table 2 above, there was decrease in the
values of vitamin E (26.370 – 13.513) and when fish
was heated second, third and fourth times, the values
of the vitamin E also decreased (26.370 – 8.523).
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

TABLE 1: PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

(PLANTAIN) SAMPLES
FRESH 1ST 2ND 3RD 4TH +SEM
HEATED HEATED HEATED HEATED
b b b a
Alkyl benzene 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.033 0.038a 0.006

Smoke point° C 163.333c 166.667bc 170.000abc 173.333ab 175.000a 1.420

Flash point°C 325.000b 326.667ab 330.000ab 334.667a 333.333a 1.347
c bc abc ab a
Fire point°C 348.333 351.667 353.333 356.667 358.333 1.141
Vitamin E 26.370 13.513 9.157 9.093 8.713 26.026

Keys: ±SEM (STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN)a , b, ab, c, mean with the superscript on
same row shows significant difference
WHO/SON STANDARD [P.V 1.200 -1.300, ALKYL 0.00 -0.033, VIT E 3.700-15.400, ALD
0.00-0.07, FFA 3.170-4.00, S.G 0.890-0.9250, S.P 220°C, FLH .P 300 °C, FIRE P. 320 °C

TABLE 2: PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

(FISH) SAMPLES

FRESH 1ST 2ND 3RD 4TH +SEM

HEATED HEATED HEATED HEATED
Alkyl benzene 0.000b 0.000b 0.050a 0.050a 0.067a 0.008
Smoke pointoC 163.333 166.667ab 165.333b 171.667ab 175.000a 1.555
Flash point°C 325.000c 328.333bc 333.333ab 336.667a 336.667a 1.528
Fire point°C 348.333c 355.000b 360.000ab 358.333ab 365.000a 1.681
Vitamin E 26.370a 9.527b 9.343b 8.780c 8.523c 1.855

Keys: ±SEM (STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN)a , b, ab, c, mean with the superscript on
same row shows significant difference

WHO/SON STANDARD [P.V; 1.200 -1.300, ALKYL; 0.00 -0.033, VIT E; 3.700 -15.400,
ALD; 0.00-0.07, FFA; 3.170 -4.00, S.G; 0.890 -0.9250, S.P; 220 °C, FLH .P; 300 °C,
FIRE P; 320 °C.

CONCLUSION
In this study, repeated heating increased the peroxide values of palm oil. The value increased with the
increasing frequency of heating. This indicated that repeated heating of the oil augmented the formation of lipid
peroxidation products in the oil, forming hazardous reactive oxygen species and depleting the natural
antioxidant contents of the palm oil, which are potentially harmful to health.

REFERENCES
Adam, I.N., Soleiman, N.A., Umar, N., Mokhtar, N. and Mohamed, K. Jaarin. (2008). Effects of repeatedly
heated palm oil on serum lipid profile: lipid peroxidation and homocysteine levels in a post-
menopausal rat model. Mcgill J. Med., 11 (28): 145-1581.
AOCS. Official methods and recommended practices of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 4th ed.
Champaign: AOCS Press; 2003.
Buda, D. M., d'Hauteserre, A. and Johnston, L. (2014). Feeling and tourism studies. Annals of Tourism
Research, 46, 102–114

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Choe, E. and Min D. B. (2007). Chemistry of deep-fat frying oils. J.Food Sci., 72(5): 77-86.
Kamisah, Y., Qodriyah, H.MS., Chua, K.H. & Mohd Fahami Nur Azlina (2014) Vitamin E: A potential therapy
for gastric mucosal injury, Pharmaceutical Biology, 52:12, 1591-1597.
Kamisah, Y., Shamil, S., Nabillah, M.J., Kong, S.Y., Hamizah, N.A., Qodriyah, H.M., Nur Azlina, M. F.,
Azman, A. and Jaarin, K. (2012). Deep-fried keropoklekors Increase Oxidative Instability in Cooking
Oils Mal. J. Med. Sci., 19 (20): 57-62l.

NFPA30(2012). Flammable and combustible liquids code.

Owu, D. U., Osim, E. E. and Ebong. V. (2013). Serum liver enzymes profile of Wister rat following chronic
compution or oxidized palm oil diets. Acta Trop., 3(5): 121-124.
Rani, AK.S., Reddy, S. Y., and Chetana, R., (2010). Quality changes in trans and trans free fats/oils and products
during frying. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 5(2): 123-124.

Standard test method for flash and fire point – ASTM.Org (2012).

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GROWTH RESONSE, GUT MORPHOMETRY AND MICROBIAL

COUNTS OF BROILER CHICKENS FED DIET SUPPLEMENTED WITH
Garciniakola SEED MEAL AND PetiveriaalliaceaROOTMEAL

Odetola, M. O., Adejinmi, O.O., Odukoya, S.O, Adekanbi, A.O, Adetola, O.O
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, P.M.B 5029,
Moor Plantation Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted with 189 unsexed day old broiler chickens to assess the comparative effects of
dietary supplementation of graded levels of Garcinia kola seed meal (GSM) and Petiveriaaalliacea root meal
(PRM) of growth rate, gut morphometry and gut microbial counts of broiler chickens. Diet 1 is the control, diets
2, 3 and 4 were supplemented with 500, 1000, 1500 ppm of GSM while diets 5,6 and 7 were supplemented with
500, 1000 and 1500 ppm of PRM respectivelyin an 7 weeks feeding trial. Data were collected on feed intake and
weekly weight gain. Samples of small intestine were collected from the animal after they were stunned, while
faecal sample were collected from the ileo-caecal for gut morphometry and gut microbial counts. Results
showed that there were no significant difference (p>0.05) in all the growth response parameters examined
except feed intake. The dietary treatment significantly (p<0.05) influenced all the gut morphometry parameters
evaluated. Highest villi height were recorded by birds fed 1000ppm GSM, while birds fed 500ppm had higher
cryptal width compared with others. Feeding diets supplemented with GSM and PRM caused significant
reduction in population of Staphylococcus aureuscompared with the control.The results suggest that GSM and
PRM possess good phytobiotic properties for optimal growth of the broilers and can be included in their diets
up to 1500ppm withoutcausing any deleterious effects.

Key word: Growth response, gut microbiology, morphometry, broiler, garcinia kola, petevariaalliaecae

INTRODUCTION The inclusion of organic products may positively

In recent years, local plant materials are tried as
additives in poultry feed to overcome major
problems in poultry industry, like environmental
effects on digestibility and feed utilization (Sayda et
al., 2012). Phytogenic feed additives have attracted
increasing interest as an alternative feeding strategy
to replace antibiotic and or inorganic growth
promoters. This has occurred especially in the
European Union, where antibiotic has been banned
completely from use as additive in livestock feeds
since 2006, because of a suspected risk of generating
microbiota with increase resistance to the antibiotic
used for therapy in human and animals (Windischet
al., 2008). World Health Organization (WHO),
(2002) reports that the majority of the rising
antimicrobial resistance problem in human medicine
is due to the overuse and misuse of antimicrobial.
The best known examples are the food-borne
pathogenic bacteria Salmonella and Campylobacter
and the commensal (harmless in healthy persons and
animals) bacteria Enterococcus. Research has shown
by (Flint and Garner, 2009) that resistance of these
bacteria to classic treatment in humans is often a
consequence of the use of certain antimicrobials in
agriculture. Increasing animal body weight gain and
improving feed conversion ratio are measures that
can indicate increased profitability for the producer.
affect these measures in poultry (Flint and Garner,
2009). Addition of organic products or phytogenics
to feedstuffs may be a viable substitute to increase
the profitability of animal agriculture (Flint and
Garner, 2009). They have antimicrobial, antiviral,
antioxidant and many other biological activities
(Ertaset al., 2005; Cross et al., 2007). They act as
digestibility enhancers, stimulating the secretion of
endogenous digestive enzymes (Williams and Losa,
2001; Lee et al., 2003). Scientific evidence exist that
herbs and plant extracts stimulate the growth of
beneficial bacteria and minimize pathogenic
bacteria activity in the gastrointestinal tract of
poultry (Gill, 1999; Langhout 2000; Wenk, 2000).
(Garcinia kola) tree belong to the botanical family of
Guttiferae(Plowden, 1992). It is a rain forest tree
crop, well cultivated through West Indies, West and
Central Africa (Iwu, 1993). Bitter kola is known to
have an elaborate complex mixture of phenolic
compounds including bioflavonoids, xanthones and
benzophenones (Iwuet al., 1990). The bioflavonoid
posses anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-viral
and anti-diabetic properties (Adedejiet al., 2006).
Other reports on phytochemical compounds isolated
from bitter kola include Oleoresin (Onayadeet al.,
1998), tannins, saponins, alkaloids, cardiac

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glycosides (Ebanaet al., 1991). Biflavonoids such as
kolaflavone and 2-hydroxybi-flavonols (Okunji and
Iwu, 1991; Terashimaet al., 1999; Okunjiet al.,
2002). The major active constituents (alkaloids and
flavonoids) of bitter kola were reported to stimulate
an increase in gastric acid secretion (Oluwole and
Obtatomi, 1991). Petiveriaalliacea (guinea hen
weed) belongs to the Phytolaccaceae, It is native to
the Amazon Rain forest, but can also be found in
other tropical areas from Central and South America,
the Caribbean, and sub- Saharan Africa. In
traditional medicine, Peteveria.alliacea L is
associated with a broad variety of therapeutic
properties. The use of root, powder, and leaf
decoctions or infusions are recommended for their
diuretic, antispasmodic, anticonvulsant,
emmenagogue, sedative, analgesic and anti-
i n f l a m m a t o r y, a n e s t h e t i c , a n t i l e u k e m i c ,
antirheumatic, antihelminthic, antimicrobial and
depurative properties (Duarte and Lopes, 2005;
Lima et al.,1991). The plant is also use for arthritis,
allergies and as therapy for fever and
malaria.Therefore, this study was carried out to
assess the comparative effects of dietary
supplementation of graded levels of Garcinia kola
seed meal (GSM) and Petiveriaalliacea root meal
(PRM) of growth rate, gut morphometry and gut
microbial counts of broiler chickens.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Location of the experiment
The research was carried out at the Poultry research
unit of the Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology, Moor Plantation, Ibadan,
Nigeria. The site is located in the rain forest zone of
0 1
South- western Nigeria on longitude 7 23 and
0 1
latitude 4 53 E and 76m above sea level. The
climate is humid with a mean annual rainfall of
0
1037mm and mean temperature of 34.7 C,
respectively. (Google Earth 4.0, 2014).
Source and processing ofGarcinia kola and
Petiveriaalliacea.
Garcinia kola seeds were purchased fromOje market
in Ibadan Oyo state. The seeds were properly dried to
remove the bark after which it was chopped into
smaller pieces for easy milling.Petiverianalliacea
was sourced from different locations within and
outside the campus. The rootswerecut from the stem,
and then cut into pieces, washed and air dried
until10% moisture content was obtained. The two
test ingredients were then milled into Garcinia kola
seed meal (GSM) and Pativeriaalliacea root meal
(PRM). The GSM and PRM were stored in an air
tight container until when need for the compounding
of feed.
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Experimental birds and management
A total of 189 unsexed day old broiler chicks of Cobb
strain were obtained from a commercial hatchery
within Ibadan metropolis. The birds were brooded
together for seven days after which they were
randomly distributed into seven dietary treatments
of 27 birds each. Each treatment group was further
divided into three replicates of 9 birds per replicate.
Birds on T1 which served as the control were served
with diets supplemented with 0ppm of GSM and
PRM, while those on T2, T3, T4 were served diet
supplemented with 500ppm, 1000ppm and
1500ppmof GSM and those on T5, T6, T7 were
given diet supplemented with 500ppm, 1000ppm
and 1500ppm of PRM respectively. All vaccination
protocols were strictly adhere to, however all the
birds were not medicated with antibiotics except
those on T1 which were medicated with 1ml of
Enrofloxacin® solution per 4liters of water for 5
days.
DATA COLLECTION
Performance characteristics
Known quantity of feed was supplied to the birds and
the left over removed and weighed to determine the
actual feed consumed on daily basis. The daily feed
consumption was added together over a period of 7
days to obtain the feed consumption per week.The
body weights were taken on weekly basis. The
difference between mean weights for two successive
weeks was taken in order to obtain the average
weight gain of birds per week.
Feed conversion ratio was calculated as a ratio of
feed consumption and body weight gain
Feed conversion ratio =
Mortalities, when occurred were collected and
recorded.
Gut Morphometry and Gut microbial counts
evaluation
At the end of the feeding trial, 3 birds per treatment
were randomly selected, sacrificed by
exsanguinations. After bleeding, they were opened
up and about 3cm section of the jejunum were
collected and fixed in 10% formalin solution for the
organ morphometry evaluation (Ertaset al., 2005).
Also some fecal samples were collected from the
ileo-ceaca junction into a well labeled sample for gut
microbial count, this was done to avoid collection of
contaminated sample and to enhance accuracy as
described by Oladeleet al.(2012).
Statistical analysis
Data generated were subjected to analysis of
variance using SAS statistical package SAS, (2003).
The means where significant, were separated using
Duncan's (1955) multiple range tests.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Table 1:Gross Composition of Experimental Diet (starter phase)
Inclusion levels of GSM(ppm) Inclusion levels of PRM (ppm)
Ingredients (%) T1(0) T2(500) T3(1000) T4(1500) T5(500) T6(1000) T7(1500)
Maize 55.00 55.00 55.00 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50
Groundnut cake 3.80 3.80 3.80 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Soybean meal 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00
Fish meal(72%) 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Wheat offal 5.00 5.00 5.00 7.30 7.30 7.30 7.30
Bone meal 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Lysine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Methionine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Limestone 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Crude Protein(%) 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58
ME (kcal/kg) 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88

Table 2:Gross Composition of Experimental Diet (Finisher phase)

Inclusion levels of GSM(ppm) Inclusion levels of PRM (ppm)
Ingredients (%) T1(0) T2(500) T3(1000) T4(1500) T5(500) T6(1000) T7(1500)
Maize 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50 50.50
Groundnut cake 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Soybean meal 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00
Fish meal (72%) 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Wheat offal 7.30 7.30 7.30 7.30 7.30 7.30 7.30
Bone meal 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Lysine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Methionine 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Limestone 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Crudeprotein(%) 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58 22.58
ME (kcal/kg) 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88 2869.88

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION different in body weight gain and feed

The results of growth response of broiler
chicken fed diets supplemented Garcinia kola
seed (GSM) meal and Petivariaalliacaearoot
meal (PRM) is as shown in Table 3. The dietary
treatments significantly (p<0.05) influenced the
feed intake, while all other growth parameters
evaluated were not significant (p>0.05). Birds
fed diet supplemented with 1500ppm of GSM
consumed significantly higher quantity of feed
while those fed with 1500ppm PRM consumed
the lowest. This results corroborated the earlier
work done by Odetola et al., (2018) who
reported no significant effect in all the growth
parameters evaluated when graded levels of
Petevariaalliaecae root meal were fed to broiler
chicken, but in contrast to the workof
Toghyaniet al (2010) who reported significant
conversion ration when thyme were fed to
broiler chicken.Demiret al. (2005) indicated
no differences in body weight gain, feed intake
and feed efficiency of broilers fed diets
supplemented with antibiotic growth
promoter and five herbal natural feed additives
from day 0 to 42 days of age. Feed additives used
as growth promoter improves
palatability,nutrient utilization, stimulates
appetite and increase flow of gastric juice
( D r u r y a n d We l l i n g h t o n 1 9 7 6 ) .
Supplementation of different levels of feed
additives in broiler diets significantly
improved the live weight gain and fed
conversion ratio(Alkassie and Jameel 2009) .
Herawati (2010) recorded an increase in weight
gain and improved feed conversion ratio when

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broiler birds were fed diets containing Herawati (2010) recorded an increase in weight
ginger as an additive. However, gain and improved feed conversion ratio when
Petiveriaalliacea used as an additive in this broiler birds were fed diets containing
study did not improve the weight gain and ginger as an additive. However, Garcinia kola
feed conversion ratio of broiler bird compared to seed meal and Petiveriaalliacearoot meal used
the control. This may be due to variability in the as an additive in this study did not improve
type of additive and the level of inclusion the weight gain and feed conversion ratio of
which may not be high enough to cause broiler bird compared to the control. This may
improvement in their performance. This result be due to variability in the type of additive and
corroborate the study ofOnibietal. (2009) Feed the level of inclusion which may not be high
additives used as growth promoter improves enough to cause improvement in their
palatability, nutrient utilization, stimulates performance. This result corroborate the study
appetite and increase flow of gastric juice of Onibiet al(2009) who reported no
( D r u r y a n d We l l i n g h t o n 1 9 7 6 ) . significant improvement in the weight gain and
Supplementation of different levels of feed feed conversion ratio of broiler birds fed
additives in broiler diets significantly oregano oil and garlic as feed additive. 19 who
improved the live weight gain and fed reported no significant improvement in the
conversion ratio (Alkassie and Jameel 2009). weight gain and feed conversion ratio of broiler
birds fed oregano oil and garlic as feed additive.
Table 3:Growth Performance of broiler chicken fed diets supplemented with Garcinia kola
seed meal and Petiveriaalliacearoot meal.
Parameters Inclusion levels of GSM(ppm) Inclusion levels of PRM (ppm) SEM±
T1(0) T2(500) T3(1000) T4(1500) T5 (500) T6(1000) T7(1500)
Initialweight(g/b) 110.07 113.18 113.89 109.52 113.96 112.15 117.26 1.26
Final weight(g/b) 2550.00 2433.33 2466.67 2366.67 2633.33 2400.00 2766.67 61.37
Weightgain(g/b) 2437.93 2320.15 2352.78 2257.15 2519.37 2287.85 2647.40 60.91
Feed Intake(g/b) 5256.37b 5242.37d 5247.85c 5257.96a 5228.48e 5247.56c 5217.96f 4.21
FCR 2.25 2.26 2.24 2.34 2.08 2.34 1.98 0.06
Mortality (%) 25.92 18.52 11.11 11.11 3.70 14.81 0.00 3.33
abc
Mean with different superscripts along the same row are significantly different (P<0.05)
FCR: Feed Conversion Ratio, g/b: gram per day

All the gut morphometry parameters evaluated were
significantly influenced by the dietary treatment
(Table 4). Birds served with 1000ppm of GSM
recorded higher villi height (0.150µm), which was
significantly higher than what was recorded for all
other treatments. Cryptal height was higher in birds
fed 500ppm GSM compared to all other dietary
treatment. However, cryptal depth was higher in
birds served 500ppm PRM while those on control
had the least. Feeding GKSM and PRM to broilers
significantly the population of Escheriachia coli,
Streptococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas spp.The small intestine is a critical
digestive organ involved in nutrient absorption and
development of this organ is essential to broiler
health and performance (Kawalilaket al., 2011). Bi
and Chiou (1996) found that broiler chicks
developed larger intestinal villi resulting in faster
growth rates. Villus condition has become a common
measurement in supporting the effects of nutrition on
gastrointestinal physiology.
However, relationships between live performance
improvements and villus height or cryptal depth
measurements many times have documented to
show significant correlations. The present study
showed jejunal villus height, cryptal depth and
cryptal width increased in birds fed with
1000g/100kg feed of Garcinia kola seed meal
(GKM) compared with the other treatments. The
increases in villus height and villus surface area are
capable of greater absorption of available nutrients
(Awad et al. 2008). The increased villus height in the
small intestines could be associated with higher
absorptive intestinal surface (Loddiet al. 2004)
which facilitates the nutrient absorption and hence,
has a direct impact on growth performance also due
to the enhanced absorptive area and the increased
cryptal depth recorded which is an indication of a

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higher mucosal proliferation activity and greater
intestinal glandular activity. There was significant
mean cryptal width (regeneration) in T2 compared to
the control which was higher compare to other
treatments. Also, there was significant mean cryptal
depth (regeneration) in T5 compared with the
control, which was higher than that obtained in the
other treatments which in turn enhances digestion as
cryptal cells had been reported to be responsible for
secretion of the electrolytes which enhance water
secretion into the intestinal lumen for the purpose of
digestion (Bowen, 2011). The report is similar to that
of Zhou et al. (2003) that higher cryptal depth
revealed more efficient digestibility and absorption
in ingested feed. Garcia et al. (2007) showed that diet
supplementation with herbal plants and plant
derived products causes a higher villus in chickens.
Herbal plants decrease the total pathogen bacteria in
the intestinal wall and cause a reduction in
production of toxic compounds and damage to
intestinal epithelial cells inhibit the destruction of
villus and decreases reconstruction of the lumen .this
function could lead to a conversion in intestinal
morphology (Garcia et al. 2007 and Hashemi 2012).

Table 4: Gut morphometry of broiler chicken fed diets supplemented with Garcinia kola
seed meal and Petiveriaalliacearoot meal.
Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 ±SEM
b b a b b b b
Villi height (µm) 0.120 0.110 0.150 0.200 0.090 0.110 0.940 0.004
Cryptal width(µm) 0.014ab 0.018a 0.013ab 0.013ab 0.013ab 0.013ab 0.012ab 0.000
Cryptal depthµm) ( 0.033e 0.038ed 0.062b 0.057b 0.073a 0.055bc 0.046cd 0.020
a,b,c,d,e
: Means with different superscript along the same row are significantly different (p<0.05).
µm = Neuton micrometer (Micron)
SEM= Standard Error of Mean.
There were significant differences in the gut al.(2007) who reported that the growth promoting
Streptococcus spp population across the dietary effects of GKM and PRM could be associated with
treatment. The significant reduction in the antibacterial properties of this plant. Cook and
Streptococcus counts in the birds fed diet Bird (1973) reported a shorter villus and a deeper
supplemented with GKM and Petiveriaalliacea root crypt when the counts of pathogenic bacteria
meal (PRM) compared with the control is an increase in the gastrointestinal tract, which result in
indication that GKM and PRM inhibits the grow of fewer absorptive and more secretory cells
Streptococcus in the jejunum and this result also (Schneeman, 1982). This implies that reduction in
agrees with Vijaya et al. (1995) and Ogbulieet the number of micro-organism in the jejunum also
helps to increase the villi height.
Table 5: Gut microbial counts of broiler chicken fed diets supplemented with Garcinia kola
seed meal and Petiveriaalliacearoot meal.

Parameter (cfu) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 ±SEM

Total Bacterial counts 0.89 0.60 0.80 0.62 0.64 0.71 0.58 0.05
Escherichia coli 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.22 0.49 0.49 0.18 0.05
Streptococcus faecalis 0.18ab 0.04 b 0.13ab 0.27 a 0.04b 0.13ab 0.13ab 0.02
Staphylococcus aureus 0.36a 0.13 b 0.00b 0.3b 0.04b 0.09b 0.13b 0.03
Pseudomonas spp 0.04b 0.00 b 0.18a 0.00 b 0.18a 0.00b 0.00b 0.18
Salmonella spp 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.02
a,b: Means with different superscript along the same row are significantly different (p<0.05).
SEM= Standard Error of Mean.Cfu= colony forming unit.

CONCLUSION This study discovers the possible use of Garcinia

There is significant increment in the jejunal villus
height, cryptal depth and cryptal width of birds fed
with 1000g/100kg feed of Garcinia kola seed meal
(GKM) , however feeding 1000 ppm
ofPetiveriaalliacea root meal as phytobiotics in the
diet of the chicken caused a significant reduction in
the StaphilococcusaureusandPseudomoniaspp
count in the broiler chicken.
SIGNIFICANT STATEMENT OF THE STUDY
kola seed meal and Petiveriaalliacearoot meal
(PRM) as a natural growth promoter in broiler
production. This study will enable researchers and
farmers to uncover the beneficial role of PRM as
a phytobiotics in reducing overdependence of
farmers on the use of antibiotic growth promoter and
eventual reduction of drug residues in broiler meat
and possible development of resistance
pathogens.

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INVESTIGATION OF IONOSPHERIC IRREGULARITIES ACROSS

TWO EQUATORIAL STATIONS IN NIGERIA DURING YEARS
OF INCREASING SOLAR ACTIVITY
*
Ogunlesi, O.O1.,Ogunlesi, O.O2., Odeyemi, O.M.,3Shittu, S.M.A1., Oloruntola, R.F1.,
Adegbile, A.A4., Akinfoyeku, A.F1., Igwe, C.O.,
1
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology, P.M.B 5029, Moor Plantation, Ibadan.
2
Department of Pest Management, Federal College of AgricultureTechnology Moor Plantation Apata Ibadan.
3
Department of Physical Science, Joseph AyoBabalola University, Ikeji, Osun State, Nigeria.
4
Department of Computer Science, Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology,
P.M.B 5029, Moor Plantation, Ibadan.
*
Corresponding Email: gbengaogunlesi.go@fcahptib.edu.ng

ABSTRACT:
The equatorial ionosphere is characterized by various irregularities which has great effect on the reception
quality of trans-ionospheric signals. This paper presents the occurrence pattern of Equatorial ionospheric
irregularities over two equatorial locations across Nigeria, West Africa. GPS data covering the entire year
2011, 2012, and 2014, signifying years of increasing solar activity, with solar flux index F10.7 = 113, 120, and
145 sfu, respectively was used. The rate of change of TEC index (ROTI) was employed as the scintillation proxy
index to investigate the occurrence of ionospheric irregularities over these stations. The results revealed the
time of occurrence of ionospheric irregularities at this locations to be between 18:00 – 01:00 LT with its peak at
22:00LT. Semiannualpattern in the equatorial F-region irregularities pattern was evidenced, occurring both
equinoxes of the two stations in both region of Nigeria. The peak of occurrence was recorded in March equinox
inKebbi and Zaria. Its appearance was early in the equinoxes and late in the solstice in both southern and
northern stations. Furthermore, occurrence of equatorial ionospheric irregularities shows seasonal trend with
solar activity. The station at the Northern region shows to be more prone to irregularities than the station at the
southern region in the case of study.

Keywords: Ionospheric Irregularities, Equatorial ionosphere, Scintillation, ROTI

1. Introduction The study of ionospheric irregularities at different

The upper region of the atmosphere is characterized
by sufficient amount of electrons and ions that aids in
the propagation of radio wave. The ionosphere (the
upper region of the atmosphere) sometimes become
unstable and develops plasma density irregularities.
At the equatorial region of the ionosphere, these
plasma density irregularities are capable of
influencing radio signals and with great impact on
the accuracy of Global Positioning System (GPS)
(e.g. Aarons et al., 1999;Basuet al., 1988; Aarons,
1993). Radio wave passing through irregular dense
plasma structure in the ionosphere will experience
rapid amplitude and phase shift; a phenomenon
known as ionospheric scintillation (Basu and Basu,
1985). Ionospheric scintillation is a night time event
that occurs mainly within the equatorial region of the
ionosphere immediately after local sunset triggered
by Rayleigh-Taylor and F2 layer plasma drift
instabilities.
regions had been recorded by many authors using
many observatory techniques (Abdu et al., 1981;
Maruyama and Matsuura, 1984; Hysell and
Burcham, 1998; Su et al., 2008; Seemala and
Valladares, 2011; Adebesiet al., 2018)
Woodman and LaHoz (1976), Yeh and Liu (1982),
Basu and Basu (1985), Muellaet al. (2009), Seemala
and Valladares, (2011),Oladipo and Schuler, (2013),
and many others, for example, have shown that the
occurrence of scintillation as well as equatorial
ionospheric irregularities in the African sector is
dependent on local time, season, latitude, solar cycle,
and magnetic activity. According to Basuet al.
(1988), scintillation is most common during periods
of strong solar activity. They also discovered that
irregularities/scintillations were particularly
noticeable near the equatorial ionization anomaly
(EIA), which is a region on both sides of the dip
o
equator (about ±15 ) with the largest electron content

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and gradients.
Ionospheric irregularities over Nigerian stations
have been the subject of few researches (Oladipoet
al., 2014; 2018; Okohet al., 2017). Oladipoet al.,
(2014) investigated ionospheric irregularities over
Ilorin, a Nigerian equatorial station. Their findings
revealed that irregularities occurred most frequently
between March and November, peaking between
19:00 and 24:00LT. Their findings also revealed that
the occurrence of ionosphere irregularities is linked
to solar activity. Oladipoet al., (2018) investigated
the occurrence of scintillation at Ilorin during low,
moderate, and high solar activity years. They found
that ionospheric scintillation activity was seasonal
between March and October, peaking around the
equinoxes. They found that ionospheric scintillation
activity was seasonal between March and October,
peaking around the equinoxes. During solar
maximum, the occurrence time was reported to be
between 21:00LT and 04:00LT and it varies linearly
with solar activity. The aim of this research work was
to study ionospheric scintillation within two Nigeria
station on both sides of the dip equator during
ascending solar activity.
2. Data and Method
The data from GPS receivers positioned in Nigeria,
an equatorial region of the African sector, was
employed. RINEX data from these receivers are
accessed from the Nigeria GNSS Reference
Network (NIGNET www.nignet.net). A total of two
equatorial stations were used, with the years of
investigation being 2011, 2012, and 2014, signifying
years of increasing solar activity, with solar flux
index F10.7 = 113, 120, and 145 sfu, respectively.
The stations and their coordinates are listed in Table
1. The RINEX files obtained from the GPS receivers
were used to determine the value of TEC using the
GPS-TEC analysis software developed by
GopiSeemala at Boston College. The Rate of
Change of the TEC Index (ROTI), a parameter
computed from the time variation of the TEC index,
is then used.
The Rate of change of the TEC index (ROTI), a
parameter estimated from the time variation of TEC
(i.e. rate of change of TEC (ROT) given by equation
1) Pi et al. (1997), was employed to depict the
presence of ionospheric irregularities. The
calculation was done using the standard deviation of
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
ROT over a 5-minute period, and equation 2 shows
the expression.
ROT = (1)
ROTI= (2)
According to Mendilloet al., (2000), the monthly
average value of ROTI (ROTIave) was calculated at
a thirty-minute interval using the 5-minute ROTI
value from specific days selected in each month. The
following conditions were taken into consideration
for the selected days in this study: (i) days that were
selected are quiet days, with the state of Kp? 2 (ii)
days with indication of the presence of irregularities
were selected (iii) days with data availability were
counted and selected. The average seasonal
fluctuation of ionospheric irregularities in the
equatorial F-region was calculated by dividing the
year into four months: (i) February, March, and April
represent the March equinox (MEQU); (ii) May,
June, and July represent the June solstice (JSOL) (iii)
August, September, and October, which correspond
to the September equinox (SEQU); and (iv)
November, December and January represents
December solstice (DSOL). The average seasonal
values of ROTI represent the average for the entire
monthly value of ROTI, according to the
classification.
Adopting the classification of Oladipo and Schüler
(2013) to categorize the absence, presence, and
severity of ionospheric irregularities are based on a
threshold value of ROTIave as follows: (i) value of
ROTIave< 0.4 TECU/min is considered to denote
the absence of background ionospheric
irregularities, (ii) ROTIave ? 0.4 TECU/min to
indicate the presence ionospheric irregularities, and
(iii) ROTIave ? 0.8 TECU/min to indicate severe
ionospheric irregularities. Furthermore, the
probability of occurrence of ionospheric
irregularities over Nigeria stations, in the equatorial
region of the sector was also investigated.
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Table 1:Geophysical information on the GNSS stations used in this study.
Geographic
Station City Latitude 0() Longitude (0)
Code
ABUZ Zaria 11.15 7.64
BKFP Kebbi 12.46 4.22
3. Results and Discussion.
Result presented in Fig. 1 shows the monthly plots of
ionospheric equatorial irregularities occurrence
across the stations considered during year 2011. The
plot revealed the occurrence of equatorial
ionospheric irregularities to be evidence in the
following months; March, April, May, August,
September, October and November in both
geomagnetic latitudes considered. The time of
occurrence of ionospheric equatorial irregularities
was recorded to be around 18:00LT-00:00LT.
Furthermore, the result revealed the highest
occurrence during the month of December in the
station in Kebbi and in the month of October in the
station in Zaria. This are period characterized as
harmattan period (A period characterized by dry and
dusty wind gusts in the region between October and
March) in both stations. Park and Dejnakarintra
(1973) had suggested that field-aligned electron
density irregularities in the ionosphere can be caused
by localized electric fields that form from
thunderclouds in the lower atmosphere. According
to okohet al., (2017), due to their gustiness and
related friction, harmattan wind dusts can
accumulate electric charges and be propelled to very
high altitudes in the lower atmosphere, where they
generate localized electric fields. In the ionosphere,
large localized electric fields may cause field-
aligned electron density irregularities Park and
Dejnakarintra (1973). Due to their gustiness and
friction, harmattan wind dusts can acquire electric
charges and be driven to very high altitudes in the
lower atmosphere, where they form localized
electric fields. The occurrence of equatorial
ionospheric irregularities showed time dependence.
Figure 2 is the plot showing the monthly variation in
equatorial ionospheric irregularities in the year 2012
across both geomagnetic latitude considered. The
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Geomagnetic
Latitude 0() Longitude(0)
-0.62 79.75
0.72 76.62
plots revealed the appearance of ionospheric
irregularities to be seen early at 18:00LT in all the
months that irregularities were recorded. The peaked
occurrence was recorded at 19:00LT in the month of
March in Zaria station and around 20:00LT in the
month of Octoberin Kebbi station. Equatorial
ionospheric irregularities were observed in the
following months of the year 2012; January, March,
April, May, July, August, September, October and
December.
Figure 3 shows the plot of the monthly variation in
equatorial ionospheric irregularities in the year 2014
across both geomagnetic latitude considered. The
occurrence of equatorial ionospheric irregularities
were observed eight different months in the year
2014 namely; January, March, April, May, August,
September, October and December. The plot
revealed the peak of occurrence in the month of
March in both geomagnetic latitude under study at
20:00LT. The first appearance was first noticed at
19:00LT across both Zaria and Kebbi Stations under
study and gradually fade away until it totally
disappears around 01:00LT in all the months that
irregularities were recorded.
The average values of ROTI for seasons; March
equinox, June solstice, September equinox and
December solstice across the entire 2011, 2012 and
2014 in the stations under this study is plotted in
Figure 4. The plot revealed the occurrence of
equatorial ionospheric irregularities to depend on
seasons, with the occurrence pronounced at the
equinoxes, with peak of occurrence at the March
equinox in both stations. In the June solstice it was
only recorded slightly in the year 2012 and 2014 and
the entire years under consideration in December
solstice with respect to solar activities. The plot
further revealed the seasonal occurrence of
equatorial ionospheric irregularities to show
ISSN: 2811-1842
dependence in solar activity (the growth rate
increased with increasing solar activity) which is
also reported in the study of Oladipoet al., (2018).
Equatorial ionospheric irregularities showed to be
more pronounced in kebbi (Northern region) in both
equinoxes and solstices than in Zaria (Southern
region). The result shown low occurrence in Zaria
must especially in the solstice (majorly December
Solstice).
Figure 1:monthly variation in equatorial ionospheric irregularities in the year 2011 across
both geomagnetic latitude considered
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
The presence of seeding mechanisms and
electrodynamics processes that prevent or increase
the emergence of plasma density instabilities within
the equatorial region of study is well described
physically by the dynamics of equatorial F-region
ionospheric abnormalities. If the seeding mechanism
is present, the strength of the electric field accessible
after sunset is crucial and adequate for predicting the
development of equatorial F-region ionospheric
abnormalities (Mendillo et al., 2001).
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Figure 2:monthly variation in equatorial ionospheric irregularities in the year 2012

across both geomagnetic latitude considered

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Figure 3:monthly variation in equatorial ionospheric irregularities in the year 2014 across
both geomagnetic latitude considered.

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Figure 4:The average values of ROTI for seasons; March equinox, June solstice,
September equinox and December solstice across the entire 2011, 2012 and 2014

Conclusion disappears. In general, the appearance time is

The equatorial ionospheric irregularities over two
equatorial locations across Nigeria in the African
sector were investigated using the ROTI-index
derived from GPS TEC data. Data acquired from two
GPS receivers covers the entire 2011, 2012 and 2014
(F10.7 = 113, 120, and 145 sfu). This is the first time
the occurrence of irregularities at both sides of the
dip equator has been investigated at these stations
with the use of GNSS data. Conclusively;
There is a clear seasonal trend of the time of the day
at which ionospheric irregularities appears and
between 18:00LT – 19:00 LT while the period of
disappearance lies between 23:00LT – 01:00 LT. The
period of occurrence shows seasonal dependence,
appearing earlier in equinoxes (particular March
equinox) and appears late in solstices (during June
solstice).
The result showed that, the occurrence of equatorial
ionospheric irregularities is greatly affected by solar
activity and,
Northern region shows to be more prone to
irregularities than the southern region in the case of
study.

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Acknowledgments GPS data for this study. We thank GopiSeemala of

The authors sincerely appreciate the Nigeria Global the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, India, for
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Reference making the GPS-TEC analysis software accessible
Network (NIGNET www.nignet.net) for providing for this study.

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357–386.
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Adebesin, B.O., Ikubanni, S.O., Adebiyi, S.J., Dopamu, K.O., Adekoya, B.J., (2018). Global Pattern of Plasma Bubbles
Irregularities at midnight using Ion Drift Spectrometer measurement. International Journal of Civic Engineering
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Basu, S., MacKenzie, E., Basu, Su. (1988). Ionospheric constraints on VHF/UHF communications links during solar
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Basu, S.,Basu, S. (1985). Equatorial scintillations: advances since ISEA-6, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 47, 753– 768.
Hysell, D.L., Burcham, J. (1998). JULIA radar studies of equatorial spread-F, J. Geophys. Res., 361, 29155–29167.
Maruyama, T., Matsuura, N. (1984). Longitudinal variability of annual changes in activity of equatorial spread F and
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small-scale ionospheric irregularities over an equatorial station during solar maximum – magnetic quiet and
disturbed conditions, Adv. Space Res. 43, 1957–1973.
Oladipo, O.A., Schüler, T. (2013). Equatorial ionospheric irregularities using GPS TEC derived index, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr.
Phys., 92, 78-82
Oladipo, O.A., Adeniyi, J.O., Olawepo, A.O., Doherty, P.H., 2014. Large- scale ionospheric irregularities occurrence at
Ilorin Nigeria. Space Weather. 12, 300-305. http://doi:10.1002/2013SW000991.
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Frequency of Equatorial Plasma Bubbles over West Africa Using an All-Sky Airglow Imager and GNSS
Receivers. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, 122(12), 12,430–12,444.
http://doi:10.1002/2017ja024602
Park, C.G.,Dejnakarintra, M. (1973). Penetration of thundercloud electric fields into the ionosphere and magnetosphere
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Pi, X., Mannucci, A.J., Lindqwister, U.J.,Ho, C.M. (1997). Monitoring of global ionospheric irregularities using the
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ANALYSIS OFGARCINIA KOLA (BITTER KOLA) MARKETS IN

IBADAN METROPOLIS, OYO STATE.

*Ogunleye,T.B., Hamzat, O. A,Esezobor, O.S. and Taiwo, O.D.

Department of Agribusiness Management, Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology Moor Plantation, P. M. B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria

*Corresponding author: tolulopeomojola@yahoo.com; GSM: + 2348038272095

Abstract
Bitter kola is one of the several non-timber forest products that have economic contribution to both domestic
and national market. The study examined the structure of bitter kola markets in selected markets in Ibadan
metropolis, Oyo State. A sample size of 115 bitter kola traders was selected for the study using a two-stage
sampling procedure. Data obtained were analysed using descriptive statistics and Gini-coefficient analysis.
Findings revealed that 93.0% of the respondents were females with the range age of 40 to 49 years; 73.0% were
married and 83.5% had formal education. Most of the households had between 6 to 9 persons and 40% of them
had between 11 to 20 years of experience in bitter kola marketing years. Most (90.4%) of the marketers haggled
to determine price of bitter kola. Majority (54.8%) of the marketers also employed air/drying as a method of
preservation Result of the Gini coefficient (0.642) for bitter kola indicates that the market structure tends
towards oligopoly, implies that the market is characterized by the presence of few sellers. Low patronage, poor
marketing channels, price fluctuation and high transportation costs were the most severe constraints
experienced in bitter kola marketing. Findings recommend, among others, that consumers' awareness on the
utilization and consumption of Bitter kola is germane as this would likely improve patronage.

Key words: Bitter kola, Market structure, Gini- coefficient, Oligopoly, Non-timber forest product.

Introduction are widely consumed. The nuts have a bitter taste;

Garcinia Kola (Bitter kola) fruits are smooth and
elliptically shaped, with yellow pulp and brown seed
coat. Garcinia kola commonly known as bitter kola
is an economic and highly valued nut-bearing
tropical tree available in large quantity in West
Africa (Ikpesuet al. 2015). It is an indigenous tree
nut that is mainly found in the forest which has
economic value and serves as well as medicinal
purposes. According to Anna et al (2019), Garcinia
kola offers a broad variety of productsfruits, seeds,
bark, twigs,leaves, or wood can be utilized, but
generally, the kernels are regarded as the most
important product,whereas fruit pulp is usually
discarded. Adebayo and Oladele (2012)reported that
Garcinia kola has great economic value across West
Africa and its seeds are of particular importance in
the socio-cultural lives of the people in the tropics.
Italso plays an important rolein traditional
ceremonies, such as celebration of a childbirth,
marriage or chieftaincy(Anegbehet al. 2006).The
tree is commonly found in timid lowland forest of
Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana and the Republic of
Benin; it produces edible and medicinal seeds which
however, due to its high caffeine content; they are
used for their stimulant effects and commonly eaten
as snacks (Unaezeet al. 2013).
Garcinia kola is one of the several non-timber forest
products that are of socio-economic importance in
Nigeria. Asaet., al (2015) reported that the seeds,
nuts and bark of Garcinia kola plants have been used
extensively in African traditional medicine for the
treatment of various diseases.Garcinia kola was
being harnessed as a cure for Ebola virus infection
and flu in Nigeria (Famuyideet,.al 2012; Asaet., al,
2015). Its economic contribution to both domestic
and national market raises the standard of living of
those involved in the trading activities, both in the
rural and urban centres.
Millions of households in developing countries and
in Nigeria particularly depend on various non-timber
forest products which have always constituted a
large part of forest economy (Terry et al., 2005).
Garcinia kola fruits are harvested annually between
July and October, which makes it a highly seasonal
product (Ojedokun and Adetuni 2019). People often

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turn to the collection and marketing of non-timber
forest products such as Garciniakola from nearby
forest (Adepoju and Salau 2007).
Studies have shown thatGarcinia kolacollection
from natural source has declined significantly due to
lack of improved planting material and inadequate
market outlay which has negatively affected farmers
in terms of marketing of their produce (Adebisi,
2004). Market structure is concerned with the
organizational characteristics of a market which
influence the nature of competition. Hence, Garcinia
kolamarket composition is worth verifying in terms
of concentration of sellers and buyers for a
comprehensive assessment of its stance. In Nigeria,
where employment opportunities for traditional
industries are declining (Adedokun et al. 2021),
alternative sources of income become a necessity.
Inspite of the importance of bitter kola, there has
been a dearth of information on the structure of
Garcinia kolamarket in Ibadan, Oyo state. It
therefore becomes imperative to carry out a study to
determine the market structure and profitability of
Garcinia kolabitter kola.The broad objective of the
study is to examine the structure of Garcinia
kolamarkets in Ibadan, Oyo State. More specifically,
the study wasdesigned to examine the socio-
economic characteristics of Garcinia kolatraders in
the study area; examine the marketing
characteristics of bitter kola; identify the market
structure of bitter kola and ascertain the constraints
in the study area.
Materials and Methods
Description of the study area
Ibadan is the capital of Oyo state and thelargest city
south of Sahara. It has an estimated population of
about 2,550,593 (Nigeria population census. 2006).
0 0
Ibadan lies between latitude 7 N and 9 E of the
equator, longitude 30 and 50E of the Greenwich
Meridian. It is situated in the rain forest zone of
Nigeria with rainfall of average distribution of about
1250mm and 1800mm. The temperature of Ibadan
ranges between 270C and 320 C with relative
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
humidity of about 75% to 90%.The major crops
grown in the state include cassava, maize, yam,
sorghum, cocoa, cocoa yam, melon, peppers soya
bean, bitter kola, walnutand okra. The major
livestock reared in the state include cattle, sheep,
goat, pig, fish production and poultry production.
Source of data collection
In this study, primary data were collected by
administering structured questionnaire and
interview schedule to the respondents.
Sampling procedure and sample size
Data were primarily sourced using questionnaires
and interview schedule giving a total of 125 bitter
kola traders in Ibadan. First stage includea purposive
selection of five (5) major markets namely, Omi-
Adio, Oja-Oba, Oje, Bodija, AgbeniOlogede
marketswithin Ibadan metropolis in which the bitter
kola sellers were domiciled. Second stage
involvedrandom selection of twenty-five (25)
respondents involved in the trading of bitter kola in
each market. Thus, one hundred and twenty-five
(125) bitter kola traders were interviewed using
structured questionnaire and interview schedule.
However, only one hundred and fifteen (115)
questionnaires were found analyzable.
Statistical analyses
Data were subjected to descriptive statistics such as
mean, frequency, percentage, median, standard
deviation. This was used to profile the
socioeconomic and marketing characteristics of
bitter kola marketers. It was also used to identify the
constraints militating against bitter kola marketers.
Gini coefficient was used to measure the level of
sellers' concentration in the market to determine
which market has few or more large firms with the
largest share of the business. The Gini coefficient
was used to investigate the market structure of bitter
kola and it is given by
G. C = 1 - XY (1)
Where G.C = Gini coefficient, X = proportion of
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bitter kola sellers, Y = cumulative proportion of total

sales.
A ten item constraints were also identified through
interviews and the respondents were requested to
indicate the severity in each of the constraint item.
This was done with the aid of a 3-point rating scale,
with nominal values assigned to the points in the
scale, as follows: Not a constraint = 1, Mild
constraint =2 and Severe constraint = 3. A mean
score was computed for each constraint item and the
mean score was used to rank the constraints in order
of severity.

Results and Discussion

The age of the respondents ranged from 30 to 69
years with a dominant age range of 40-49 years
(39.1%). Only 7% of the bitter kola traders
interviewed were men; while women constituted the
dominant group (93%). This is in consonance with
the report of Adedokun et al (2021) who found that
bitter kola markets is dominated by female (95%)
sellers probably because women are more
predominant in capital aspects of forest business
include marketing (Ogunwandeet al., 2009) and
majority of them were of 50 years and below.

Almost half of the respondents (43%) had primary

education with 10.5% attaining up to tertiary level.
This indicates most of them had formal education.
Also, married traders were dominant (73%) and they
had a household size of dominant range (56.6%)
having 6-9 people. This is in tandem with the
findings of Ojedokun and Adetunji (2019) who
reported that 85.5% of the respondents were married
and 59.3% had 5-8 peoples within their households.
The bitter kola traders are well experienced with
40% of them having between 11-20 years market
experience. Most of the respondents (76.5%)
finance their bitter kola business with their personal
savings. This agrees with Adedokun et al (2021) who
reported that all the respondents financed their bitter
kola business with their personal savings.

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Marketing characteristics of bitter kola by were sourced in Ibadan and sold within the town.
respondents
From the result in Table 2, it shows that majority Furthermore, the major (54.8%) preservation
(90.4%) of the respondents reported that price is method of bitter kola adopted by the respondents is
determined by haggling which indicates the drying (air dry or sundry) while others (30.4% and
bargaining power of the buyers is key in price 14.8%) preserve by covering with leaf and use sacs
determination while only 6.1% of the respondents respectively. This is in tandem with the report of
reported that prices were determined by their Famuyideet al (2012) and Adedokun et al (2021)
association and 3.5% of the respondents indicated who reported that air drying was the main
that price of product is determined by what other preservation method adopted by the respondents.
sellers charge. This result implies that price may vary This implies that the drying is a major means of
from trader to trader since the ability of a buyer to preservation due to the nature of the bitter kola nuts
haggle was a determinant of price in the market. In to enhance further reduction of its moisture content.
essence, individual sellers determine at which price
to sell the product and lack of product differentiation
gives the seller little market power. Also, there exist
price variations in selling price among bitter kola
traders in the study area as majority (92.2%) of the
respondents reported so while 7.8% claimed
otherwise. This indicates that the respondents have
the decision to sell at their own convenient price so
long they are satisfied with the profit margin while
the association does not necessarily regulate price.

Bitter kola market associations existed in the study

area but more than half (53.9%) of the respondents
were members of association, however their purpose
was basically for social activities while others joined
to regulate price as well as prevent free entry. This
implies that respondents benefitted more of social
purposes as low rate of information flow about costs,
prices and other market conditions.In addition, the
result from the chart reveals that majority (74.89%)
of the respondents determine bitter kola grade based
on sorting according to freshness, only15.7% of the
respondents sort based on the size of the bitter kola
nuts and a few (1.8%) of the respondents determines
the grade based on its colour. Most (60.9%) of the
respondents reported that they source their product
outside Ibadan while 39.1% claimed their products

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Table 2: Distribution of Marketing Characteristics of Bitter kola

Variable Frequency Percentage

Preservation methods
Sac 17 14.8
Leaf 35 30.4
Spreading to air/sun 63 54.8
Source of product
Within Ibadan 70 60.9
Outside Ibadan 45 39.1
Variation in selling price
Yes 106 92.2
No 9 7.8
Price determination
Haggling 104 90.4
Association 7 6.1
What other sellers charge 4 3.5
Reason for membership
To prevent entry 16 13.9
To regulate price 37 32.2
For social activities 62 53.9
Total 115 100
Source: Field Survey, 2017.

Figure 1: Grade determination of Bitter kola

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Bitter kola Market Structure in Ibadan
The Gini coefficient calculation for the market
structure of Garciniakola traders in Ibadan is
presented in Table 3. Market Structure for Bitter kola
in the study area indicates that there were few sellers
and buyers who had less free entry and exit in and out
of the business which indicates a tilt towards
imperfect competitive market structure,
confirmingFamuyideet al (2012) who reported a gini
coefficient of 0.76 for garcinia kola. The value of the
Gini- Coefficient (0.642), as presented in Table 3
implies a high level of inequality in the sales revenue
of respondents indicating a degree of market
concentration such that among the few sellers there
are fewer firms has a larger proportion of the market
sharewhich tend towards oligopoly as characterized
by the presence of fewsellers. This conforms to
thefindings of Eronmwonet al. (2014), who obtained
a Gini coefficient of 0.68for plantain marketers in
Edo State. This inequality in the market could be
attributed to variation in the investment level of the
respondents.
In this study, X = proportion of sellers from ≤
? 6,000 - ? 90,000. The summation of sales is ?
5,672,500.00 and the summation of proportion of
sales is 1. The summation of the product of
proportion of sellers (X) and cumulative proportion
of total sales (Y) is 0.358.
G.C = 1 - ∑ XY
G.C = 1 – 0.358
G.C = 0.642

Table 3: Gini coefficient analysis of market structure of bitter kola traders in Ibadan
Frequency Proportion of Total sale Proportion of Total sale XY
Income (? )
sellers (? ) (Y)
(X)

1-30000 32 0.278 576,000 0.102 0.028

30,001-60,000 39 0.339 1,755,019.50 0.312 0.106
60,001 – 90,000 44 0.383 3,300,022.00 0.586 0.224

Total 115 0.358

Field survey, 2017

Table 4 shows the constraints to bitter kola
marketing faced by the respondents in the study
area. The result revealed that low patronage (x
=2.52), poor marketing channels (x = 2.50),
price fluctuation (x =2.42) and high
transportation cost (x = 1.68) were the most
severe constraints to bitter kola marketing in
Ibadan, Oyo State. The findings are in
consonance with Yusuffet.al (2015), who
reported that transportation, irregular supply of
product, poor marketing and price fluctuation
were major challenges facing the marketing of
non-timber forest products such as bitter kola in
Nigeria. Famuyideet.,al (2012), opined that
price fluctuation as a major constraint to bitter
kola marketing is due to the fact that the forest
fruits are not always available throughout the
year due to their seasonal nature which makes
them in short supply leading to needless change
in prices of the nuts. The least severe constraints
to bitter kola business in the study area were: and
security of the product (x =1.45) inadequate
storage facility (x =1.40) and high cost of selling
permit (x =1.13).

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Table 4: Distribution of constraints militating againstbitter kola marketers

Constraint Severe Mild Not a Mean Rank

Constraint ConstraintConstraint
Poor patronage 70(60.0) 35(30.4) 10 (8.7) 2.52 1st
nd
Poor marketing 65(56.5) 43(37.4) 7(4.3) 2.50 2
Channel
Price fluctuation 64 (55.7) 36 (31.3) 15 (13.0) 2.42 3rd
Transportation cost 4 (3.5) 70 (60.7) 41 (35.7) 1.68 4th
Insufficient capital 24 (20.0) 30 (26.1) 61 (53.0) 1.67 5th
Perishability 4 (3.5) 59 (51.3) 52 (45.2) 1.58 6th
Variation in Season 15 (13.0) 31 (27.0) 69 (60.0) 1.53 7th
Security of goods 11 (9.6) 30 (26.1) 74 (64.3) 1.45 8th
No storage facility 9 (7.8) 28 (24.3) 78 (67.8) 1.40 9th
High selling permit 2 (1.7) 12 (10.4) 101 (87.8) 1.13 10th
Field Survey, 2017

Conclusion and recommendations made; bitter kola association should use the media
and other channels of advertisement to communicate
The study revealed that bitter kola marketers were
to the public on the plethora of health benefits that
majorly female in their active age with majority
can be derived from consuming bitter kola to
having primary education.Also, Garcinia kola is
enhance its patronage.Also, bitter kola should be
graded based on its freshness, size and the major
subjected to value addition such as paste or powder
method of preservation is by exposing to air and
form so as to boost its utilization and invariably
sun.The study has shown that the market structure of
enhance its patronage. In addition, it is suggested
bitter kola traders in Ibadan is oligopolistic where
that association of bitter kola traders improve their
there is independent pricing leading to price
market functionalities for better market performance
discrimination among traders in the same
by organising programmes and seminars from time
market.The major constraint facing bitter kola
to time that is targeted towards effective marketing
marketers was poor patronage. Based on the findings
channels.
of the study, the following recommendations were

References
Adebayo, S.A and Oladele, O.I (2012), Medicinal values of kolanut in Nigeria: implication for
extension services delivery, Life Science Journal, 9 (2) pp 88-89.
Adebisi A.A (2004): A case study of Garciniakolanut production to consumption system in an
area ofomo forest reserve south west Nigeria.
Adedokun, MO; Adegbenjo, AE; Oyelakin, VF. (2021). Socio-Economic Contributions and
Marketing of Garcinia Kola (Bitter Kola) in Ijebuode, Ogun State, Nigeria J. Appl. Sci.
Environ. Manage. Vol. 25 (5) 759-762 May 2021.

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ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Adepoju , A.A and Salau, A.S (2007) Economic valuation of Non-Timber forest products
MPRA. Paper no. 2689. Available online at http:mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/2689/.
Accessed on August 8, 2007.
Akpan, V. U. (2015) Economics of the bitter kola marketing inUyo Metropolis of Akwa
Ibom State, B. Agric, Department ofAgricultural Economics and Extension,
University of Uyo,Uyo. 65pp
Anna Ma¡ nourová , Olga Leuner , ZacharieTchoundjeu , Patrick Van Damme ,
VladimírVerner ,Ond¡rejP¡ribyl and BohdanLojka(2019); Medicinal Potential,
Utilization and DomesticationStatus of Bitter Kola (Garcinia kola Heckel) in Westand
Central Africa.Forests 2019, 10, 124; doi:10.3390/f10020124
www.mdpi.com/journal/forests
Anegbeh, P.O.; Iruka, C.; Nikirika, C. Enhancing germination of bitter cola(Garcinia
kola) Heckel: Prospects for agroforesty farmers in the Niger Delta. Sci. Afr. 2006, 5,
38–44.
AsaUbongAndem, Daniel EnwongoAniedi, EbongEffiongOkon. Economics of Rural
Livelihoods: A Case Study of Bitter Kola Marketing in AkwaIbom State, Nigeria.
American Journal of Agriculture and Forestry. Vol. 3, No. 6, 2015, pp. 260-263.doi:
10.11648/j.ajaf.20150306.13
Famuyide O, Adebayo O, Adeniran O, Owese T, Bolaji-Olutunji K, Odebiyi A (2012). Price
Determination of Garcinia kola (Bitter Kola) And Aframomummelegueta (Alligator
Pepper) in Ibadan, Oyo state. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Health carevol 2
(7)pp 52-60.
Ikpesu, T. O., Tongo, I. and Ariyo A. (2015) Restorative Prospective of Powdered seeds
extract of G. Kola in Chrysihthysfurcatus induced with Calyphosate Formulation,
Nature and Science, 13 (11): 91-100.
Ogunwande OA; Jimoh, SO; Asinwa, IO; and Adegoke, FF. (2009): Survey and comparism
of market prices of selected NTFPs in Osun and Oyo States. Obeche Journal of Tree
Club. 2: 9-22
Ojedokun, I.K. and Adetunji, M.O (2019); Economic Analysis of Bitter Kola Marketing in Osun
State, Nigeria.International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) |
Volume VI, Issue XI, pp: 48-53, November 2019 | ISSN 2321–2705
Okoli, U. J., (1991). An Investigation into the HypoglycemicActivity of GBI Biflavonoids of
Garcinia kola, B. Pharm.Project, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Terry, S and Ousseynou, N. (2004),Forest products, livelihoods and conservation. Case studies of
NWTFP system vol 2- pp1-3.
Unaeze H. C., Oladele A.T and Agu , L.O (2013) Collection and marketing of bitter cola
(Garcinia kola ) in Nkwerre local government area, Imo State, Nigeria, Egyptian
Journal of Biology, (1) 5 : 37-43
Yusuff, A. O., Adams, B. A., Adewole, A. T. and Olatoke, T. I.(2014) NTFPs collection as
an alternative source of incomefor poverty alleviation among rural farmers in Egbeda
LocalGovernment Oyo State, Academic Journal of InterdisciplinaryStudies, 3(6):
467-474.

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DETERMINANTS OF FOOD WASTE AMONG HOUSEHOLDS IN

IBADAN METROPOLIS, OYO STATE, NIGERIA.

*Ogunleye T. B1, Ishie D.N1. Olatoye O.C2. Tasanmi V.T2. and Lamidi L.O2.
1
Department of Agribusiness Management,
2
Department of Agricultural Extension and Management,
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Ibadan, Oyo State,
P.M.B. 5029 Ibadan, Nigeria.

*Corresponding e-mail: tolulopeomojola@yahoo.com

Abstract
Food waste is a major portion of household waste which occurs during various food handling stages from the
market to the kitchen. However, it is imperative to assess food waste categories and their determinants in order
to curtail unswerving incidence within the households. This study examined factors influencing households'
food waste among peri-urban households in Oyo state, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling procedure was used to
select 160 respondents for this study. Cross-sectional data was collected through well structured questionnaire
to elicit information from the respondents for the study. Data obtained were measured using descriptive statistics
(percentage, mean) and Regression analysis. The result shows that majority (75.6%) of the household heads
were male, with a mean age of 49 years, an average household size of 5people. Most (75%) of them were
married, 36.3% had Bachelors degree as their highest qualification with a mean income of ? 85,921.16 monthly
and 48.8% of the respondents had refrigerator for preservation. The most (35%) occurring food waste
categories experienced was meal left over. In addition, the mean value of household food wasted was not up to
? 1000. Finally the regression result showed that income, education level, household composition, meal
planning and presence of fridge and freezer had significant effects on food waste. Thus it can be concluded that
respondents use refrigerator as means of preserving their food which was mostly powered by generator.
Therefore, households' preference for freezer is encouraged for sustained curtail of food waste.

Keywords: Households, Determinants, Peri-urban, Food waste.

Introduction the retailer and consumer levels. Economically, food

Food loss and waste are critical sustainability issues
that should be managed due to the economic,
environmental and social impacts. Globally, it has
been estimated that one-third of all food produced
for human consumption is either wasted or loss
across the food supply chains (Gustavsson,
Cederberg, and Sonesson 2011; Stenmarck et al.
2016). According to Kummu, et al., (2012), food
losses refer to those incurred during production,
postharvest and processing of food, while food waste
represents losses at the distribution and consumption
stages. This is in contrast with Parfitt et al., (2010),
who described food wastes as foods which are lost at
waste amounts to a misuse of scarce resources that
have alternative uses from both production and
purchase point of view, while the social implication
of food wastage in a world where 220 million people
are undernourished in Africa alone is not justifiable
(FAO, 2016). Besides, Jorissen et al.,(2015), added
that one-third of the foods produced around the
world is wasted or discarded on an annual basis, half
of which is generated at the household level
especially in developed countries. However,
consumers (households) have been identified as the
single largest group responsible for more than half of
total food wastage in many countries, especially in

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the developed countries (Kummu, et al., 2012;
Parfitt et al., 2010; Griffin et al., 2009), and thus,
have to be carefully considered in any meaningful
strategy to mitigate food waste.
Stenmarck et al. (2016) observed a contribution
estimated at fifty-three percent that the consumer is
the primary contributor to food waste across the food
chain in higher income countries and it is for this
reason that consumer food waste is gaining more
amount of scientific attention. So far, scholars have
revealed several essential insights into consumer
behaviors leading to food waste. Households are
seen as the last point of the profit driven food supply
chain and a complex structure of food management
behaviors (Stancu et al., 2016). A better
understanding of such behaviors can be used to
maximize food-management efficiency in
households and to minimize food wastes.
Households are seen as the last point of the profit
driven food supply chain and a complex structure of
food management behaviors (Stancu et al., 2016). A
better understanding of such behaviors can be used
to maximize food-management efficiency in
households and to minimize food wastes.
Food waste has emerged as a crucial issue with far
reaching implications on food security and
environmental sustainability in developing
countries, including Nigeria. There are many factors
including socio-demographic features such as age,
gender, income, household size, and occupation
that has been suggested as part of the factors
affecting food waste (Mattar et al., 2018; Qi and
Roe, 2016). Therefore, it is observed that various
socio-demographic, behavior and attitude factors are
effective in the generation of food wastes, leading
to unfavorable economic, environmental, and
social impacts at the households' level. This study
aims to identify factors influencing households' food
waste in Oyo state. The specific objectives of the
study were to describe the socio economic
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
characteristics of the respondents in the study area;
identify the various food waste categories
commonly experienced by households in study area;
estimate the total value of household food waste in
the study area and to identify the factors influencing
food waste in households in the study area.
Materials and Methods
Oyo state is one of the three states carved out of the
formal western region of Nigeria in 1976. It consists
of 33 Local Government Areas (LGAs). The state
covered a land area of 28,454square/kilometers and
it is bounded in the south by Ogun state, in the north
by Kwara state, in the west it is partially bounded by
Ogun state and partially the Republic of Benin, while
in the east by Osun state. Multi stage sampling
technique was used for this study. The first stage was
the purposive selection of the six (6) peri-uban local
government areas in Ibadan metropolis which are
Akinyele, Oluyole, Ona-ara, Egbeda, Lagelu and
Ido. Second stage, three (3) local government areas
out of the Six (LGAs) were randomly selected
namely Egbeda, Lagelu and Ido. In the third stage,
proportionate sampling was used to select 30% of the
wards that makes up each of the local government
area making ten (10) wards and 2 communities were
randomly selected per ward which gives rise to
twenty (20) communities in total. In the fourth stage,
eight (8) households were randomly selected from
each community making a total of 160 respondents.
Data were collected using a well-structured
questionnaire to obtain information from the
respondents and was analyzed with the aid of
descriptive statistics which include frequencies,
percentage distribution and mean to describe the
socio-economic characteristics of the respondents,
categories of food waste and amount of food wasted
in naira while inferential statistics such as ordinary
least square regression model was used to identify
the factors influencing food waste.
ISSN: 2811-1842
Y = â0 +â1X1 +â2X2 +â3+…ânXn +åi ………. equation
(i)
Y= Dependent variable; Xi= Explanatory variables;
â= Co-efficient; å= Error term
Where Y= Amount of food waste (in naira)
X1= Sex (male = 1, female= 0), X2= Age (in years),
X3= Marital Status (married = 1, Otherwise = 0), X4=
Household size (in number of people), X5= Years of
Education (in years or numbers), X6= Occupation
(Trading = 1, Otherwise = 0), X7= Monthly income
(in naira); X8= Household composition (Adult with
children = 1, Adult only= 0), X9= Planned meal (Yes
= 1, No = 0), X10= Possession of Fridge (Yes = 1, No =
0), X11= Possession of Freezer (Yes = 1, No = 0).
Results and Discussion
Result in Table 1 reveals that majority (75.6%) of the
respondents were male while 24.4% were female.
This is so as males are considered as bread winners of
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
the family considering their societal roles and
responsibility hence there are more males to females
as household heads. The mean of the ages is 49 years
which implies that the respondents are considerably
young, active and productive. Also, majority (75%)
of the respondents were married, while the
remaining respondents (25%) were widowed,
divorced and single. This implies that most of the
respondents were married thus marital status can
potentially contribute to the dynamics of food waste
experienced by households. Majority of the
respondents were literate as 36.3% of them had
Bachelors degree. This implies that they are
knowledgeable and can comprehend the concept of
food waste better. Most (48.8%) of the respondents
were Government workers who and earn a mean
income of ? 85,921.16. Households had an average
of 5 people; this implies that the respondents had
fairly large household size.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Table 1: Distribution of respondents by their socio- economic and household characteristics

Variables Frequency Percentage Mean n= 160
Sex

Male 121 75.6

Female 39 24.4
Marital status
Single 5 3.1
Married 120 75.0
Divorced 5 3.1
Widowed 30 18.1
Educational
Attainment
SSCE 16 10.0
ND 19 11.9
HND 48 30.0
BSc 58 36.3
Masters 14 8.8
PhD 5 3.1
Major Occupation
Farming 24 15.0
Trading 33 20.6
Civil service 78 48.8
Artisan 25 15.6
Household
composition
Adults only 63 39.4
Adult with children 97 60.6
Planning of meal
Yes 154 96.2
No 6 3.8
Household assets
Fridge 78 48.8
Freezer 35 21.8
None 18 11.3
Fridge & Freezer 29 18.1
Age(in years) 49.2±11.0
Household size 5.0±1.0
Monthly income 85921.16±58283.41
(? )
Total 160 100
Source: Field survey 2021. %: Percentage

Table 2 shows result for types of food waste commonly found in the study area and it reveals that most common
type of food waste is meal leftover, followed by left over after storage (30%). While the least common type of
food waste is completely unused food. This implies that most of the households although not up to half
experience food waste which could be due to a number of factors.

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Monthly estimate of food type wasted in naira

The result shows that the average monthly value of food waste is ? 648.13. The following amount
indicates the monetary value of various food types' ? 716.37, ? 238.32, ? 249.09, ? 339.35 and ? 288.89
on rice, yam, vegetables, bean and noodles respectively. The highest distribution of household food
waste is rice (? 716.37) while the least is Yam (? 238.32), this could be due to household preference for
rice than other food types, as children as well as adults perceive it as a staple.

Table 3: Distribution of food types to the total value of household food waste in study area
Food item Mean Value of waste (? )
Rice 716.37
Yam 238.32
Vegetables 249.09
Beans & Pulses 339.35
Noodles 288.89
Food Waste in Naira per month 648.13

Source: Field survey,2021.

Determinants of food waste among households in
the study area
The regression model was used to identify factors
affecting food waste in the study area; the result
explained the effect of socio economic and
household variables on food waste shows R-squared
(R²) value of 0.663 and F statistics of 26.443. Nine
(9) out of eleven(11) variables tested were
significantly different from zero, this include, age of
household head, marital status, years of education,
occupation, monthly income, household
composition, presence of fridge, presence of freezer,
planned meal. Age of household head, marital status,
years of education, occupation, and presence of
fridge had positive effects while, monthly income,
household composition, presence of freezer, and
planned meal had negative effects on food waste.
Age of the household head had a positive effect on
food waste at 5% level of significance. This shows
that a unit increase in the age of the household head
will lead to 0.19 increases in food waste. However,
Hamilton et al. (2005) and Victoria (2011) who
found out that young people waste more food than
old people contradicts this study. Income of
household head had a negative effect on food waste
at 1% level of significance implying that an
additional increase in income earned will lead to
0.16 decreases in household food waste. This result
is contradictory with Baker et al. (2009) who state
that food waste increases with income. Marital status
had a positive effect on food waste at 1% level of
significance. This shows that an additional increase

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in the number of households that are married will
lead to 0.23 increases in food waste. Implying that
married households tend to waste more food. Level
of education of household head had a positive effect
on food waste at 1% level of significance. This
shows that an increase in the education years of
household head will lead to 0.76 increases in food
waste. This is consistent with the result of Schneider
and Obersteiner (2007) who posited that higher level
of education has positive effect on the amount of
avoidable food waste in household. Household
composition had a negative effect on food waste at
1% level of significance. This shows that increase in
the households with children will lead to 0.32
decreases in food waste. Furthermore, Presence of
fridge in household had a positive effect on food
waste at 1% level of significance. This shows that
households with more of the presence of
refrigerators will lead to 0.20 increases in food waste
while presence of freezer in the household had a
negative effect on food waste at 5% level of
significance implying that the possession of freezer
in household will lead to 0.08 decrease in food waste
as longer shelf life of food items is reasonably
ascertained. Lastly, meal planning within
households had a negative effect on food waste at 1%
level of significance. This implies that frequent meal
planning in household will leads to 0.62 decrease in
food waste.

Table 3: An ordinary least square regression analysis showing factors influencing

Variables Coefficients Std. Error t-value P >|t|
Sex of household head -0.06 0.04 -1.496 .137
Age of household head 0.19** 0.09 2.181 .031
Marital Status 0.23* 0.04 5.343 .000
Household size -3.897E-5 0.06 -.001 .999
Level of education 0.77* 0.15 5.081 .000
Occupation 0.06*** 0.03 1.737 .084
Income -0.16* 0.04 -4.501 .000
Household Composition -0.32* 0.03 -9.623 .000
Possession of Fridge 0.18* 0.03 5.451 .000
Possession of Freezer -0.81** 0.04 -2.115 .036
Planned meal -0.62* 0.07 -8.647 .000
Constant 5.94* 0.59 10.151 .000
Prob> F 0.000
R2 0.663

Source: Field survey, 2021.

*** 10% level of significance, **5% level of significance and *1% level of significance respectively.

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Conclusion and Recommendation food wasted among the households. Finally it is

From the study, it was concluded that majority of
the respondents were married, male and are
relatively young with average age of 49 years,
most of the households also have children but not
too largely household size of 5 people, they were
civil servants and earned average of ? 85,921.16
monthly. Also, respondents were literate with
high educational attainment. It is also concluded
that majority of the respondents use refrigerator
as means of preserving their food which was
mostly powered by generator and most of the
households plan their meals before cooking. In
addition, not up to ? 1000 was estimated to be
concluded that age, marital status, income,
education level, occupation, household
composition, meal planning and presence of
fridge and freezer had significant effects on food
waste among peri-urban households in Ibadan
metropolis. Based on the findings from this study,
the following recommendations were made;
Households should planned their meals before
cooking to reduce food wastage; preference for
freezer in replace of fridge in order to preserve
food items is encouraged in order to curtail food
waste due to its freezing capacity.

Reference
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2016): Reducing food losses and waste in sub-Saharan
Africa.http://www.fao.org/africa/news/en/Foodwaste/Reducingfoodlossesandwasteinsub-
SaharanAfrica.html (Accessed May 2, 2017)
Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., Otterdijk, R. and Meybeck, A. (2011): Global food losses and
food waste – Extent causes and prevention. FAO, Rome: Italy
Jorissen, J., Priefer, C., and Brautigam, K.R. (2015). Food waste generation at household level: results of a
survey among employees of two European research centers in Italy and Germany. Sustainability,
7(3), 2695-2715. doi: 10.3390/su7032695
Kummu, M., deMoel, H., Porkka, M., Siebert, S., Varis, O. and Ward, P.J. (2012): Lost food, wasted resources:
Global food supply chain losses and their impacts on freshwater, cropland and fertiliser use.
Science of the Total Environment 438: 477-489.
Mattar, L., Abiad, M.G., Chalak, A., Diab, M., Hassan, H. (2018). Attitudes and behaviors shaping household
food waste generation: Lessons from Lebanon. Journal of Cleaner Production 198, 1219-
1223. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.085
Oyawole, F.P., Ajayi, O. P., Aminu, R.O., Akerele, D. (2016): Willingness to pay for improved solid waste
management services in an urbanizing area in South-Eastern Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of
Environmental Studies and Management 9(6):793-803.
Pakpour, A.H., Zeidi, I.S., Emamjomeh, M.M., AsefZadeh, S., Pearson, H. (2014): Household waste
behaviours among a community sample in Iran: An application of the theory of planned behaviour.
Waste Management 34(6):980-6.
Parfitt, J., Barthel, M. and Macnaughton, S. (2010): Food waste within food supply chains: Quantification and
potential for change to 2050. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 365(1554): 3065-3081.

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Qi, D., & Roe, B.E. (2016). Household food waste: multivariate regression and principal components
analyses of awareness and attitudes among US consumers. PLOS ONE,11, -0159250. doi:
10.1371/jour-nal.pone.0159250
Stancu, V. and Haugaard P. and Lahteenmaki, L. (2016): Determinant of consumer food waste behaviour: Two
routes to food waste. Appetite 96: 7-17.
Stefan, V., Van Herpen, E., Tudoran, A.A., & L€Aht-eenm€Aki, L. (2013). Avoiding food waste by
Ro-manian consumers: the importance of planning and shopping routines. Food Quality and
Preference, 28, 375-381. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.11.001
Stenmarck, Åsa, Carl Jensen, Tom Quested, and Graham Moates. 2016. “Estimates of European Food Waste
Levels.” foodwastelevels.pdf, accessed 30 August 2016.
http://www.eufusions.org/phocadownload/Publications/EstimatesofEuropean

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REMOVAL OF LEAD IONS FROM SIMULATED WASTE WATER USING

UNMODIFIED, CARBONIZED AND ACTIVATED Zea Mays (CORN) COBS
AS ADSORBENTS

Okparaocha, F. J., Obero, O. J, Oyeleke, P. O, Ojezele, O. J., Ayanda. O. E, Aluko, O. I

Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology, Ibadan, Nigeria

Corresponding author: funmiokparaocha@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The use of agricultural wastes as bio-adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals from waste water has
received a lot of research attention owing to their low cost and high efficiency in the removal of these
heavy metals from domestic and industrial waste water. In this study, unmodified, carbonized and
activated Zea Mays (corn) cobs were used as adsorbents in removing Lead (Pb) ion from simulated
waste water. The concentrations of the metal ion solution after adsorption was determined using the
Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) A-ANALYST 200. Optimization was done using the
batch process with investigation of the effect of concentration, time and adsorption dosage on removal
efficiency (R %) and adsorption capacity (qe) of the adsorbents. The optimal Removal Efficiency (%)
of all the adsorbents were observed to decrease with increase in concentration (ppm) of the metal ions.
The optimal adsorbent dosage for the Activated Corn Cob (ACC) and unmodified corn cob were
observed at 1.5g while the Carbonized Corn Cob (CCC) was optimal at 0.3g with the Removal
Efficiency (%) of 99.85%. The removal efficiency of the three adsorbents were observed to decrease
with contact time (minutes).The adsorption capacity (qe) of the three adsorbents were observed to
increase with concentration between 10 - 40 ppm and wereoptimal at 50 ppm. Highest adsorption
capacity was observed at the lowest adsorbent dosage of 0.3g for the three adsorbents.The carbonized
and activated adsorbents exhibited considerably high effectiveness in adsorbing Lead ion from the
simulated waste.
Keywords: Agricultural waste, Adsorption, Removal efficiency, Modified adsorbents

INTRODUCTION products in the environment. While some of these

The discharge of untreated waste water from
industries, agricultural and domestic activities into
the water bodies has been one major source of heavy
metals pollution in the environment. These
contaminated effluents from both industrialization
and urbanization has posed a great problem globally
(Jin et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2016). The toxicity,
persistency and bioaccumulation tendency of these
metals most especially the non-essential ones like
Lead and Cadmium in the ecosystem is of major
concern. The ubiquitous nature of these heavy
metals is further influenced by their non-
biodegradable nature which unlike some organic
pollutants that naturally degrades to harmless
heavy metals like copper, zinc and manganese are
trace minerals which the body requires in minimal
amount but high concentration beyond threshold
limits also has damaging health effects in humans
and animals. While these heavy metals may pose no
serious risk to the marine animals, they have the
tendency to bio accumulate in their tissues and
organs thus entering the food chains thereby
constituting danger to the consumer of these marine
products.
Various health effects of these toxic metals in human
have been reported. For example, Lead has been
reported as a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft

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tissues and bones; it damages the nervous system and (Afroze and Sen, 2018; Dai et al., 2018; Ali et al.,
interferes with the function of biological enzyme, 2016). The adsorbents made from agricultural waste
causing neurological disorders, such as brain materials are usually modified to forestall problems
damage and behavioral problems. Also exposure to associated with high chemical and biological oxygen
high levels of cadmium over a short period of time demands. Physical and chemical modifications are
(acute exposure) can result in flu like symptoms and possible. Physical modifications includes such
can damage the lungs. While low level over an processes like boiling, freezing, and drying, while
extended period of time (chronic exposure) can chemical modification may require treatment of the
result in kidney, bone and lung disease(Mohammed adsorbents with solution of acids, caustic alkali,
et al, 2014). Various techniques are being employed methanol etc. (AlaeiShahmirzadiet al., 2018;
in removing these heavy metals from waste water Acharya et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2015).
which include, solvent extraction , reverse osmosis,
Chemical treatment makes some functional groups
precipitation, ion exchange, ultra-filtration,
available on the surface of the adsorbents. Such
electrochemical technique ( Gupta et al., 2003).
functional groups like carbonyl, phenolic,
acetamido, alkanolic, amino, and sulfhydryl group
However, these techniques are expensive with huge
(Renuet al., 2017; Afroze and Sen, 2018). These
cost of operation and the disposal of the residual
functional groups are able to bind to metal ions by
metal sludge also create a secondary pollution
substituting hydrogen ions with metal ions in
(Singh and Gupta, 2016; Kale et al., 2017; Marsidiet
solution or by donating electron pairs to form
al., 2018). These limitations in the use of
complexes between functional groups and metal
conventional methods has necessitated the need for a
ions. This mechanism can be described as
more economical, efficient and environmental
physiosorption, chemisorption, complexation, ion
friendly method for the removal of toxic metal ions
exchange, or chelation/coordination (Gupta et al.,
from effluents with minimal sludge production. The
2015). Chemical treatment also helps in removing
use of agricultural bio mass has shown great
impurities and soluble organic compounds in the
potential in this regard. Many agricultural waste
biomass, increases the efficiency of the adsorbents
materials such as beans hull, coconut husk, corn
and prevents coloration of the treated water
cobs. Sugarcane bagasse, rice husk, sawdust, oil
(Acharya et al., 2018)
palm shell, neem bark, fly ash, soybeans hull, and
The mechanism of adsorption of heavy metals on the
peanut hulls, have been investigated by various
adsorbents is a complex process that involves the
authors (Sulymanet al., 2017; Singh et al., 2018;
binding of the metal ions by physical or chemical
Rashid and Yakub, 2017;(Shafiqet al., 2018)
bonding, chelation, reduction, precipitation, and
complexation (Kanamarlapudiet al., 2018). The
Most agricultural wastes are indiscriminately
sorption mechanism can be one or a combination of
disposed, thereby defacing the environment or they
several phenomena, including the formation of a
end up in landfills or incinerators, meanwhile these
chemical complex at the surface of the adsorbent,
organic by product of agricultural activities can be
electron attraction (involved in almost all chemical
used with simple modification to low cost adsorbents
mechanisms), and the exclusion of the adsorbate
for the removal of heavy metals from waste water

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from the bulk solution (Patilet al., 2016). This study
is aimed at developing unmodified and modified
(carbonized and activated) adsorbents from corn cob
for the removal of Lead ion from simulated waste
water.
2.4 MATERIALS AND METHOD
Preparation of adsorbents
TheZea Mays (corn cob) were collected at Apata
Market, Ibadan and kept in a pre-cleaned polythene
bag. The cobs were washed, air dried at room
o
temperature and then oven dried at 105 C for 1 hour.
The dried cobs were divided into two. One half was
pulverized into fine powder and labelled unmodified
corn cob (UCC). The other half was carbonized in
o
the furnace at 300 C for three hours and later
pulverized into powder and labelled carbonized corn
cob (CCC) then kept in a tight container. A 20g of the
carbonized corn cob was activated by mixing it with
200mL of 0.1M Nitric acid (HNO3) in a volumetric
flask and stirred on the magnetic stirrer for one hour.
Then it was washed with distilled water to remove
the unreacted Nitric acid (HNO3). The residue was
o
then placed in the oven at 105 C for 1 hour and then
poured into a tight container and labelled as activated
corn cob (ACC).
Preparation of simulated waste water
Simulated waste water was prepared from 1000mg/L
of lead nitrate stock solution. Lower concentrations
of metal ion were prepared using the dilution factor.
Batch process
All batch sorption processes were carried out at room
O
temperature of 26 C. The optimization was done by
considering the effect of concentration, time, and
adsorbent dosage on removal efficiency and
adsorption capacity. The removal efficiency (R %)
and adsorption capacity (qe) were calculated from
the relationship
R% =
Adsorption capacity (qe) is determined from the
following equation
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Adsorption capacity (mg/g) =
Where Co and Ce (mg/L) are the liquid phase
concentrations of the metal ions at initial and
equilibrium, respectively, V (L) the volume of the
solution stirred
andM (g) is the mass of adsorbent used.
Effect of varying adsorbent dosage
The effect of adsorbent dosage on the removal of
lead ions from the simulated waste water was done
by adding different masses of the adsorbents (0.3,
0.6. 0.9, 1.2, 1.5g) into 250mL Erlenmeyer flask.
A50ml of 20 ppm metal ions solution was then added
and the mixture were stirred for 1 hour using
magnetic stirrer and then filtered. The filtrates were
analyzed with Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
(AAS).
Effect of concentration
The effect of concentration of lead ions on removal
efficiency of the adsorbents was done by preparing
different concentrations (10ppm, 20ppm, 30ppm,
40ppm, 50pmm) of the metal ion from the stock
solution. Then 1g of the adsorbent was weighed and
added to 50 ml of each of the different concentration
of the metal ion solution. The mixture was then
stirred for 1 hour and filtered. The filtrates were
analyzed with Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
(AAS).
Effect of time
Effect of time on removal efficiency of the
adsorbents was investigated by adding 50ml of
20ppm of the metal ion solution into a beaker
containing 1.0g of the adsorbents. Each of this was
stirred at different time intervals (20, 40, 60, 80 and
100 minutes). After stirring, the mixture was filtered
and the filtrates obtained were stored in the sample
bottle and analyzed with AAS.
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Results and Discussion
The effect of concentration of Lead ion on Removal
Efficiency (%) of the three (3) adsorbents at the same
adsorbent dosage of 1g was shown in Figure 1. An
initial increase in removal efficiency as
concentration increases was observed. The gradual
increase was an indication of the concentration range
with which the removal of the metal with the
modified and unmodified adsorbents were effective.
The optimal Removal Efficiency (%) of the
Unmodified Corn Cob (UCC) was observed at 100%
with the concentration of 10ppm and it decreased
with an increase in the concentration (ppm) at 50ppm
with the Removal Efficiency (%) of 98.55%. The
Carbonized Corn Cob (CCC) was optimal at 99.78%
with the concentration (ppm) 10ppm and it
decreased with an increase in the concentration
(ppm) at 50ppm with the Removal Efficiency (%) of
97.68% The optimal Removal Efficiency (%) for the
Activated Corn Cob (ACC) was observed at 99.97%
with the concentration (ppm) of 30ppm and it
decreased with an increase in the concentration
(ppm) at 50ppm with the Removal Efficiency (%) of
98.57%. These shows that the number of active sites
for binding metal ions decreases with increase in
concentration. However, the activated adsorbents
ACC showed higher adsorption efficiency at higher
concentration of Lead ion when compared with UCC
and CCC.
Figure 2 shows the effect of adsorbent dosage on the
removal efficiency of the three adsorbents at 20 ppm
concentration of the Lead ion. The optimal
adsorbent dosage was observed at 1.5g for the
Activated Corn Cob (ACC) with the Removal
Efficiency (%) of 100% while the Carbonized Corn
Cob (CCC) was optimal at 0.3g with the Removal
Efficiency (%) of 99.85%. The Unmodified Corn
Cob (UCC) was optimal at 1.5g with the Removal
Efficiency (%) of 100%. It was observed that the
Percentage Removal (%) of Lead (Pb) increased
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
with an increase in the adsorbent dosage and the
active sites. The ACC and UCC showed increase in
removal efficiency as the adsorbent dosages
increase. This should be expected as more active
sites will be available for binding the metal ions as
concentration increases. More so the ACC has more
functional groups that can bind the heavy metal
introduced on its surface as a result of the activation.
The Removal efficiency of the three adsorbents at
different contact time with the Lead ion is shown in
Figure 3. The result showed that the removal of the
metal ion contaminant decreases as contact time
(minutes). An optimal time of 60 minutes was
observed for the Activated Corn Cob (ACC) 99.7 %,
20 minutes for the Unmodified Corn Cob (UCC)
with removal efficiency of 100 %, and at 40
minutes for the Carbonized Corn Cob (CCC) with
the Removal Efficiency (%) of 99.27%. It was
observed that the prolonged mixing time does not
favor the removal efficiency of the adsorbents.
Fig. 4 shows the Adsorption Capacity (mg/g) of the
three adsorbents at different concentrations of Lead
ion solution. The adsorption capacity of the three
adsorbents were observed to increase with
concentration between 10 -40 ppm. However, the
optimal Adsorption Capacity (mg/g) for the three (3)
adsorbents was recorded at 50 ppm with the
Adsorption Capacity (mg/g) of 2.49mg/g for the
Unmodified Corn Cob (UCC), 2.48mg/g for the
Carbonized Corn Cob (CCC) and 1.99mg/g for the
Activated Corn Cob (ACC). It appears that the ACC
will function better at low concentration of the Lead
ion. The UCC and CCC appeared to have better
interfacial adhesion for the metal ion than the ACC at
higher concentration.
The effect of using different dosage of the adsorbents
on adsorption of the lead ion from solution was
shown in Figure 5. Generally the adsorption capacity
decreases as the adsorbent dosage increases in all the
three adsorbents. The result revealed optimal
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Adsorption Capacity (mg/g) of the three adsorbents
at a minimal amount of the adsorbents at 0.3g. The
adsorption capacity of 3.29mg/g was observed for
the Unmodified Corn Cob (UCC) and 3.33mg/g for
the Carbonized Corn Cob (CCC) and 3.27mg/g for
the Activated Corn Cob (ACC) at 0.3g adsorbent
dosage. This attest to the effectiveness of the bio
adsorbents to adsorb the metal ion at minimal
dosage. This will further reduce the amount of sludge
that will be produce after application.
Key: UCC - Unmodified Corn Cob, CCC -
Carbonized Corn Cob, ACC - Activated Corn Cob
Fig. 1: Effect of concentration of Lead ion on
removal efficiency ®%).
Fig. 2: Effect of adsorbent dosage on
removal efficiency (%).
Fig. 3: Effect of mixing time on
removal efficiency (%)
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Fig. 4: Effect of concentration of lead ion
onthe Adsorption Capacity (mg/g).
Fig. 5: Effect of adsorbent dosage (g) on
Adsorption Capacity (mg/g) in lead ion s
CONCLUSION
The potential of unmodified and modified corn cobs
as low cost adsorbents for removal of Lead ion from
waste water is hereby demonstrated. All the various
forms of the adsorbents as unmodified (UCC),
carbonized (CCC) and activated (ACC) showed
remarkable ability in adsorbing Lead from the
synthetic waste water. The activated showed
considerable removal efficiency at high and low
concentration of the metal ions, while the
unmodified and carbonized showed better
performance at low concentrations. The adsorption
capacity of the three adsorbents was time and
adsorption dosage dependent. Minimal adsorbent
dosage and short contact time seemed to favor the
performance of the three adsorbents.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

REFERENCES
Acharya, J., Kumar, U., Rafi, P.M. (2018). Removal of heavy metal ions from waste water by chemically
modified agricultural waste material as potential adsorbents. a review. Int. J. Curr. Eng. Technol. 8,
526-530
Afroze, S., Sen, T.K. (2018). A review on heavy metal ions and dye adsorption from water by agricultural solid
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AlaeiShahmizardi, M.A., Hosseini, S.S., Luo, J., Oritz, I. (2018). Significance, evolution and recent advances
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Ali, R.M., Hamad, H.A., Hussein, M.M., Malash, G.F. (2016). Potential of using green adsorbent of heavy
metal removal from aqueous solutions: adsorption kinetics, isotherm, thermodynamic, mechanism
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Dai, Y., Sun, Q., Wang, W. (2018). Utilizations of agricultural waste as adaorbent for the removal of
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Gupta, V.K., Nayak, A., Agarwal, S. (2015). Bioadsorbents for remediation of heavy metals: current status and
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Jin, W., Du, H., Zheng, S., Zhang, Y. (2016). Electrochemical processes for the environmental remediation of
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Kale, A.E., Mandake, M.B., Chitodkar, V.D. (2017). Removal of heavy metals using adsorption process. A
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Kanamarlapudi, S.L.R.K., Chintalpudi, V.D. (2017). Removal of heavy metals using adsorption process. A
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Marsidi, N., Abu Hasan, H., Shiekh Abdullah, S.R. (2018). A review of biological aerated filters for heavy
metal removal in water treatment. J. Water Process Eng. 23, 1-12.
Mohammed, M.A., Shitu, A., Tadda, M.A., and Ngabura, M. (2014). Utilization of various Agricultural waste
materials in the treatment of Industrial waste water containing Heavy metals: A Review. International
Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 3(3), pg 62-67.
Patil, D.S., Chavan, S.M., Oubagaranadin, J.U.K. (2016). A review of technologies for heavy metal ion
removal from wastewaters. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 4, 468-487.
Rashid, H., Yaqub, G. (2017). Bioadsorbents and filters for removal of heavy metals in different environmental
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Renu, M.A., Singh, K., Upadhyaya, S., Dohare, R.K., (2017). Removal of heavy metals from wastewater using
modified agricultural adsorbents. Mater. Today Proc. 4, 10534-10538.
Shafiq, M., Alazba, A.A., Amin, M.T. (2018). Removal of heavy metals from wastewater using date palm as a
biosorbent: a comparative review. Sains Malays. 47, 35-49.
Singh, N., Gupta, D.S.K. (2016). Adsorption of heavy metals: review. Int. J. Innov. Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 5, 41-
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Singh, N.B., Nagpal, G., Agarwal, S. (2018). Environmental technology & innovation water purification by
using adsorbents: a review. Environ. Technol. Innov. 11, 187-240.
Sulyman, M., Namiesnik, J., Gierak, A. (2017). Low cost adsorbents derived from agricultural by-
products/wastes for enhancing contaminant uptakes from wastewater: a review. Pol. J. Environ. Stud.
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Zhao, M., Xu, Y., Zhang, C. (2016). New trends in removing heavy metals from wastewater. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. 100, 6509-6518.

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SCREENING AND OPTIMIZATION OF ARABINOFURANOSIDASE

PRODUCING BACTERIA USING PALM KERNEL CAKE (PKC) AS
SUBSTRATE FOR SOLID STATE FERMENTATION.
Olajide, A.A*1., Afolayan, J.F3., Adesina, F.C2., Okorafor, J.C1., Ogunlesi, O.O1.,
Adetayo, T.O1., Egberongbe J.K1and Olatise, O.O1
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health and
1
Production Technology, Ibadan, Nigeria
2
Department of Microbiology, Lead City University, Ibadan, Nigeria
3
Department of Microbiology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

Corresponding author: abimbolaolajide2@gmail.com; 08034771063

ABSTRACT
The economic prospects of Arabinofuranosidase in food Industry, animal feeds and Bioremediation have been
reported over the years. This study investigated the industrial prospects of PKC as a major carbon source in the
solid state fermentation of Arabinofuranosidase from screened Bacterial Isolates.The substrates were sourced
from different Palm Oil Refineries in Ibadan. Four bacterial Isolates (Bacillus licheniformis; Streptomyces sp.
Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus sp.) were selected for Optimization based on their higher yield of
Arabinofuranosidase among the initial isolates at screening stage. The following production factors were
optimized (Moisture content, Temperature, pH., Inoculum Size, Speed of Agitation and Mineral salts. The
synthesized Arabinofuranosidase were subjected to enzyme assay procedure for quantification using P-
Nitrophenyl Arabinofuranosidase via a 420nm standardized UV-Vis spectrophotometry protocol. All the varied
production parameters affected the Arabinofuranosidase activity significantly (p<0.05). Comparatively, the
results also revealed that the optimum conditions for Arabinofuranosidase production are as follows:
Moisture content (1:1.25 v:v); temperature (450C); pH. (9.0); Inoculum size (10-2), 100rpm agitation speed and
Mineral salt (ZnSO4). The researchers recommended that given the four compared Isolates, the various factors
explored in this empirical study, the increasing order of overall Arabinofuranosidase Activity was Bacillus sp.<
Bacillus subtilis< Streptomyces sp<Bacillus licheniformis. B. licheniformis yielded the overall optimum
Arabinofuranosidase activity, hence, an Industrial scaled Arabinofuranosidase production within the range of
the optimized parameterswould yield Arabinofuranosidase with the highest enzyme activity and thermal
stability if selected for a large scale production of Arabinofuranosidase.

Key words: Optimization, Arabinofuranosidase, Enzyme, Palm Kernel Cake (PKC), Solid State
Fermentation.

INTRODUCTION residues depends on the enzymatic hydrolysis of the

Enzymes have been around for as far back as the
eighteenth century. From that period till now, over
5000 different enzymes have been recognized.
Research on enzyme catalyzed reactions, and
enzymes involved in cell metabolism are still
ongoing. At present, researchers are focusing more
on the application of enzymes, and since these
enzymes are highly specific, and commercially
valuable, they are very important in Agricultural
processes, industries, as well as in medicine (Bhatia,
2018). Enzymes are of utmost importance in the
sustainable use of resources for the production of
energy, fuels and other chemicals. This is because the
successful bioconversion of biomass obtained from
lignocellulosic substrates including agricultural
polysaccharides derived from the cell walls of
lignocellulosic substrates. As mentioned by Poria et
al. (2020), the presence of multiple components in
lignocellulosic biomasses often makes its complete
degradation difficult. Thus, emphasis is being placed
at present on enhancing biomass conversion through
the use of a battery of accessory enzymes that will
digest the hemicellulosic components of the cell wall
polysaccharides; thus releasing more components
and sugar yields that may be potentially converted to
biofuels or bio-chemicals. One such accessory
enzyme that has received considerable attention in
recent years is á-L-arabinofuranosidase. This
enzyme is an exo-acting catalyst that hydrolyse
terminal á-1,5-glycosidic linkages to

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arabinofuranosides in arabinan as well as á-1,2 and
á-1,3-linkages to arabinofuranosides in arabinan,
arabinoxylan and arabinogalactan (Matsuo et al.,
2000).
S y n e r g i s t i c a l l y, t h e y w o r k w i t h o t h e r
hemicellulolytic enzymes to remove L-arabinose
side chains that could restrict the activity of other
backbone-degrading enzymes. According to
Shallom et al. (2002), arabinofuranosidases are
capable of accelerating the hydrolysis of glycosidic
bonds by more than 1017folds; thus making them one
of the most efficient catalysts known. They can be
produced using both submerged and solid state
fermentation processes. Solid state fermentation
(SSF) is a technology that uses a solid substrate with
moisture level ranging from 1:1-1:10 for the
production of food acids and enzymes, improving of
animal feeds, and alteration of the functional
properties of potential food ingredients (Saw et al.,
2011). It is also utilized for the hydrolysis of cheap
agricultural residues for the production of protein
biomass, enzymes and other useful metabolites. It
has some advantages over submerged fermentation
including reduction in production cost, low waste
water output, improved product recovery etc. The
application of enzymes in industries requires
thermostability. Therefore, researchers are
constantly scouting for organisms that can produce
enzymes with thermostable properties. This study
therefore sought to evaluate the potential of four
bacterial isolates for the production and optimization
of thermostable á-L-arabinofuranosidase.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample Collection and Preparation
Palm kernel Cake (PKC) was purchased from four
different local Palm Oil refineries in Ibadan. The
samples were taken to the Microbiology laboratory,
Lead City University, Ibadan, and stored in the
refridgerator at 4oC. The substrate was prepared as
described by Khandeparkar and Bhosle (2006).
Enrichment and Isolation of Bacteria from PKC
Enrichment was carried out in Erlenmeyer flasks
containing modified basal salt medium (MBSM) and
0.5% w/v of carbon source (PKC) according to the
modified method of Bhosle, (1981). Isolation of
bacteria from PKC was done by carrying out serial
dilution, and using pour plate technique on
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
formulated Modified Basal Salt Medium according
to the method described by Khandeparkar and
Bhosle (2006).
Screening of Bacteria for arabinofuranosidase
production
Each isolate was grown in MBSM and 0.5% w/v of
PKC. The medium (20 mL) was added to several 100
mL Erlenmeyer flasks. The inoculated flasks were
incubated at room temperature (28 ± 2°C) for 3 days.
Each culture showing growth was then sub-cultured
thrice using the same medium and growth conditions
at the end of 3rd subculture; the growth medium was
centrifuged at 5000 RPM for 20 min. The
supernatant was collected and used for enzyme
estimation using the method described below.
Enzyme assay
The a-L-AFase activity in the supernatants was
estimated following the method described by Gilead
and Shoham (1995). The assay was based on the
hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl-a-L-arabinofuranoside
(p-NPAF) (Sigma). The reaction mixture contained
80 ìl of appropriately diluted enzyme sample, 80 ìl
of 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 8.0), and 40
ìl of p-NPAF (4 mg/mL) in the same buffer. Tubes
were incubated at 80°C for 10 min, and the reaction
was then terminated by the addition of ice-cold 1 M
Na2CO3. The yellow color produced by the release of
p-nitrophenol (pNP) was measured at 420 nm using
UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Canakci et al., 2008).
a-L-AFase unit: One international unit (U) of a-L-
AFase activity was defined as the amount of enzyme
which produces 1 ìmol of p-nitrophenol (pNP) per
min under the standard assay conditions described
above.
Optimization of Arabinofuranosidase production
in solid state fermentation
Optimization of arabinofuranosidase production,
took into consideration the effect of: Moisture,
o
Inoculum sizes, Incubation Temperature (25-55 C),
Agitation rate, pH of substrate (pH 5.0-9.0) and
various mineral salts. The moisture content of the
substrates were adjusted at different ratios between
the substrate and the basal medium used.
Effect of different moisture levels and different
moistening agent.
The effect of moisture level on the enzyme
production was determined by varying the ratio
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(w/v) of PKC to moistening agent at the ratio of
1:0.5, 1:1.0 and 1:1.25. The moistening agent used is
sterile distilled water. The effect of mineral salts
solution and tap water as moistening agents on a-L-
AFase production was also determined in
comparison to that of distilled water. The mineral
salts solution used were (g/l): FeSO4.7H2O;
MnSO4.4H2O; ZnSO4.7H2O, and CoCl2.6H2O.
Effect of Temperature
The effect of cultivation temperatures on enzyme
production was examined. The different incubation
temperature examined were 25, 35, 45 and 55ºC.
Incubation was carried out for 7 days.
Effect of inoculum size
The effect of inoculum size was determined by
adding bacterial suspension in dilutions 10-2, 10-5,
and 10-8 to the substrate. Dilutions were made from
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1: The Arabinofuranosidase activity of studied Bacterial Isolates using P-nitrophenyl
Arabinofuranoside.
Bacteria Isolate Mean ±standard
deviation
Bacillus 34.60±0.71 a
licheniformis
b
Streptomyces sp. 30.37±0.71
c
Bacillus subtilis 29.42±0.41
Bacillus sp. 28.72±1.47 d
Production parameters in Industrial mixtures may
affect the quality and application of enzymes in
terms of enzyme activity, thermal stability and even
market value of such enzyme (Ling and Heng, 2015).
Production of arabinofuranosidase enzyme on a
large scale can help in biodegradation and
bioconversion of the lignocellulosic waste materials
from Palm Oil refineries and its environment. A
precise understanding of the optimum parameters in
this study may also supply optimization data that can
be applied to safe production cost and time as well as
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
broth cultures of 48 hour old isolates using the
moistening agent for moisture control in the SSF
system. Cultivations were carried out at ambient
temperature (28±3ºC) for 7 days.
Effect of different pH levels.
The effect of different pH levels on the production of
a-L-Afase was done by adjusting the moisture
content of substrate with buffered basal medium of
varying pH (5.0, 7.0 and 9.0). 50mM Sodium
phosphate was used as buffer. Sterilization was done
o
at 121 C for 15 minutes before inoculating with 1mL
of the bacterial suspension. The setup was incubated
o
for 7 days at 30 C.
Effect of Agitation
The effect of agitation on the production of a-L-
Afase was done by varying the agitation rates at 50,
100, and 150rpm on a rotary shaker.
improvement or enhancement of the enzyme activity
of Arabinofuranosidase (Saw et al., 2011). Bacillus
licheniformis was one of the isolates identified in this
study (Table 1). A report by Nurcholis et al. (2016)
stated its high potential as a producer of the enzymes
arabinofuranosidase and protease. Another report by
Vijayalakshmi et al., (2013) showed a comparative
study in the enzyme production capacity between B.
subtilis and B. licheniformisand concluded that
B.subtilis' produced enzymes were more
thermostable.
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Figure 1: Effect of moisture content on arabinofuranosidase production

The optimum moisture content was identified by
Mohammed et al., (2013) as a key factor in
enzymatic metabolism of most bacterial species. The
moisture content was reported to be optimal for the
production of Arabinofuranosidase at ratio 1:1 (v/v).
This differs from the findings of this study (Figure
1). The disparity in the results may be due to the
higher moisture requirement reportedly common in
Solid state fermentation compared to submerged
fermentation (Mohammed et al., 2013).The
enzyme activity probably reduced drastically
because 55oC might be a dysfunction-threshold for
the enzyme to get denatured. This is similar to the
findings reported by Sudgen and Bhat (1994), where
it was reported that most solid state fermentation
yields the highest enzyme activity at a temperature
close to biomass production of the same microbial
producer. The thermal stability of Bacillus sp. was
notable in this study as it yielded the highest enzyme
o -2
activity between (25-55 C) (Figure 2). For the pH,
alkaline condition favouredBacillus sp. and Bacillus
licheniformis while the enzyme synthesis pathway
of B. subtilis and Streptomyces reached a threshold
and breakpoint above a neutral pH (Figure 3). In
enzymatic industrial production mixtures, alkaline
pH may be more productive if the main microbial
producer is selected between Bacillus sp. andB.
licheniformis. Degrassi et al. (2003) also reported a
neutral optimal pH for Bacillus sp. The insight to the
optimum pH in the two studies may be strain-
determined. As some strains may possess slightly
different hydrogen ion metabolic shifts (Mohammed
et al., 2013). Inoculum size had a reducing effect on
the arabinofuranosidase activity of the four
compared Isolates in this study (Figure 4). The
substrate concentration has an impact on the
fermentative pathway of most microorganisms. The
increased inoculums size may have had an effect that
favored the biomass yield (Battan et al., 2006). Early
depletion of Nutrient sources during the
fermentation process may be the probable reason for
the reduced enzyme activity after the 10 inoculum
size used to initiate the production.

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Figure 2: Effect of Temperature on
arabinofuranosidaase production
Figure 3: Effect of pH on
arabinofuranosidaase production
Figure 4: Effect of Inoculum size on
arabinofuranosidaase production
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Figure 5: Effect of Agitation rate on
arabinofuranosidaase production
Figure 6: Effect of mineral salts on
arabinofuranosidase production
The influence of agitation speed on enzyme
production may be traceable to enhanced
assimilation of nutrients due to more cellular uptake
and bioreactive condition that maintains the steady
state condition of the micro-bioreactor. (Ling and
Heng, 2015). This condition was 100rpm for the four
isolates tested except Bacillus licheniformis that
yielded optimal enzyme activity at 150rmp (Figure
5).
The significant effect of the varied mineral salts on
the enzyme activity may be due to the fact that
certain enzymes have specifically integrated trace-
metal- centers and a component of their cofactors
(Nurcholis et al., 2012). Depending on the affinity
for each cation included in the mineral or trace
element in salt form, the nutrient uptake and
expression of certain proteins may be enhanced at a
given range of concentration after which a further
increase may result in toxicity or excessive
pHDisruption. This may then affect the protein
synthesis of a given microorganism (Vijayalakshmi
et al., 2013). This study revealed that the
arabinofuranosidase produced from Bacillus sp. was
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

most favored in terms of enzyme activity when
FeSO4 was introduced to the medium while ZnSO4
may have inhibited the metabolic pathway of
Bacillus sp (Figure 6). A similar trend was noticed in
Bacillus licheniformis. This may mean that
ZnSO4was probably repressive to the cofactors and
other ions needed for expressing the genes
responsible for the synthesis of
Arabinofuranosidase.
Palm Kernel Cake (PKC) was a good carbon source
when used as a substrate insolid state fermentation
for arabinofuranosidase production for the four
screened isolates. The inference from this study is
that the optimum conditions as observed may be
applied in a large scale production of
arabinofuranosidase for Industrial applications
ranging from hemicellulolytic activities, animal feed
additives and bioconversion of other lignocellulosic
materials among others. The varied production
parameters can also be further studied to explore
other carbon sources and compare their enzyme
activities. Therefore, given the results of
optimization procedures reported in this study, a
combination or integration of these optimum
conditions for Arabinofuranosidase (Moisture
0
content (1:1.25 v:v); temperature (45 C); pH. (9.0);
-2
Inoculum size (10 ), 100rpm agitation speed and
Mineral salt (ZnSO4) may enhance
arabinofuranosidase production in order to explore
the economic prospects of arabinofuranosidase in
food Industry, animal feeds and Bioremediation.

References
Battan, B., Sharma, J and Kuhad, R.C. 2006 “High-level xylanase production by alkaliphilic Bacillus
pumilus ASH under solid-state fermentation,”World Journal ofMicrobiologyandBiotechnology
22(12): 1281–128
Bhatia, S. 2018. Introduction to Enzymes and their applications. www.iopscience.iop.org.
Degrassi, G., Vindigni, A and Venturi, V.A. 2003. Thermostable a-arabinofuranosidase from xylanolytic
Bacillus pumilus: purification andcharacterization. Journal of Biotechnology101: 69-79.
Gilead, S and Shoham, Y. 1995. Purification and characterization of a-L-arabinofuranosidase from Bacillus
stearothermophilus T-6.AppliedEnvironmental Microbiology61: 70-174.
Khandeparkar, R and Bhosle, N.B. 2006. Purification and characterization of thermoalkalophilic xylanase
isolated from the Enterobacter sp. MTCC 5112. Research in Microbiology 157 :315-325.
Ling, H.H and Heng, K.L. 2015. Xylanase Production by Bacillus subtilis in Cost-Effective Medium Using
Soybean Hull as Part of Medium Composition under Submerged Fermentation (SmF) and Solid
State Fermentation (SsF). Journal of Biodiversity, Bioprospecting andDevelopment 2: 143.
Matsuo, N., Kaneko, S., Kuno, A., Kobayashi, H., and Kusakabe, I. 2000.Purification, characterization and
gene cloning of two a-L-arabinofuranosidases from Streptomyces chartreusis GS901.Biochemical
Journal 346: 9–15.
Mohamed, I.A., Teck, C.L., Hooi, L.F.,Wei, H.L and Awis, Q.S. 2013. Characterization of Cellulolytic Bacterial
Cultures Grown in Different Substrates.The ScientificWorld Journal 1: 1-6
Nurcholis, M., Nurhayati, N., Helianti, I., Ulfah, M., Wahyuntari, B and Wardani A.K. (2012). Cloning of
á-Larabinofuranosidase genes and its expression in Escherichia coli: a comparative study of
recombinant arabinofuranosidase originating in Bacillus subtilis DB104 and newly isolated Bacillus
licheniformis CW1. Microbiology Indones.6:1–8.
Poria, V., Saini, J,K., Singh, Surender., Nain, L, and Kuhad, R.C. 2020. Arabinofuraanosidases:
Characteristics, microbial production and potential in waste valorization and industrial
applications. Bioresource Technology; 304, 123019.
Saw, H.Y., Phang, H.K and Janaun, J. 2011. Bulk properties of palm kernel cake for solid-state fermentation.
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering 1: 1-5
Shallom, D., Belakhov, V., Solomon, D., Gilead-Gropper S., Baasov, T., Shoham, G and Shohama, Y. 2002.The
identification of the acid-base catalyst of a-L arabinofuranosidase from Geobacillus
stearothermophilus T-6, a family 51 glycoside hydrolase.Federation of European Biochemical
Societies Letter 514: 163-167.
Sudgen, C and Bhat, M.K. 1994. Cereal straw and pure cellulose as carbon sources for growth and production of
plant cell-wall degrading enzymes by Sporotrichum thermophile. World journal of Microbiology and
Biotechnology 10(4): 444-451
Vijayalakshmi S., Lingam, R and Rajeswari, Devi. (2013). Enzyme production ability by Bacillus subtilis
and Bacillus licheniformis- A comparative study. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical
Research. 6. 29-32.

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HISTOPATHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN LIVER AND INTESTINE OF

NILE TILAPIA (Oreochromis niloticus ) FED ROASTED Cucumeropsis edulis
SEEDMEAL BASED DIETS

1 1 1 2 2
* OLAWEPO K.D,Banjo O.T, Ayodele O.P, FAWOLE W.O ANDIDOWU C.F
1
FisheriesTechnology Department, Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology
Moor Plantation, Apata, P.M.B 5029, Ibadan, Oyo-state.
2
National Biotechnology Department Agency, Bioresources Development Center, Ogbomoso, Oyo-state

* E-mail of corresponding author: kaskunle2002@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
This study investigates the histological changes of liver and intestine of Oreochromis niloticus fed diets
containing Cucumeropsis edulisas soybean replacer. Five isonitrogenous diets containing soybean meal which
was replaced by Cucumeropsis edulisat a rate of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% were made. The diets without
Cucumeropsis edulisseedmeal served as the control. The diets were isonitrogenous and isolipidic.
Experimental diets were assigned randomly to the tanks and each group of fish was fed 5% body weight in equal
proportion per day. The results of this study showed that there was marked disseminated steatosis, mild
congestion of vessel, sinusoid and periportal infiltration by inflammatory cells in the liver while there were
no lesions on the photomicrographs of the intestine of fish exposed to all the dietary treatments.The experiment
showed that it is technically feasible to replace soybean with Cucumeropsis edulisseedmeal in the diet of
Oreochromis niloticus without adverse effect on the histology of liver and intestine.

Key words; Histology, Oreochromis niloticus,Cucumeropsis edulis, intestine, and liver

INTRODUCTION responsible for the vacuolated hepatocytes; Mérida

Histopathology is the study of structural
manifestation of disease at the light-microscopic
level of tissue or parenchyma or organ architecture
(Crissman et al., 2004). Histology of fish species
organs such as the liver, gut and kidney is important
in the understanding of the pathological changes
related to endogenous and exogenous xenobiotics
which their source could be nutritional sources
(Gargiulo et al., 1998; Van Dyk et al., 2009; Van Dyk
et al., 2012; Saliu et al., 2017; Utete et al., 2019; ).
The use of histopathology as a parameter of
evaluating pathological changes related to
nutritional sources are many for instance Pereira et
al. (2002) fed cabbage meal to rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) and reported that the liver
histology revealed cabbage meal was not
et al. (2010) used juvenile sharpsnout sea bream
Diplodus puntazzo liver and gut histology to assess
sunflower meal; Bian et al. (2017) fed juvenile
turbot Scophthalmus maximus L. diets
cottonseedmeal based diets using histology as one of
the parameters of assessment; Ali et al. (2018)
investigated dietary biogen and sodium butyrate in
Nile tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus)using kidney
histology as one of the indices of assessment. Earlier
studies by other researchers using histology as one of
the indices of assessment of the effect of a practical
diet on fish are Jimoh et al. (2015a) for
Chrysophyllum albidum meal in Clarias gariepinus
diet; Jimoh et al. (2015b) for watermelon seedmeal
in Nile tilapia diets.

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Soybean meal is the most commonly used plant
protein source in fish feeds (El-Sayed, 1999;
Tangendjaja, 2015). It can replace up to 50% of the
fish feed (Fadel et al., 2017; Storebakken et al.,
2000). However, the use of soybean and their
products by human being for food and as feed for
other livestock restrict its sustainability as fishmeal
replacer (Fadel et al., 2017; Fagbenro et al., 2003).
This has also led to hike in price of soybean (Azaza et
al., 2009). There is need to look for cheaper plant
protein source which can replace soybean meal in
fish diets ( Yue and Zhou, 2008; Jimoh et al., 2019).
The world demand for additional protein supplies
has encouraged studies and exploitation of various
underutilized plant protein sources especially those
with limited relevance in human
nutrition.Cucumeropsis edulis belongs to the
Cucurbitaceae, family. C.edulis plants are widely
cultivated for their seeds, which have high content of
fat and protein. C.edulis seeds can be obtained either
in shelled or unshelled forms in West African
markets and are used greatly in West African
Cookery. Cucumeropsis edulis is a yearly,long
dinging by its gimlets rowers. C.edulis is a variety of
melon seeds, which is a creeping annual plant and an
intercropping plant made use of in traditional
farming practices thrives well on rich light soil in the
hot climatic regions of Africa.However, and it has
been noted to tolerate low rainfall (Cobley, 1957).
There is dearth of information that centre majorly on
histopathological observations of liver and intestine
tissues sequel to dietary supplementation of
Cucumeropsis edulis in Nile tilapia diet. This study
investigated the histopathological changes in the
liver and intestine of the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) fed diets containing roasted Cucumeropsis
edulis seedmeal.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sources and Processing of Ingredients
Cucumeropsis edulis were purchased from Bodija
market in Ibadan, Oyo State. .The seeds were
dehulled to obtain the inner edible cotyledon. C.
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
edulis were roasted in aluminium pot for 30 minutes
and then ground with a blender. The feed ingredients
used in the feed formulation which includes fish
meal,soybean meal,groundnut cake maize, fish
premixes and starch were purchased from
commercial feed mill, they were then separately
milled, screened to achieve 0.5mm particles sizes .
All the feed ingredients were analyzed for their
proximate composition (AOAC,2005).
Experimental Diets
Based on the nutrient composition of the protein
feedstuff (Table 2), five iso-nitrogenous diets
containing 35% crude protein at various replacement
levels of roastedC. edulis meal (RCESM) were
formulated. Diet 1( D1) without RCESM served as
control, Diet 2 (D2), D3, D4, and D5 had soybean
meal component progressively replaced by RCESM
at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively. The
feed ingredients were weighed, mixed, moistened
with hot water and processed into 2mm pellets in a
pelleting machine to produce the pellet strands
which were sun-driedand packed into a well labelled
polythene bags.
Experimental fish and system
The experiment was conducted at the nutrition unit
of the Department of Fisheries Technology, Federal
College of Animal Health and Production
Technology, Moor Plantation Ibadan. Oreochromis
niloticusfingerlings (n = 150; 2.41±0.01g average
weight) were obtained from a reputable fish farm in
Ibadan, Oyo state and transported live to the project
site in an aerated bag. The Oreochromis
niloticusfingerlings were acclimated for 7 days prior
to the feeding trial while being fed on a commercial
pelleted diet. fingerlings (n = 10) were allotted into
each of the fifteen 60-litre capacity rectangular tanks
containing 20 litres of water. Experimental diets
were assigned randomly to the tanks with three
replicates per treatment. Fish in each tank were fed
5% body weight per day in two equal proportions
between 9.00 –10.00am and 5.00 – 6.00 pm for 56
days.
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TABLE 1:Proximate composition of the protein feed ingredient

PARAMETERS Fishmeal Soybean meal Groundnut cake RCESM Maize

Crude protein 72.4 38.74 45.0 31.30 9.87

Crude lipid 10.45 16.68 6.0 25.80 4.28

Crude fibre - 5.10 5.0 2.35 5.78

Moisture 9.75 10.70 9.6 1.00 10.48

Ash 8.32 4.48 4.5 4.79 6.73

RCESM- Roasted Cucumeropsis edulis

Table 2: Gross composition (g/100g dry matter) of diets containing roasted C. edulis seed meal

fed to Oreochromis niloticus

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5

Fishmeal 72% 20.83 20.83 20.83 20.83 20.83

GNC 45% 5.55 5.55 5.55 5.58 5.55

SBM 44% 37.50 28.13 18.75 9.39 -

*RCESM 39% - 10.59 21.15 31.74 42.31

Maize 10% 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00

**Fish Premix 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

Starch 21.12 19.90 18.72 17.49 16.31

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

* Roasted Cucumeropsis edulis seed meal **Vitamin/ mineral premix supplied kg-diet

Vit A:20.000u; Vit D3:4,000iu, Vit E:200,000iu:, Vit K:1,200 mg Vit B:10,000mg: Vit

B2:30,000mg:Vit BH6:19,000mg: vit B12:1,000 mg nNiacin;200,000mg: Folic Acid:5,000mg,

panthothenic Acid;50,000 Biotin;400mg;Antioxidant 125g; vit C;150g;choline chloride 40g

manganese; 30g; zinc; 40g; iron; 40g; copper; 4g; iodine 5g selenium: 0.2mg

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Histological examination of test organ
At the end of the experiment, three fish per treatment
were sampled for histological analysis. The test
organisms were anaesthe-tized using 100 mgl-1
clove oil and were cut open to excise the kidney and
liver. The organs were fixed in 10% formalin for
three days after which the tissue was dehydrated in
graded levels of 50%, 70%, 90% and 100% alcohol
for 3 days, to allow paraf-fin wax to penetrate the
tissue during embedding. The tissues were then
embedded in malted wax and sectioned into thin
sections (5-7? m), by means of a rotatory microtome
and each section was cleared by placing it in warm
water (38oC), where it was picked with clean slide
and oven-dried at 58oC for 30 minutes to melt the
wax. The slide containing sectioned tissue was
cleared using xylene and graded levels of 50%, 70%,
90%, 95% and 100% alcohol for two minutes each
and stained with Harris hematoxylin-eosin (H&E)
stain following the methods of (Bancroft and Cook,
1994). The stained slides were observed under a light
microscope at varying X400 magnification, sections
were examined and photographed using an Olympus
BH2 microscope fitted with photographic
attachment (Olympus C35 AD4), a camera
(Olympus C40 AB-US) and an automatic light
exposure unit (Olympus PM CS5P). The
interpretation of the micrographs was done at
Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Histological Changes in the liver of Oreochromis niliticusfed diets containing roasted
Cucumeropsis edulisseed meal
A B
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the proximate composition of the
protein feed ingredients used in formulating the
experimental diets. RoastedCucumeropsis edulis
seed meal contains crude protein (31.3%), crude fat
(25.8%), crude fibre (2.35), moisture (1.0%) and ash
(4.79%) respectively. Table 2 shows the gross
composition of experimental diets containing
roasted Cucumeropsis edulis fed to Oreochromis
niloticus.The histology of the liver and intestine of
fish fed the diets containing Cucumeropsis edulis
replacing soybean meal seemed not to be altered
.Similar results was reported by Pereira et al. (2002)
in rainbow trout fed diets with a partial substitution
of Brassica by- product likewise, Although the result
of the study showed that there was sinusoidal
reduction in fish fed the Cucumeropsis edulis meal
diets (D1 – D4) and a more uniform appearance in
the hepatocyte distribution. They also showed an
increase in glycogen deposition in livers of
Oreochromis niloticus fed the Cucumeropsis edulis
meal diets. Similar results were reported by Russell
et al (2001) in European Sea bass (Dicentrarchus
labraxL.) fed experimental diets with a varying
starch source (pea and cornstarch).
Histopathological changes in the intestine may vary
depending on the species and feed used in the
experiments. Result from the study showed there
was no significant ( p> 0.05) lesion in Diets
(D1,D2,D3,D4 and D5).
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

C
D

Figure 1: Photomicrograph of liver of Oreochromis niloticus fed roasted(Cucumeropsis edulis) seed mealDiet
D1 (A) - shows disseminated steatosis (green arrows) , mild congestion of vessel and sinusoid (blue arrows).
D2 (B) - shows disseminated steatosis (green arrows), mild congestion of vessel and sinusoid (blue arrow), D3
(C)- shows disseminated steatosis (green arrows) and congestion of vessel and sinusoid (blue arrows), D4 (D)-
shows disseminated steatosis (green arrows), mild congestion of vessel and sinusoid (blue arrows, focal area of
haemorrhagic lesion (slender arrows) and periportal infiltration by inflammatory cells (black
arrow).Magnification x400

Histological Changes in the liver of Oreochromis niliticus fed diets containing roasted Cucumeropsis

edulis seed meal

Figure 2: Photomicrograph of liver of Oreochromis niloticus fed roasted(Cucumeropsis edulis) seed meal
Diet D5 (E)- shows congestion of vessels (blue arrow) and micro vesicular steatosis (green
arrows).Magnification x400

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Histological Changes in the intestine of Oreochromis niliticus fed diets containing roasted
Cucumeropsis edulis seed meal

F G

H I

Figure 3: Photomicrograph of intestine of Oreochromis niloticus fed roasted(Cucumeropsis

edulis) seed meal Diet D1(F) (Control) show no significant lesion, D2 (G) - shows focal area of
lymphoid nodule (green arrow). D3 (H)- shows no significant lesion, D4 (I) - shows no
significant lesion Magnification x400

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CONCLUSION marked disseminated steatosis, mild congestion of

The experiment have demonstrated that liver
histology is inevitable in nutrition studies (Poleksiæ
et al., 2007). Similarly, the study have shown that
hepatocytes nuclear area measurement can be a
useful parameter in this type of investigation. A size
of a nucleus reveals changes in liver metabolism,
such as picnosis, kariolysis of the nucleus or necrosis
of the cell. Histological changes in the liver are easily
recognized if the food used is not adequate (Tacon,
1992). The most common changes observed in the
liver are: hepatocytes vacuolization, fatty
degeneration of the liver, changes in metabolic
activity, changes in liver parenchyma and necrosis
(Takashima and Hibiya, 1982; Roberts, 1989;
Poleksiæ et al., 1995). If food containing protein or
fat is used, this can lead to histopathological changes
in the liver (Caballero et al., 2004).There was
vessel, sinusoid and periportal infiltration by
inflammatory cells in the liver while there were no
lesions on the photomicrographs of the intestine of
fish exposed to all the dietary treatments. The
experiment showed that it is technically feasible to
replace soybean with Cucumeropsis edulis seedmeal
in the diet of Oreochromis niloticus without adverse
effect on the histology of liver and intestine.Histo-
pathological study has been used to diagnose
diseases of aquatic organisms throughout the world.
The liver and intestine are the most important organs
in digestion and absorption of nutrients from food,
and therefore monitoring of these organs is
considered necessary in order to assess the effects of
nutrient mixtures that use raw materials of plant
origin.

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utilization, and hematological indexes for juvenile hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus× O. aureus.
Aquaculture, 284(1-4): 185-189.

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PREREQUISITES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE

FLUXGATE MAGNETOMETER
Oloruntola R.F*Ogunlesi, O.O and Shittu S.M.A.
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health
and Production Technology, P.M.B 5029, Moor Plantation, Ibadan.

*Corresponding author:oloruntolafoluke16@gmail.com

Abstract
This study wrote comprehensively on the design, construction and performance of the fluxgate
magnetometer. Magnetometer measurements were further classified as scalar magnetometer that
measures only the total magnetic strength and Vector magnetometer that measures magnetic field in
particular direction, fluxgate magnetometer falls into this class. The study showed that the major
component of the fluxgate magnetometer are the sensor, the circuit and the housing. It also showed
that the type of fluxgate magnetometer core to be rod core, ring core, racetrack and ferrite core. the
comparison of their performance were compared in terms of noise, resolution, stability, ease of
manufacture, power need feed through and permimg.it was discovered that the choice of core depend
on the application of the magnetometer it was therefore concluded and recommended that the use of
the magnetometer be considered before embarking on the construction for best choice of core.

Keywords:Magnetometer: Fluxgate: Sensors: Core: Magnetic field

Introduction Magnetic field measurements are crucial in the study

The magnetometer is a scientific equipment that
measures the strength and direction of magnetic
fields on and near the Earth, as well as in space.
(James et al.,2021) The magnetometer has a wide
range of applications, including locating
submarines, detecting unexploded ordnance,
locating toxic waste drums, heart rate monitoring,
anti-locking brake sensor, weather prediction (via
solar cycle), positioning weapon system, steel
python depth, drill guardian system, locating hazard
for tunnel boring machines archeology, Tectonic,
location of a wide range of mineral and geological
structures, hazards in coal mining, and radio wave
prop. It can also be used in spacecraft, fixed-wing
airplanes, helicopters (stinger and bird), on the
ground (back pack), and towed behind a boat (tow
fish). Satellites such as Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellites(GOES) can utilize
magnetometers to measure the amplitude and
direction of a planet's and moon's magnetic field.
(Huan et al., 2020)
of geological phenomena such as fluctuations in the
earth's geomagnetism, equatorial electrojet
observation, and aurora electrojet observation, as
magnetometers can detect prospective aurora
activity before aurora lighting. (John et al., 2011;
James et al., 2021 ) The effect of solar wind on the
Earth's magnetic field is continuously monitored by
a global network of magnetometers. A
magnetometer could be used to find shipwrecks and
other buried or submerged objects at archeological
sites.
The magnetic influence of an electric current and
magnetic substance is described mathematically as a
magnetic field (Connerney et al., 2015). The size and
direction of the magnetic field at any given position
are described, and it is generally characterized in
terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on a moving
electric field. It can be named after two closely
related but distinct fields: the magnetic B field and
the magnetic H field. Moving electric charges and

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the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary
particles associated with fundamental quantum
characteristics form the magnetic field. Magnetic
fields have several applications in both ancient and
modern life (Chikazumi. 1984; magnetism 1996 and
Yoav etal., 2020). The Earth's magnetic field, which
is vital in navigation, is created by rotating magnetic
fields.(Connerney et al., 2015)
There are two basic types of magnetometer
measurement (i) vector and (ii) Total field
magnetometer or scalar magnetometer. A vector
magnetometer has the capability to measure the
component of the magnetic field in a particular
direction relative to the spatial orientation of the
device. An example of such a device is the
variometer used in magnetic observatories for
monitoring the ionosphere. Vector magnetometers
are of various types. They are (a) SQUIDs
(Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices)
that measure extremely small magnetic fields; they
are very sensitive vector magnetometers with a low
noise level. This makes the device ideal for time
domain bio-magnetic signal measurement. SQUIDs
require cooling with liquid helium to operate. Hence,
the packaging requirements to use them are rather
stringent both from a thermal (mechanical) and
magnetic standpoint. SQUIDs are commonly used to
measure the magnetic field produced by brain or
earth activity. Encephalography and magneto-
cardiograph, respectively. Geographic surveyors
also use magnetometers from time to time.
(b)Spin-Exchange Relaxation–Free (SERF) atomic
magnetometer. SERF magnetometer contains
potassium, ceasium or rubidium vapour. Its
operation is similar to that of a ceasium
magnetometer. SERF magnetometer only operates
in a small magnetic field.
(c) Search-Coil magnetometer that employs
Faraday's law of induction phenomenon as its mode
of operation. It comprises of a copper coil wrapped
around the magnetic core. The polarization of the
center by the delivered magnetic field line from
inside the loop causes changes in the field lines,
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
thereby leading to the evolution of the electric flow.
This progression as a result of changing voltage is
estimated and recorded by the magnetic field.
(d) The fluxgate magnetometer, also known as the
saturation magnetic circuit, consists of a
magnetically susceptible core that is wrapped by two
coils of wire. The application of the alternating
current (AC) to one of the coils generates a magnetic
field. This alternating current thereby creates an
induced current in the other coil. As a result, both an
alternating magnetic field and an induced output
current are created.
Total field magnetometer or scalar magnetometer
this type of measurement measures the magnitude of
the vector magnetic field but not its direction by
exploring the atomic and nuclear properties of the
material.These include a proton procession
magnetometer, an overhauser magnetometer, and a
variety of alkaline vapour instruments such as
cesium, helium, and potassium (Edelstein 2007).
When operated under the right conditions, these
instruments have extremely high resolution and
accuracy and are relatively insensitive to orientation.
(Steven, 2002).
Proton procession magnetometer (PPMs) also
known as proton magnetometer, measures the
resonance frequency of protons (hydrogen nuclei) in
the magnetic field due to nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) (Water and Francis 1958). This is because
the precision frequency depends only on atomic
constants and the strength of the ambient magnetic
field, it has very good accuracy. The principle of
operation is that the protons in all atoms are spinning
on an axis aligned with the magnetic field (Steven
2000)
The Overhauser magnetometer measures the same
fundamental effect as the proton precession
magnetometer. By adding free radicals to the
measurement fluid, the overhauser effect can be
exploited to significantly improve upon the proton
precession magnetometer.
The fluxgate magnetometers (Fluxgate magnetic
sensors) is of great interest because they are
particularly important for the detection of weak
magnetic fields. The mechanism of operation of the
ISSN: 2811-1842
fluxgate magnetic sensor basically depends on
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The
structure of a fluxgate magnetic sensor is simple and
mainly consists of excitation windings, core, and
sensing windings, which is similar to that of a
transformer. They have wide application in many
fields, such as geophysics and astro-observations,
wearable electronic devices, and non-destructive
testing. Since sensors are important devices for
detecting, collecting, and transmitting various kinds
of information from the environment. Moreover,
they are the earliest forms of artificial intelligence
and they play a vital role in many fields of industry
and daily life. Among them, magnetic sensors detect
magnetic fields and currents and are widely used in
astro-observation, geophysics observation, non-
destructive testing, and wearable intelligent devices,
etc. Dentith and Mudge 2014; Ziadi et al. 2017; Wei
et al. 2021) until date, many types of magnetic
sensors based on different mechanisms have been
developed. Magnetic sensors based on the fluxgate,
Hall, and magnetoresistance effects have received
the most attention Dentith, and Mudge2014. The
progress of fluxgate magnetic sensors regarding
both basic research and applications has been
discussed. (Ripka 2001; Pavel and Michal 2010 and
Szewczyk et al., 2020)Compared with other
magnetic sensors, fluxgate magnetic sensors have
advantages such as high sensitivity, high accuracy,
high resolution, simple and compact structures, and
low noise(Dentith and Mudge2014; Szewczyk et al.,
2020.) What's more, they can be used in different
kinds of environments, even hostile environments,
and they have important applications in weak
magnetic field measurement. Therefore, this
research aims at providing the prerequisites for the
construction of the Fluxgate Magnetometer with the
objective of providing comprehensive theoretical
frame work and guide lines for the construction of
fluxgate magnetometer as a means of contributing to
the existing knowledge.
Parts of magnetometer
(i) The sensor: it produces a signal that is
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field
around it. One type of magnetometer uses a device
called a fluxgate sensor, as shown in fig. 1. The
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
fluxgate consists of a magnetic core which is
periodically hard saturated by a first coil while the
second senses the resulting electromagnetic field.
The fluxgate sensor is a little tedious to construct,
and the sensing circuitry rather requires an
oscilloscope for proper adjustment. Fortunately, a
ready-made fluxgate sensor (Fig. 1) that is incredibly
easy to use is made by Speaker and Co in the UK and
distributed by Fat Quarter Software in the USA. The
sensor is small (62mm x 16mm) and has four
100mil-spaced pins at one end. It can operate over
the range of 50 T with a resolution on the order of
about 10 nT. This makes it extremely sensitive to
very small field anomalies. The pin out includes a
feedback connection which is useful for making
linear corrections to the device. Therefore, in this
design, the fluxgate sensor is truly a three-terminal
device, 5 volts Supply, ground, and output.
The output of the sensor is an easy-to-use 5 volt
waveform whose frequency varies with the strength
of the surrounding magnetic field, generally from 50
KHz to 120 KHz.
Fluxgate sensors are highly directional, meaning that
they respond differently as they are rotated in free
space. This poses a problem because directional
variations with respect to the earth's magnetic field
can easily swamp out any small anomalies. One
possible solution is to use two fluxgate sensors that
are aligned in the same direction. They will both see
the same magnetic field regardless of orientation as
long as they remain aligned to each other. However,
if there is a presence of a local anomaly, it will only
have a great effect on the closer sensor.
The output of the Fluxgate magnetometer (FGM)
sensor is a pulse trained in the 100 KHz range. Using
two sensors will enable the mixing of two pulse
waveforms to obtain a low frequency difference
signal and the production of an audible indication of
target.
Fig1. Ready-made FGM-3+nsensor made by
speaker & co reeve observatory Alaska USA
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The circuit: This accepts the output signal from the
two fluxgate sensors and performs the digital
missing. The output of the chips is an 8-bit parallel
word which corresponds to the mix frequency. A zero
output implies that the sensors are seen in the same
field. A full scale output signifies a large difference.
The SCL007 circuit constructed by the speaker and
co. also has a sign bit which indicates which of the
two sensors is detecting an increase in the magnetic
field, making the total output a true offset of binary
Fig 2. FMX-1 Schematic diagram of digital mixer((Moreland 2002)
The analog device A557DAC converts the 8-bit
word to an analog voltage with a range of 0–2.5 volts.
This voltage is then used to drive a
voltage–controlled oscillator (VCO), which
produces an audible tone that drives a speaker.
iii) The Housingthe length of the PVC will
determine sensitivity (up to a point), and 5–6 feet is a
very practical length. It is very important to maintain
rigidity for the main circuit box. An almost perfectly
sized plastic case from Radio Shack may be used.
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
words. To make immediate use of the 8-bit digital
output, we must use a digital–analog converter
(DAC) to produce an analog signal, then use this
voltage to produce an audible and visual signal. It
also provides a power-up calibration of the two
sensors, which improves sensitivity and makes the
sensor easier to use. The DAC can also directly drive
a voltmeter, and the 8-bit parallel output is useful for
data logging to a computer. Figure 2 shows the
schematic for the final design.
The use of any ferrous material in the construction of
the magnetometer must be avoided, and the main
tube should not be metal of any kind, as eddy current
will be generated and seriously degrade
performance.
Materials for Construction
The full list of the component needed for the
construction is given below
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Methods of construction
With the aid of two aluminum sheet metal screw
fasten the box securely to the center of the tube. Drill
Resistor (1/4W5%) a ½'' hole through the center bottom of the circuit box
and into the PVC tube. Then, for each sensor,cut a
R1,R2 4.7 ?
three- wire cable and t peel off 3 leads of a ribbon
R3 100 ? cable. The cable should be about 12'' longer than the
half of the tube length. Thread the cable from the
R4,R5, R7 -R9 10K? circuit box out to each end of the tube and
temporarily tape them in place. With the 3-lead
R11* 3 K? cables pulled into the circuit box, finish the hook-ups
to the board including the volume pot /switch,
R12* 75 K?
threshold pot, speaker, battery clips and sensor leads.
R6 5K? Linear Taper Trim off the excess sensor leads, but let it be long
enough to project at least 8-10'' from the tube. Put a
R10 1K? Linear Taper mark on the sensor end which wire is supply, ground
and signal. Mount everything according to your
Capacitors preference.
The final step and the most difficult the whole project
CI,C2 15 pF ceramic disc
that required extra careinthe installation the sensor.
C3,C6,C10,C11 0.1 µF monolithic The sensor should be install in a way that they can be
mechanically aligned. Sensor alignment is the
C4 2.2 µF 10v tantalum process of adjusting one of the sensor until it

C5 0.47µF monolithic perfectly on axis with the other sensor. The fixed
sensor should have snug and secure fit with the
C7-8* 0.1 µF monolithic connection pointing inward towards the control box.

C7** 10 µF 16v electrolytic

C8** 100 µF16v electrolytic

C9,C12 100 µF25v electr olytic

C13 47 µF10v tantalum

C14,C15 47 µF10v tantalum

Inductors

L1,L2 56µH

Semiconductors

Fig.3 Assembly box (Moreland 2002)

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The adjustable module should be installed so that
both the lead connections and the adjustment screws
are towards the outside end of the tube. The sensor
wiring folds back through the module between the
screws and through the slot in the pivot end. Slide
both modules into the tube, making sure the
adjustable module protrudes just enough to access
the screws. One advantage of the sensor modules is
that they can be easily switched between tubes of
different lengths. Both modules should have a fairly
tight fit in the tube so they do not slide easily. If there
is looseness, apply some non-permanent adhesive
before sliding the modules into the tube. It is now
ready for power-up and testing
Adjustment and calibration
At this point, the magnetometer is ready for use, but
for best performance easy mechanical adjustment
needed. Recall that a single sensor is sensitive to its
orientation within the magnetic field. For the two-
sensor arrangement, the mixed-frequency output is
sensitive to their misalignment with each other. If
they are perfectly aligned, then each sensor will
detect the exact same magnetic field (in the absence
of a target) and the gradient will be zero even if the
whole tube is rotated. If they are not aligned, then one
sensor could detect a slightly different field, and this
will change with the movement and orientation of
the tube. All calibration and alignment procedures
should be done well away from undesirable
magnetic fields, including iron targets and electrical
(AC) lines. Before we can align the sensors, we first
need to allow the SCL007 to perform a sensor
calibration.
According to literature, the calibration is done
during the first 10 seconds or so after power-up,
during which time it expects the sensor to see a
minimum and maximum earth field. The described
method is to hold the tube in a north-south
orientation, pointing the north end upwards at the
angle of the field's inclination, about 67o to the
horizontal in the UK, a little less in the US, and 0o at
the equator. Switch on the power and slowly rotate
the tube, head over heels, through 360 during the first
10 seconds. That's all there is to it; this procedure
should be done every time the mag is turned on for
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
use. To align the sensors, turn on the unit and go
through the sensor calibration described above.
Place the tube in an east-west orientation (and level)
in a way that you can rotate or roll the tube. I built a
simple wooden "U" stand with "V" notches cut in at
the uprights. With the tube in the starting position,
listen to the output frequency. If there is no output
sound or the frequency is less than 10Hz, you may
need to go ahead and adjust the VOC to get an
appropriate frequency.
Now slowly rotate the tube by about 180° and listen
for a frequency change. If there is one, it indicates
that the sensors are misaligned. I found out that an
effective method is to rotate the tube to find the
highest frequency; with the tube held at this position,
adjust the sensor to reduce the frequency. Continue
this until you can rotate the tube with little or no
frequency change. If there is one, it indicates that the
sensors are misaligned.
Usage
The magnetometer can be carried in one of two
ways: horizontal or vertical. Vertical orientation
seems to be more sensitive, while horizontal can
allow you to cover more ground by making a wider
swath. In the vertical position, the sensor with the
wires coming out towards the end cap (the adjustable
module) is more sensitive and should be the one
nearest the ground. When using the magnetometer in
the horizontal position, remember that the target
signal could be coming from either of the two
sensors. You will either have to determine this by
moving the magnetometer around, or you can use the
sign bit from the SCL007 to drive an LED to
distinguish the sensors. With a little practice, you
should be proficient in no time. The fluxgate
magnetometer is extremely easy to use and will
make a nice and inexpensive addition to your
treasure hunting arsenal.
Results and discussions
Fluxgate magnetometer operation in general
All fluxgates use a highly permeable core, which
serves to concentrate the magnetic field to be
measured. The core is magnetically saturated
alternatively in opposing directions along any
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

suitable axis, normally by means of an excitation coil
driven by a sine or square waveform. Prior to
saturation, the ambient field is channeled through the
core, producing a high flux due to its high
permeability. At the point of saturation, the core
permeability falls away to that of vacuum, causing
the flux to collapse. During the next half cycle of the
excitation waveform, the core recovers from
saturation, and the flux due to the ambient field is
once again at a high level until the core saturates in
the opposite direction. The cycle then repeats.
Despite the magnetization reversals due to the
excitation, the flux from the ambient field operates in
the same direction throughout. A sense coil placed
around the core will pick up these flux changes, the
sign of the induced voltage indicating flux collapse
or recovery. The name fluxgate clearly derives from
the action of the core gating flux in and out of the
sense coil. This process is shown in figure 4.1 as
ideal waveforms, and it can clearly be seen that the
sense voltage is twice the frequency of the
excitation. For this reason, many demodulation
schemes employ 2nd harmonic detection. In practice,
for a single rod shaped core, the sense coil will pick
up the excitation drive as well as the signal voltage,
which due to its high level can prove troublesome to
remove electronically.
A common solution to this is to use two parallel cores
with the excitation phase reversal from one to the
other. The sense coil picks up the signal, but the
induced excitation voltage is cancelled by the phase
reversal, producing waveforms similar to those in
figure 4.1. As described, the voltage of the flux
change peaks is from Faraday's law proportional to
the magnetic field; a simple sensor can be used in this
way. However, a superior design will employ a coil
(the sense coil often doubles up for this task) to
feedback a magnetic field in opposition to the sensed
field such that the two fields cancel one another. In
this mode of operation, where the fluxgate is used as
a null detector, the current in the feedback coil is
proportional to the sensed field. The technique
improves linearity of measurement, allows a much
greater dynamic range to be achieved, and is used by
the majority of modern devices.
At this juncture, it is worthy to note that the core of
the fluxgate magnetometer is of various designs such
as ring core, rod core, induction coil, race track, and
ferrite ring. The performance of the fluxgate
magnetometer depends on the type of core. Table 1.
shows the comparison between the performance of
the various types of the fluxgate magnetometer.

Table 1 comparison between various types of fluxgate magnetometer cores

Rod Core Ring Core Racetrack Ferrite Ring

(Commercial
Noise/resolution 46pT rms 15pT rms ~15pT rms ~10, 000pT
Stability *** **
Linearity 10ppm 10ppm 10ppm
Ease of *** ** * ***
manufacture
Power Needs High Low Moderate
Feed through *** ** * ***
Cross field *** * *** *
Perming * *** **

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ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Similar size cores are compared for noise since it magnetometer seem to be the ideal but it has
reduces as the size increases, and the core limited publish data to substantiate the theory.
material is amorphous metal with the exemption
of the ferrite ring. It is however still difficult to
compare sensor types because of variations in
electronics employed. Stability of rod cores is Conclusions
prefer and regarded as superior to ring core by
The research write comprehensively on the
the geomagnetic community since it is there
prerequisite for the construction of fluxgate
regular tools for determination of magnetic
magnetometer it was concluded that base on
field. However the choice of core depend on the
stability which is arguable, ease of manufacture,
application of the magnetometer. For example
feed through and cross field rod core is of
modern space mission use ring core despite its
excellence but the ring core fluxgate
low power rating. When compared with an
magnetometer is of high performance compare
advance ring core, or racetrack, a well
with the similar core size cores of its kind. It is
performing rod core fluxgate or a commercial
therefore recommended that the use of the
ferrite rod is easy to construct even though, the
magnetometer be considered before embarking
later may have poorer performance.
on the construction for best choice of core.
Theoretically, race track core fluxgate

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PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF

Cucurbitapepo (PUMPKIN SEED and SEED OIL)
1
SALAMI, O. O., 2ALUKO, O. I., *1OKORAFOR J. C. AND 1ODUSOLA, K. B.
1
Federal College of Animal Health &Production Technology, Science Laboratory Technology,
Microbiology Unit,
Chemistry/Biochemistry Unit and 2Veterinary Laboratory Technology,
P.M.B. 5029 Moor Plantation, Apata, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
*
Corresponding author- e-mail: jaychizy@gmail.com; Tel:08037325161

Abstract
Cucurbita is one of the underutilized crops and its existence in Nigeria is presently threatened due to neglect.
The pumpkin is a rich source of nutrients and has medicinal properties.However, owing to the perception that it
is a traditional food and majority of the Nigerian populace being unaware of its high nutritional value it still
remains unexploited. The objective of this work was to evaluate the phytochemical quality and proximate
composition of pumpkin seed and its oil. The phytochemical analysis and proximate composition of pumpkin
seed and oil extracted with petroleum ether from fluted pumpkin seed were determined. The Phytochemical
tests carried out were: Alkaloid (0.578%), Saponin (0.694%), Tannin (0.013%), Phenol (0.037%), Flavonoid
(0.004%) and Glycoside (0.092%) while the proximate carried out on both the seed and oil were Ash (5.0 ±0.12
and 5.0±0.32), Dry matter (85.0±0.19 and 12.0±0.24), Moisture (5.0±2.45 and 5.0±0.20), Crude protein
(21.0±2.06 and 19.0±2.90),Carbohydrate (25.0±0.51 and 24.0±0.42), Crude fiber (2.4±0.73 and 9.0±0.54).
The seeds were well endowed in crude protein, carbohydrates and crude fibre. The result showed that the
pumpkin seeds if properly vitalized can serve as good source of mineral and health benefit.

Keywords: Phytochemical, Pumpkin seed, seed oil and proximate composition

Introduction fruit indicated that they could be good sources of

Pumpkins, like other squash, are thought to have nutrients for both human and livestock (Elemo et al.,
originated in North American. The oldest evidence, 2002). Seeds are good sources of protein, fats,
pumpkin-related seeds dating between 7000 and carbohydrate and mineral (Bello et al., 2008).
5500 BC, were found in Mexico. Since some squash Pumpkin seeds are consumed directly as snack food
share the same botanical classification as pumpkins, in many cultures throughout the world (Dietmar,
the names are frequently used interchangeably. One 2005). Pumpkin fruit are variable in size, color,
often used botanical classification relies on the shape and weight; they have a moderately hard flesh
characteristics of the stems. Pumpkin stems are more with a thick reliable flesh below and a central cavity
rigid, prickly and angular (with an approximate five- containing the seeds. The seeds are covered with a
degree angle) than squash stems, which are generally testa which protects it. (Dietmar, 2005).
softer, more round and more flared where joined to
the fruit (Glew et al., 2006). Cucurbita pepo, from
the family Cucurbitaceae, is a medium sized plant
grown for its fruit and edible seeds, is known to be
used as food and in herbal formulation in Nigeria
(Magnus, 1992). The ways of expanding the use of
available local food sources are increasingly
pursued, some of these local food sources contain Fig 1: Whole fruit Fig 2: Moist seed Fig 3: Dry seed
seeds. Many reports on some lesser known seeds and

137
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Pumpkin seeds have a malleable, chewy texture and
a subtly sweet, nifty flavor; while roasted pumpkin
seeds probably best known for their role as a
perennial seed are so delicious and nutritious, that
they can be enjoyed through the year (Lazos, 1986).
In many food markets seedsare available in all of the
forms, raw and shelled, raw and unshelled. (Magnus,
1992).Therefore, the main objective of this study is
to investigate and evaluate the pumpkin seed and
seed oil for its proximate composition and
phytochemical analysis.
Materials and Method
Sample collection
The seed was bought from the grain house at Federal
College of Animal Health and Production
Technology, Moor Plantation, Ibadan and the
experiment were carried out at S.M.O Laboratory,
Ibadan.
Method of Extraction
The seeds were cleaned with water to avoid surface
contamination. The flesh of the seeds was re-
separated using plastic spoon after dividing each
seed into two. The method of extraction used was hot
extraction. The Pumpkin seed was oven - dried at
0 0
50 C- 60 C for about 4hours and then ground with
blender and stored in an air tight plastic container for
analysis. Then, 2g of the ground seed was wrapped
with filter paper. It was put in a thimble (Soxhlet
extractor). Petroleum ether was then added into the
Soxhlet and left for eight hours for the oil to be
extracted.
Phytochemical Test
Flavonoids: This was determined by measuring
0.50g of extract which was added to 80ml of 95%
Ethanol and stored with a glass rod to prevent
lumping. The mixture was filtered through a Poplin
cloth into a 100ml volumetric flask and made up to
mark with ethanol. 1ml of the extract was pipetted
into 50ml volumetric flask, four drops of
concentrated HCl was added via a dropping pipette
after which 0.5g of Magnesium turning added to
develop a magenta red coloration. Standard flavored
solution of range 0.5ppm were prepared from
100ppm stock solution and treated in a similar way
with HCl and Magnesium turning. The absorbance
of Magenta red coloration of sample and standard
solution were read on a digital Jenway v6300
138
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 520nm. The
percentage flavonoid was calculated using the
formula:
Absorbance of sample x average gradient x dilution
factor
Weight sample x 10,000
Tannins: For the determination of Tannin, 0.20g of
the sample was measured into a 50ml. conical flask,
50% methanol was added and was carried with par
0
film and placed in a water bath at 80 C for 1 hour. It
was shaken thoroughly to ensure a uniform mixture.
The extract was filtered into a flask using 50% of
Methanol to rinse it. 1ml of the extract was pipetted
into 50ml flask, 20ml distilled water, 2.5ml folin-
deins, and 10ml of 17% Sodium Carbonate were
added and determined using spectrophotometer.
Saponin: The spectrophotometer method was used
for Saponin analysis. 1g of the extract was weighed
into a 250ml beaker and 100ml of isobutyl alcohol
was added. The mixture was shaken on shaker for 5
hours to ensure uniform mixing. The mixture was
filtered into 100ml beater and 20ml of 40% saturated
solution of Magnesium Carbonate was added and
filtered to obtain colorless solution. 1ml of the
colorless solution was pipetted into 50ml volumetric
flask and 2ml of 5% of Iron Chloride (FeCl2) was
added and was allowed to stay for 30 minutes for
blood red colour to develop. The reading was then
taken on spectrophotometer at a wave length of
350nm.
Steroids: 0.5g of sample extract was weighed into a
100ml beaker. 20ml of Chloroform and Methanol
(2:1) was added to dissolve the extract upon shaking
for 30 minutes on a shaker. The whole mixture was
later filtered through a Poplin cloth into another dry
clean 100ml beaker. The resultant residue was
repeatedly treated with Chloroform and Methanol
mixture until it was free of steroids. 1ml of the filtrate
was pipetted into a 30ml test tube and 5ml of
alcoholic KOH was added and shaken thoroughly to
obtain a homogenous mixture. The mixture was later
0 0
placed in a water bath set at 37 C- 40 C for 90
minutes. It was cooled to room temperature and
10ml of petroleum ether was added followed by
addition of 5ml distilled water. This was evaporated
to dryness on the residue in dry bottle and
ISSN: 2811-1842
absorbance taken at a wave length of 620m on a
spectrum 21 digital spectrophotometer.
Glycoside: 10ml of the extract was pipetted into a
250ml conical flask. Chloroform was added and
shaken in a vortex mixer for 1hour.The mixture was
filtered into 100ml conical flask and 10ml Pyridine
and 2ml of 2% Sodium Nitrogen were added, shaken
thoroughly for 10minutes. 3ml of 20% Sodium
Hydroxide (NaoH) was later added to develop a
brownish yellow colour. The reading was then taken
on spectrophotometer at wave length 510nm.
Proximate Composition
The analysis was carried out using the AOAC
(1990)standard methods which are for quantifying
nutrients in samples.
Moisture: was determined by oven drying
method(Gallenkamp, plus II oven, Germany) using a
representative sample of 5g Curcubitae pepo seeds
at 105 °C until constant weight was obtained (Sadiq
et al., 2013).
Crude proteins: were estimated by an NCS-
elementary analyser Flash 2000 (Flash 2000 Organic
Elemental Analyser, Germany). Total proteins were
automatically calculated by the machine
bymultiplying the estimated nitrogen content by
6.25 as the appropriate conversion factor.
Crude fat content: was determined using Soxhlet
apparatus using hexane as organicsolvent. The
extraction was performed for 14 hours and hexane
was later recovered by drying the sample in an oven
(Gallenkamp, plus II oven, Germany) set at 110 °C
for 30 minutes.
Crude fibre: a 5g sample of dried sample was
digested with 1.25 M Sulphuric acid and 1.25 M
Sodium Hydroxide solution. The insoluble residue
obtainedwas washed with hot water and dried in an
oven (Gallenkamp, plus II oven, Germany) at 105°C
until constant weight. The dried residue was then
incinerated, and weighed for the determination of
crude fibres content.
Available carbohydrate is determined by calculation
(AOAC, 1990; AOAC, 2020; FAO, 2002). For
percentage carbohydrates the following formula was
used: % Carbohydrates: 100 – (% moisture + %
139
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
proteins + % lipids + % ash + % fibres).
Ash content: was determined by initially charring
the 5g dried homogenous powdered sample in a
muffle furnace (Carbolite RHS 1600, Germany) at
250 °C until the sample turned black. Thereafter, the
sample was incinerated in the same muffle furnace
(Carbolite RHS 1600, Germany) at 550 °C for 5
hours until the ash turned white. The results of water
content were expressed on wet sample basis while
those of ash, fibre, protein, lipid and carbohydrate
contents were expressed on dry matter basis (Curtin
and Moore, 1997)
Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows the phytochemical tests which are
Alkaloid, Saponin, Tannin, Steroids, Flavonoid and
Glycosides. It was found that the Saponin has the
highest value as shown; indicating that it can control
or reduce blood cholesterol levels, it also reduces the
risk of cancer and stimulates immune system
according to Elemo et al., 2002). It also showed that
Alkaloid had high value when compared with other
parameters evaluated and it is used as stimulants
depending on the constituent. It could also be used as
insecticides and psychoactive drug in some cases.
Steroids help protect cells against damage.
Flavonoids have been shown to have direct
antibacterial activity and synergistic activity with
antibiotics.
From table 2, the result showed that the seed and oil
have moisture content of 5.0 % which is lower than
those of vegetable spaghetti seed 45.67±2.03
(Dangogoro et al.,2011) and Gardenia aqualla seed
49.00 (Dangogoro et al., 2011). The lower moisture
content of the seed will give it a storage advantage.
The ash content of the seed is 5.0 % and 5% for seed
oil respectively. Which is close to that of Gardenia
aqualla seeds 5.2% (Adeyeye, 2002). The
percentage ash of the sample gave an idea of the
inorganic content of the samples from where the
mineral content could be obtained. The ash content
obtained is similar to the range of 1.63- 8.53%
reported for commonly consumed fruits by
(Oluyemi et al., 2006). Sample with high ash
contents is expected to have high concentration of
various mineral elements, which are expected to
speed up metabolic processes, improve growth and
development. The crude lipid content of the seed is
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within the range of 37.0% this could be classified as
an oil seed like groundnut, melon etc. Lipids are
essential because they provide the body with
maximum energy (Oluyemi et al., 2006). The fibre
content of the seed is 2.4 % and 9.0% for oil which
compared favourably with that of Gardenia aqualla
seeds (IITA, 1988). Although, fibre- containing food
are known to expand the inside walls of the colon,
easing the passage of waste, thus making it an
effective anti-constipation, it lowers cholesterol
level in the blood and reduces the risk of various
cancers. However, emphasis has been placed on the
importance of keeping fibre intake low in the
nutrition of infants and weaning children because
high fibre levels in weaning diet can lead to irritation
of the gut mucosa (Bello et al., 2008). It also
enhances gut perturbation in young animals such as
piglets and chickens (Eromosele et al., 1991).
Comparatively, the fibre content of the seed is over
the value of 1.23± 0.03 % as reported for
Arthocarpus heterophyllus seed (Bello et al., 2008).
The protein content of the seed was found to be
21.06% which shows that the seed can serve as a
source of protein considering the level of protein
deficiency in the society. The available carbohydrate
content of the seed was found to be 25.51% and
24.32% for seed oil. The sample could not be
considered as potential source of carbohydrate when
compared to the content of some conventional
sources like cereals with 72-90 g/100g Carbohydrate
(Adewusi et al., 1995).Thefindings indicated that C.
pepo seeds are a good alternative source of highly
nutritious food forinstance proteins and lipidsthat
could greatly contribute to human nutritional
requirements (Kwiriet al., 2014).

Table 1: Quantitative Phytochemical analysis of Pumpkin seed oil

Parameters Value (%)
Alkaloid 0.578
Saponin 0.694
Tannin 0.013
Steroid 0.037
Flavonoid 0.004
Glycoside 0.092

Table 2: Proximate composition of pumpkin seeds and seed oil

S/n Parameters (%) Pumpkin seed (%) Pumpkin seed oil (%)
1 Ash 5.0 ±0.12 5.0±0.32
2 Dry matter 85.0±0.19 12.0±0.24
3 Moisture 5.0±2.45 5.0±0.20
4 Crude protein 21.0±2.06 19.0±2.90
5 Carbohydrate 25.0±0.51 24.0±0.42
6 Crude lipid 38±0.01 37±0.01
7 Crude fiber 2.4±0.73 9.0±0.54
Values shows mean ± standard deviation of triplicate analysis

Conclusion Meanwhile the saponin also has high value

The Phytochemical test showed the presence of
components that can act as antioxidants (phenol and
Flavonoid) in the body system but at values lower
than the result obtained. According to Christian
(2006), the high value of alkaloid indicates that the
plant possesses important physiological actions
which can act as regulatory growth factors and
capable of supplying Nitrogen or other substances.
indicating that it can control or reduce blood
cholesterol levels, it also reduces the risk of cancer
and stimulates immune system. Little difference in
the values obtained from both the seed and oil were
observed. It can therefore be concluded that the
seed has some nutritional constituents and properties
and constituents which support body growth in
human.

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Recommendation important to further profile the quality of the lipids

It is hereby recommended that pumpkin seed and its
oil (Cucurbita pepo) should be consumed by people
to help reduce blood cholesterol and stimulate the
immune system. This supports the body growth in
humans. Further research should be carried out on
the appropriate quantity of seeds that should be
consumed and the right dosage to be consumed for
any particular health issue.However, it stillremains
and proteins from C. pepo seed so as to verify their
essentialityand availability to the human body as
well as evaluating the presence of other bioactive
and antinutritional factors that mightbe present in
these seeds.

References
Adewusi, S. R. A., Udio, A. J. and Osuntogun, B. A. (1995). Studies on the Carbohydrate Content of Bread Fruit
(Artocarpus communis Forst) from south-western Nigeria. Starch Nutrition.85: 285-294.
Adeyeye, E. I. (2002). Determination of the Chemical Composition of the Nutritionally Valuable Parts of Male and
Female Common West African Fresh Water Crab (Sudananoutes africanus). International Journal of Food
Sciences and Nutrition 53:189-196.
AOAC (1990). "Official methods of analysis, 14th edition,Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
WashingtonDC. USA, p76-86."
AOAC (2000). "Official Methods of Analysis, 17th edition,Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
WashingtonDC. USA.".p 100-110
Butinar, B., Bucar-Miklavic, M. and Marian, O. N. (2011). New vitamin E isomer (gamma- tocomonoenol and alpha
–tocomonoenol) in seeds roasted seeds and roasted seed oil from the siovenian pumpkin variety ''
Siovenska golica''. Food Chemistry 128(2):15, 505-512
Bello, M. O., Farade, O. S., Adewusi, S. R. and Olawore, N. O. (2008). Studies of some lesser known Nigeria fruits.
African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (1) 3972-3979.
Christian, A. (2006).” Studies of selected physicochemical properties of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentallis) seed
oil and Tropical Almond (Terminalia catappa.L.) seed oil” Pakistan Journal of Nutrition.5 (4)304-306.
Curtin, L. S. M. and M. Moore (1997). "Healing Herbs ofthe Upper Rio Grande: Traditional Medicine of
theSouthwest, Western Edge Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico.".
Dangoggo, S. M., Mahammad, A., Aliero, A. I., Tsafe, A. I. and Itodo, A.U. (2011). Proximate, Mineral and
Antinutrient Composition of Gardenia aqualla Seeds. Achieves of Applied Sciences Research 3 (4): 485-
492.
Dietmar, F. (2005). Extract of pumpkin seeds suppresses Stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cell hivatro.
American Journal of Immunology (1) 6-11
Elemo, B. O., Elemo, G. N., Oladimeji, O. O. and Komolafe, Y. O. (2002). Studies on the composition of nutrients and
Anti nutrients of sheanut (Butyrospernum parkii) Nigeria food Prod 20: 69-73
Eromosele, I. C., Eromosele, C. O. and Kuzhkuzha, D. M. (1991). Evaluation of Mineral Elements and Ascorbic Acid
Contents in Fruits of Some Wild Plants. Plant Food for Human Nutrition 41:53- 57.
FAO (2002). "FAO. Food energy: methods of analysis andconversion factors. FAO Ed, Rome, Italy.".
Glew, R. H., Glew, R. S. and Chuang, L. T. (2006). Amino acid, mineral and fatty acid content of pumpkin seeds
(Cucurbita spp) in the Republic of Niger plant food. Hum nutr.2006 Jun.61 (2) 51-6.
IITA (1988).Selected Methods for Soil and Plant Analysis (Manual series No.1) International Institute for Tropical
Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria, Pp55-56.
Krimer-Malesevic, V., Niadareu-popovcis, H. and Vastag, F. (2011). Phenolic acids in pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) seed
nuts and seeds in Health and Diseases Prevention. Chapter 109, pp 923-932.
KwiriRaphael, Clive Winini, Amos Musengi, MisheckMudyiwa, Clarice Nyambi,Perkins Muredzi and Abigail
Malunga(2014). Proximate composition of pumpkin gourd (Cucurbitapepo) seeds from Zimbabwe.
International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences.3(4): 279-283Published online June 30, 2014
(http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijnfs)doi: 10.11648/j.ijnfs.20140304.17
Lazos, E. (1986). “Nutritional, fatty acid and oil characteristics of pumpkin and melon seeds”. J. Food Sci. 51: 1382-
1383.
Magnus, P. (1992). Food Science and Technology. Academic Press, Great Britain, Bristol. Pp: 140-146
Oluyemi, E. A., Akilua, A. A., Adenuya, A. A. and Adebayo, M. B. (2006). Mineral Contents of Some Commonly
Consumed Nigerian Foods. Science Focus.11 (1):153-157.
Sadiq, S., T. Izuagie, M. Shuaibu, M. I. Dogoyaro, A. Garbaand S. Abubakar (2013). "The Nutritional Evaluation
andMedicinal Value of Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera),International Journal of Modern Chemistry, 4(3): 147-154.”

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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT);

TOOL FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA:
A REVIEW

Togun, O.A*., Akinosho, G.A., Abiola O.J., Olanrewaju, O.T., Adegbile, A. A., Nwufoh C.V.,
Adewale F.O, Idowu I. R.,Akintola O.S., Ayobioloja, S.P.
Department of Computer Science, Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology,
Moor Plantation, Ibadan

Email: pelumi.togun@fcahptib.edu.ng Phone numbers: +2348120777092, +2348033784733

Abstract
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) can be leveraged as a tool for entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria. ICT has revolutionized basically all aspects of human existence, including
entrepreneurship and being more deliberate and strategic about engaging ICT as a tool for entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria will be a step in the right direction, as it has both direct impact and long term benefits
for the economy. Entrepreneurship can to a very large extent have a positive impact on the unemployment
situation in Nigeria, due to the fact that entrepreneurs are responsible for building business ventures that in turn
provide a source of employment to the populace. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resultant
lockdown which has largely confined movement and restricted physical meetings, many have taken the path of
netpreneurship by taking advantage of the internet to run their businesses. Many of the prominent
entrepreneurs of the 21st century have also either built their core business portfolio on ICT or leverage strong
ICT support for their core business portfolio.

Keywords: ICT, Entrepreneurship, Employment, Netpreneurship, Internet

Introduction
Entrepreneurship is the soul of economic
development in any society throughout human
history. There is no significant economic
advancement that can happen without people who
see opportunities in challenges and are willing to
bear the risks that come with proffering solutions to
such challenges. An entrepreneur refers to an owner
or one who manages a business enterprise, one who
profits by bearing risks and taking initiative.
Entrepreneur, a word that has French origin, in
English is a term that describes an individual who
has the interest in helping one launch a new venture
or enterprise and is willing to bear full responsibility
for the outcome (Balachandran and Sakthivelan,
2013). History will not forget in a hurry the impact
some entrepreneurs have made in the economies of
nations and even in the global economic scene. The
world has seen different revolutions at different
times in history and these revolutions were fueled by
activities of entrepreneurs who were willing to go all
the way to address some of the challenges faced by
the human society. Worthy of note in this
information age are entrepreneurs such as Sir
Richard Branson, Larry Ellison, Bill Gates, Ellon
Musk, Mark Zuckerberg, Drew Houston, Jeff Bezos,
Jack Ma, Larry Page and Sergey Brin to mention just
a few.
It is important to note the shift in the business focus
of prominent entrepreneurs over the past decades.
There is an ongoing paradigm shift from ventures
such as oil and gas and manufacturing to Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) focused
ventures. The ubiquitous nature of ICT has gradually
driven it into every sphere of human existence so
much that a world without ICT has now become too
difficult to even imagine. ICT has become either the
core, or playing a very crucial supporting role, in
every thriving industry right now. There are business
ventures that never existed in the last few decades,
but today are cash cows, while there are other
ventures that were successful in time past but have
lost their relevance today, due to the disruptive
innovations brought by ICT (Jones et al., 2015).
The advent of information technology has
significantly transformed almost all human activities
in the third millennium to a great extent and, this
transformation has not left entrepreneurship out. The
world keeps progressing even further into the
information age, which in result, has kept on

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changing the way business is being transacted and
the way people communicate and behave (Singh,
2018). Most businesses have realised the importance
of having an online presence and engaging their
customers or potential customers in the digital space.
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and the
resulting lockdown measures put in place in different
parts of the world in order to curtail the spread of the
virus, it has become evident that businesses should
have mechanisms in place to be able to run online,
with minimal or no human aid.
Although, cautions have been raised in scholarly and
policy circles not to perceive ICT as an economic
development silver bullet (Mpogole et al., 2008), it is
however inevitable to admit the crucial role ICT has
played, and is still playing in the entrepreneurship
and economic development of nations in recent
times. There is also a growing body of literature on
engaging social media, one of the many facets of
ICT, to promote entrepreneurship (Jones et al., 2015;
McCann and Barlow, 2015; Wang, 2016) and
knowledge sharing in entrepreneurial success (Allen
et al., 2016).
In Nigeria, the adoption of ICT in entrepreneurial
ventures has continued to gain traction. There are
various netpreneurs today leveraging the power of
Fig 1 Nigeria Unemployment Rate 2016 - 2020
143
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
ICT to accomplish their entrepreneurial goals. Even
in a sector such as agriculture, ICT has been engaged
in ways hitherto uncharted and we are also seeing
businesses adopting the sharing economy model on
the rise. Therefore, the role ICT plays in
entrepreneurship development, especially in this
information age, can never be over emphasized and
there seem not to be a decline in this relationship on
the horizon.
Unemployment in Nigeria
The rate of unemployment in Nigeria has been on the
rise in recent times and no silver lining seems to be
on the horizon. The government has been
introducing different schemes in order to drain the
pool of the teeming unemployed and underemployed
Nigerian youths but no significant impact has been
made even with these interventions. The rate of
unemployment has been on a steady rise and this
does not seem to be slowing down in any shortest
time possible, especially when considering the
economic outlook of the world as a whole and
Nigeria in particular in the wake of the COVID-19
pandemic (National Bureau of Statistics Nigeria,
2020).The chart below depicts the rate of
unemployment from January 2016 to January 2020,
as published by the National Bureau of Statistics,
Nigeria.
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Though there has been a steady increase in the rate of
unemployment over the years, the unequalled rate of
unemployment recorded in January 2020 has called
for special attention to the issue of unemployment
and underemployment in Nigeria. Since it is not
realistic that the government can by itself alone fully
provide employment for the entire citizenry, it is
therefore important to encourage entrepreneurship
which will augment whatever the government is
doing in terms of provision of jobs to the ever
increasing number of unemployed and
underemployed Nigerian populace.
Entrepreneurship has always played a crucial role in
boosting employment in human societies.
Entrepreneurs identify opportunities in the
challenges faced in a society and they plunge in to
solve these problems, which eventually in most
cases become a business venture. With every step in
this process, humans are engaged in order to help the
entrepreneur achieve their goals, hence, jobs get
created. “Netpreneurship” has been described in
literature as running a business venture in the digital
world - specifically on the internet, while the
Netpreneur describes a premium member in the
human society who provides services, to their
immediate or a wide community, including
employment, leveraging the connectivity power of
the internet (Balachandran and Sakthivelan, 2013).
ICT and Entrepreneurship
Since the 20th century, information technology has
gradually been playing a crucial role in
entrepreneurship. It serves as an enabler for the
entrepreneur and in some cases even become the
core of the business venture itself as seen in the case
of Bill Gates, Larry Ellison, Steve Jobs. It has the
capacity to give a start-up a competitive advantage
with his industry counterparts and to a great extent
level the playing field. It helps to open up a business
venture to a market hitherto considered unreached
and supports every step of the entrepreneurship
process. Netpreneurship as earlier described has also
become a means by which small and medium
business ventures can kick off with minimum or no
investment in physical infrastructure and yet have a
significant reach. A Netpreneurship venture
operating the sharing economy like AirBnB, plunged
into the peer-to-peer hospitality industry without
actually focusing on direct investment in acquisition
of properties, and “with an estimated 2018 valuation
of over $53 to $65 billion, Airbnb is valued more
highly than several individual hotel chains” (Nath,
2019).
Conclusion
The government cannot provide all the jobs needed
to get the entire citizenry gainfully employed.
However, the government has a duty to provide an
enabling environment for businesses to thrive which
in turn will provide jobs for the populace.
Entrepreneurship can to a very large extent improve
the employment scenario in Nigeria and ICT has
proven to not only support entrepreneurship but can
also become profitable business ventures in itself.
An investment in ICT by the government is both a
direct and indirect investment in fighting
unemployment and underemployment in the
country, as it is a tool for entrepreneurial
development.

References
Allen, T. J., Gloor, P. A., Colladon, A. F., Woerner, S. L., andRaz, O., (2016). “The power of reciprocal
knowledge sharing relationships for startup success”, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise
Development, 23(3), pp. 636-651.
Balachandran, V. AndSakthivelan, S. M., (2013) Impact Of Information Technology On Entrepreneurship
(e-Entrepreneurship) Journal of Business Management & Social Sciences Research (JBM&SSR),
2(2), 51-56
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hotels.asp
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from August 18, 2020 from https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/unemployment-rate#historical
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employment generation: Nepalese scenario: Discussion Paper: Nepal Administrative Staff C o l l e g e
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perspective”, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 23(4), pp. 1057-1080.

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CONSUMERS PREFERENCE FOR DUCK AND LOCAL CHICKEN

MEAT IN SELECTED PARTS OF IBADAN METROPOLIS.

Yahaya, M.O*., Awodola-Peters,O.O.

Federal college of Animal Health and Production Technoogy Moor Plantation Ibadan
Corresponding Author; mariamosikwe@yahoo.com 08061387108

Abstract
The study examined the consumer preference for duck and local chicken meat around selected local
government areas in Ibadan metropolis. Multistagesampling technique was used to select the respondents for
the study and Primary data were collected with the aid of questionnaire and analysed using descriptive
statistics and multinomial logit regression.The result of the study revealed that majority of the respondents for
duck and local chicken meat were males (61.7%) and (60.8%) respectively, with (55%) for the age range of 18-
22 years for duck meat and (53.3%) for the local chicken meat with age range of 23-27years. The consumption
pattern for the duck and the local chicken meat showed 98.2% and 100% with willingness to consume the meat
at outside their homes. It was concluded that the consumer preference for duck and local chicken meat by the
respondents did not depend on their socio-economic characteristics.

Key words: Preference, Socio-economic, Characteristics, Multistage and Technique

INTRODUCTION Indigenous are hardy, adaptive to rural

Family poultry according to the reports of Guèye, environments, survive on little or no inputs and

(2009); Akinola and Essien, (2011); Mengesha, adjust to fluctuations in feed availability (Ajayi

(2012), represent an appropriate system for 2010).

supplying fast growing human population with high

quality and cheap protein, providing additional Waterfowl production has progressed rapidly in the

income to poorer, small farmers. past few decades and will, withoutdoubt, continue to

play an increasingly important role in the world with

Indigenous chickens are widely distributed in most respect to food production and security (Huang et al.,

of the rural areas of tropical and sub-tropical 2012). Muscovy ducks make up about 74% of the

countries where they are kept by the majority of the ducks in Nigeria, and its meat is lower in fat and

poor people. Chickens in Africa considered to be hence considered to be healthier (Adesope and

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Nodu, 2002). Ferdus (1999) also reported that special dishes (Horst, 1989). Their outputs (egg and

increased duck rearing would be a great addition to meat) are readily available to villagers and people in

total poultry output since they do not interfere with urban semi urban areas thus serves as a good source

chicken production as they have different rearing of protein in their diet, in the same vein, they serve as

and scavenging venues. Muscovy ducks are good source of income.

especially suitable for scavenging systems,because

of its good foraging and incubation behaviour, and The indigenous poultry species represent valuable

they have a better adaptability to hot climates (Raji et resources for livestock development because their

al., 2009). Due to the fact that duck raising is still not extensive genetic diversity allows for rearing of

well developed in Nigeria, the Muscovy duck is most poultry under varied environmental conditions,

commonly kept on free-range and backyard providing a range of products and functions. Thus,

premises. Even though ducks are hardier and more great genetic resources embedded in the indigenous

resistant to diseases and environmental hazards, they poultry await full exploitation that will provide basis

are fewer in number compared to chickens basically for genetic improvement and diversification to

because of cultural beliefs, which tend to portray produce breeds that are adapted to local conditions

ducks as mystique birds. However, development in for the benefit of farmers in developing countries

research andtechnology has increasingly eliminated (Horst, 1988; Sonaiya et al ., 1999).

these cultural barriers and enhanced the productivity

of the birds (Ikani, 2003). The local chicken of Nigeria is small in size and

grows slowly. There have been reports on the

Ducks are self-reliant and hardy birds with the characterization of the local chicken in Nigeria and

capacity to withstand harsh weather condition and its potential for egg and meat production

adapt to adverse environment. They are known to (Adebambo, 2005).

possess qualities such as the ability to hatch on their In Nigeria, indigenous chickens were characterized

own, brood and scavenge for major parts of their along genetic lines of feather and plumage colour

food and possess appreciated immunity from (such as normal or frizzled feathered), body structure

endemic diseases. Their products are preferred by (such as naked neck, dwarf types and colour variants

the majority of Nigerians because of the (such as black, white, brown, mottled etc.).

pigmentation, taste, leanness and suitability for

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There are various ecotypes of the local chicken in the inherent in the individual consumer's personality.

different agro ecological zones in Nigeria as reported Within the social and political environment, the

by different authors. Most of the classification by the demand for safe foods is increasing and indeed,

different agro ecological zones considered mainly highly publicized food safety incidents can lead to

the normal feathered indigenous chicken because lasting changes in food purchasing behaviour

they are the most prominent whereas the naked neck (Buzby, 2001)

and frizzled feathered are rare and almost becoming Consumers' decision making on whether to consume

endangered and the gene pool they represent may be any meat product is largely determined

lost if not characterized and conserved.It was agreed by considerable number of characteristics, such as its

by researchers that the Nigerian indigenous chicken sensory characteristics, its nutritional

is a light breed, often with single comb and that black value and its impact on health (Muchenje et al.,

and brown plumage, laced with various colours such 2009).

as mottling are common (Adebambo,2005). Recent

works revealed that the different ecotypes can be The aim of this research study was to assess

grouped into two major categories on the basis of consumer preference for duck and indigenous

body size and body weight as heavy ecotype and chicken meat around selected local government

light ecotype (Momoh et al.,2007). The heavy areas in Oyo state.

ecotype (also referred to as Fulani ecotype) is found Materials and methods

in the dry Savannahs (Guinea and Sahel Savannah), Ibadan is the capital of Oyo state and it is located in

Montane regions and cattle Kraals of the North and the south western region of Nigeria, 128km in land

weigh about 0.9-2.5 kg at maturity. The light ecotype North West of Lagos and 530km southwest of Abuja

are those chicken types from the Swamp, Rainforest the federal capital is a transit point between the

and Derived Savannah agro-ecological zones whose coastal region and the areas to the north.

mature body weight ranges between 0.68-1.5 kg. Ibadan consists of eleven (11) local governments

areas,but for the purpose of this study eight (8) local

Globally consumers are increasingly attracted by governments area were randomly selected and they

chicken meat, but their tastes andpreferences are are: Ido, Lagelu, Ibadan South West, Oluyole, Ona

determined by several factors some of these factors Ara, Akinyele, Ibadan North, Ibadan North East,

may be related to food quality while others are Local Government areas.

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One hundred and sixty (160) copies of well- chicken meat is represented in Table 1. The results

structured questionnaires were used to elicit show that most of the respondents for the duck meat

information from respondents who were randomly (55%) were within the age range of 18 – 22years,

selected in the study areas. mostly males (61.7%), with household size within a

Statistical analysis range of 1 – 5 (60.8%). They were majorly Christians

All data collected were analysed using descriptive ( 7 4 . 2 % ) , ci v i l s er v an ts ( 3 6 . 7 % ) , Yo r u b a

and regression analysis. (79.2%),earned less than #10,000 (26.7%), had

Results tertiary education (63.4%) and were married

The socio economic characteristic of the (68.3%).

respondents on the preference of duck meat and local

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Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents on the preference of duck meat in

the selected local government areas.
Variables Frequency Percentage
Age(Years)
18-22 66 55.0
23-27 25 20.8
28-32 7 5.8
33-37 12 10.0
>37 10 8.3
Sex
Male 74 61.7
Female 46 38.3
Household size
1-5 73 60.8
6-10 41 34.2
11-15 6 5.0
Religion
Christianity 89 74.2
Islam 25 20.8
Traditional 6 5.0
Occupation
Civil servant 44 36.7
Trading 27 22.5
Artisan 30 25.0
Farming 19 15.8
Tribe
Yoruba 91 79.2
Igbo 25 17.5
Hausa 4 3.3
Income(#)
<10,000 32 26.7
10,000-15,000 22 18.3
16,000-20,000 21 17.5
21,000-25,000 22 18.5
26,000-30,000 11 9.2
>30,000 12 10.0
Educational level
Non-formal 10 8.3
Primary 9 7.5
Secondary 25 20.8
Tertiary 76 63.4
Marital Status
Single 82 68.3
Married 29 24.2
Divorced 7 5.8
Widow 2 1.7

Table 2

Table 2 shows the results of the socio economic characteristics of respondents on the preference of
local chicken meat (53.3%) were within the age range of 23-27yrs, mostly males (60.8%) with a
household size ranging from 1-5, majorly Christians (75.8%), Yoruba's (80.8%), earned #10,000-
15000 (30.0%), had tertiary education (61.7%) and majority of them were single (70.0%).

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Table 2; Socio-economic characteristics of respondents with the preference of local chicken

meat in the selected local government areas.
Variables Frequency Percentage
Age(years)
18-22 31 25.8
23-27 64 53.3
28-32 15 12.5
33-37 3 2.5
>383 7 5.8
Sex
Male 73 60.8
Female 47 39.1
Household size
1-5 93 77.5
6-10 22 18.3
11-15 2 1.7
>15 3 2.5
Religion
Christianity 91 75.8
Islam 28 23.3
Traditional 1 0.8
Tribe
Yoruba 97 80.8
Igbo 12 10.0
Hausa 11 9.2
Income(#)
<10,000 31 25.8
10,000-15000 36 30.0
16,000-20,000 19 15.8
21,000-25,000 17 14.2
26,000-30,000 13 10.8
>30,000 4 3.3
Educational level
No formal Education 9 7.5
Primary Education 5 4.2
Secondary Education 32 26.7
Tertiary Education 74 61.7
Marital Status
Single 84 70.0
Married 31 25.8
Divorced 5 4.2

Table 3 shows the purchasing pattern of duck meat by the respondents and this shows that most of the
respondents (45%) purchased live duck for consumption, they bought the duck meat 1 – 2 times in a year, and
most of them (42.5%) bought the whole carcass of the duck, they bought less than 10kg of the duck meat in a
year (31.7%). Most of the respondents purchased duck meat for family consumption and most of them bought
their duck meat in ethic food market and were very likely (28.3%) to substitute duck meat for other meat.

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Table 3
Purchasing pattern of duck meat by the respondents in the selected local government areas.
Variables Frequency Percentage
Duck purchase for consumption
Cuts of the meat 38 31.7
Live duck 54 45.0
Both 28 23.3
Frequency of duck meat purchase (year)
1 – 2 times 46 38.3
3 – 5 times 23 19.2
6 – 11 times 27 22.5
Once in a month 18 15.0
More than a every two weeks 6 5.0
Cut of duck meat bought
Chops 26 21.7
Cubes 12 10.0
Loin 20 16.7
Whole carcass 51 42.5
Half carcass 11 9.2
No of kg of duck meat bought in a year
Less than 10kg 38 31.7
11 – 20 kg 31 25.8
21 – 30 kg 25 20.8
31 – 40 kg 18 15.0
More than 40kg 8 6.7
Occasion of purchasing of duck meat
Easter 16 13.3
Ramadan 6 5.0
Christmas 24 20.0
Eid-el kabir 8 6.7
Family consumption 40 33.3
Other holidays 26 21.7
Place of purchase
Farm 24 20.0
Meat store 20 16.7
Butcher 10 8.3
Food market 36 30.0
Open market 30 24.9
Substitutes with other meat
Not at all likely 10 8.3
Slightly likely 21 17.5
Moderately likely 26 21.7
Very likely 34 28.3
Completely likely 29 24.1

Table 4 shows the consumption pattern for local chicken meat for the respondents (50.8%) of the
population preferring to buy live chicken, they buy the local chicken 3-5times per year (35.0%), and
(30%) buy less than 10kg per year and they buy it majorly for family consumption (49.2%) and the
local chicken is purchased majorly in the open markets (79.2) and the correspondents would
moderately like to substitute local chicken meat with other meat (31.7%).

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Table 4
Purchasing pattern of local chicken meat by the respondents in the selected local government
areas.

Variables Frequency
Percentage
Chicken meat purchased for consumption
Cuts of meat 14 11.6
Live chicken 61 50.8
Both 45 37.5
Frequency of meat purchased (per year)
1-2 times 29 24.2
3-5 times 42 35.0
6-11 times 27 22.5
Once a month 13 10.8
More than every 2 weeks 9 7.5
Cuts of chicken meat bought
Breast 16 13.3
Drumsticks 8 6.7
Loin 77 64.2
Whole carcass 8 6.7
Half carcass 11 9.2

No of kg of chicken meat purchased in

a year
Less than 10 kg 36 30.0
11-20 kg 32 26.7
21-30 kg 28 23.3
31-40 kg 19 15.8
More than 40 kg 5 4.2
Occasions of purchasing chicken meat
Easter 13 10.8
Ramadan 15 12.5
Christmas 18 15.0
Eid-El-Kabir 4 3.3
Family consumption 59
49.2
Other holidays 11 9.2
Place of purchase
Farm 17 14.2
Meat store 6 5.0
Butcher 2 1.7
Open market 95 79.2
Substitutes with other meat
Not at all likely 10 8.3
Slightly likely 20 16.7
Moderately likely 38 31.7
Very likely 33 27.5
Completely likely 19 15.8

The result for the consumption pattern of the duck by the respondents is shown in table 5. The result shows
that most of the respondents (98.2%) have eaten duck meat before and had willingness to try duck meat
consumption as part of meal served at friend's home.

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Table 5
Consumption of duck meat by the respondents in the selected local government areas.

Variables Frequency Percentage

Have you eaten duck before?
Yes 119 98.2
No 1 0.8

Circumstances of willingness to try duck

meat
Appealing menu served at restaurant 5 4.2

At a social gathering which include meat 3 2.5

As part of meat served at friend’s home 71 59.7

At a farmer’s market or other food venue 22 18.3

At a cooking show 19 15.8

Table 6 shows results of the consumption pattern of local chicken meat and all the respondents have eaten local

chicken meat before (100%) and had the willingness to consume local chicken meat as an appealing menu

served in a restaurant (79.2%).

Table 6
Consumption of local chicken meat by the respondents in the selected local government
areas.
Variables Frequency Percentage
Have you eaten local chicken meat before?
Yes 120 100
Circumstances of willingness to eat local chicken meat.
Appealing menu served at a restaurant 95 79.2
At a social gathering 4 3.3
As part of menu served at a friend’s home 9 7.5
At a farmers market or other 1 0.2
Food vendors
At a cooking show 17 9.8

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Regression analysis of the factors determining consumer's preference for duck and local chicken meat is
presented in table 7 and 8. The results show that socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents (such as age,
sex, religion, occupation etc.) were not determining factors for consumer's preferences for duck and local
chicken meat consumption.
The results showed that majority of the respondents were between the age range of 23-27 years. A total of
53.3% of the respondents were in their active age to support the consumption of local chicken meat in their
respective households.

Table 7

Regression analysis for factors determining consumer preference of duck meat in the selected

local government areas.

Variables Coefficient t – value S.E P – value

Constant 2.299 2.164 1.062 0.033 *

Age 0.118 0.868 0.142 0.387 ns

Sex 0.130 1.370 0.269 0.174 ns

Household size 0.229 0.012 0.229 0.905 ns

Religion 0.029 0.269 0.210 0.788 ns

Occupation 0.071 0.647 0.215 0.579 ns

Tribe 0.053 0.462 0.127 0.645 ns

Income 0.150 1.281 0.097 0.203 ns

Education 0.075 0.675 0.153 0.501 ns

Marital status 0.073 0.611 0.243 0..542ns

ns = not significant (p> 0.05), S.E = Standard error mean

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Table 8
Regression analysis for factors determining consumer preference of duck meat in the selected
local government areas.
Variables co-efficient t-value standard error p-value
Constant 2.2352 2.387 0.985 0.019*
Age 0.142 1.239 0.138 0.218ns
Sex 0.028 0.293 0.253 0.770 ns
ns
Household size 0.102 1.080 0.203 0.282
Religion 0.082 0.818 0.299 0.415ns
Occupation 0.079 0.796 0.087 0.428 ns
ns
Tribe 0.104 1.134 0.146 0.259
Income 0.157 1.488 0.099 0.139 ns
Education 0.151 1.435 0.161 0.154 ns
ns
Marital status 0.177 1.336 0.323 0.184
ns = not significant (p> 0.05), S.E = Standard error mean

Discussion contradicted these reports as the income, was

The results obtained from this study showed that
the preference of chicken or duck meat by
consumers is not dependent on the financial
status and this is not in line with the reports of
Terfa et al., (2019) who reported negative
influence of price on local chicken meat in rural
Ethopia.
Reports of Akinwumi et al., (2011)stated that
the cost, availability and income of the
consumers as the most limiting factors of meat
preference.The results from this study
not significant for the preference of local
chicken meat or duck meat in Ibadan metropolis.
Conclusion
It was concluded that consumer preference for
duck and local chicken meat was not dependent
on socio economic characteristics of the
respondents.Consumers are willing to eat local
chicken meat at restaurants while they were
more willing to eat duck meat at a friend's home.

References
Adebambo, O.A., 2005.Indigenous poultry breeds genetic improvement for meat and eggs. Proceedings of
the 3rd Nigeria International Poultry Summit, Feb.22-26. Pp.84-91.
Adesope, O.M. and Nodu, M.B. (2002). A note on acceptance of duck as table-meat among
inhabitants of selected communities in the Niger Delta zone, Nigeria. Livestock
Research for Rural Development

Ajayi, F.O (2010); Chicken: A valuable genetic resource for meat and egg production .Asian
Journal of Poultry Science; Volume 4(4) 164-172

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Akinola, L.A.F. and Essien, A. (2011) Relevance of rural poultry production in developing
countries withspecial reference to Africa. World's Poultry Science Journal 67: 697-705.
Akinwumi, A.O. Odunsi, A.A. Omojola, A.B., Aworemi, J. R. Aderinola, O.A. (2011).
Consumer perception and preference for meat types in Ogbomosoarea of Oyo State, Nigeria. In
International Journal of Applied Agricultural and Apicultural
Research, vol. 7, no. 1-2, p. 96-106.
Buzby, J.,( 2001). Effects of food-safety perceptions on food demand and global trade
In:Regmi, A. (Ed.), Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade.
Agriculture and Trade Report WRS-01-1. Economic Research Service, US Dept. of
Agriculture, Washington, pp. 55–66.
Ferdus, A.J.M. (1999). Reproduction, growth and meat yield performance of different
genotypes of ducks. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Poultry Science, Bang Agricultural
University.
Guèye, E.F. (2009). The role of networks in information dissemination to family poultry
farmers. World's Poultry Science Journal 65: 115-123.
Horst. P. 1988 : Native fowl as reservoir for genomes and major genes with direct and indirect effect on
production adaptability. Proceedings of the 18th World poultry congress, Sept 4-9, Nagoya, Japan,
pp.105-105
Horst.P. 1989. Native fowl as reservoir for genomes and major genes with direct and indirect
effect in adaptability and their potentials for tropically oriented breeding plans: Arch.
Fur. Gulfugelk, 53:93-101
Huang, J.F., Pingel, H., Guy, G., Lukaszewicz, E., Baeza, E. and Wang, S.D. (2012). A
century of progress in waterfowl production, and a history of the WPSA Waterfowl Working Group.
World's Poultry Science Journal 68: 551-563.
Ikani, I. (2003). Duck production in Nigeria. Poultry Series No.7. National Agricultural
Extension andResearch Liaison Services, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Pp. 31
Muchenje,V.,Dzama,K.,Chimonyo,M., Strydom,P.E., and Raats,J.G.(2009). Relationship
between stress responsiveness and meat quality in three cattle breeds.Meat Science 81; 653-
657.
Raji, A.O., Igwebuike, J.U. and Usman, M.T. (2009). Zoometrical body measurements and
Their relation with live weight in matured local Muscovy ducks in Borno State, Nigeria. ARPN
Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science 4: 58-62.
Sonaiya, E.B, R.D.S. Branckaert and E.F. Gueye 1999. Research and development options
for family poultry, first FAO, Electronic conference on family poultry.
Terfa, Z. G., Garikipati, S., Kassie, G. T., Dessie, T., & Christley, R. M. (2019). Understanding
farmers' preference for traits of chickens in rural Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 50(4), 451-463.

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GROWTH RESPONSE, CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS AND

BLOOD PROFILE OF BROILER CHICKEN RAISED ON DIFFERENT
STOCKING DENSITIES
*Odukoya S.O., Popoola M.A., Saka A.A. and Odetola O.M.
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Ibadan
*e-mail: sesanolubukola@gmail.com

Abstract
This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of stocking density on the growth performance, carcass
characteristics and blood parameters of broiler chickens. Ninety (90) day old broilers were allotted into three
2
treatments and each treatment was replicated three times, with treatment 1 (7 birds/m ), Treatment 2 (10
2 2
birds/m ) and Treatment 3 (13 birds/m ), in a completely randomized design. Data were collected on a growth
performance, carcass characteristics, heamatological and serum biochemical indices of the chicken. The data
were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). There was no significant effect (p < 0.05) of stocking density
on the growth performance of the chickens and some carcass traits, haematological parameters except for
white blood cell and no effect of the stocking density on the serum biochemical parameters of the chicken.
Conclusively the fewer the numbers of birds/m2 the better the performance and carcass yield of the birds.It can
therefore be recommended that a stocking density of 7 broilers/m2 should be adopted by farmers to maximize
productivity.

Keywords: Broiler chicken, growth, haematology, serum, stocking density,

Introduction was established at the beginning of the development

Interest in qualitative aspect of production of poultry
meat is in the greater increase than interest in
quantitative aspect. In spite of relatively low price of
poultry meat derived from intensive production,
consumers have realized the significance of product
from non-industrial systems, which beside more
human rearing conditions for broilers provide also
high nutrition level and health safety of the product.
At the same time, such systems of production have
strictly defined standards, country specific, which
relate to chicken genotype, sue of pasture, maximum
stocking density, age of birds at slaughter, nutrition
(Fanaticoet al., 2007), which eventually limits the
volume of production and satisfies the need of one
part of the market.
The significance of stocking density in broiler
production which includes production,
performances, vitality and health condition of broiler
of industrial poultry production. Determined ratio
between kilograms of live mass per m2 of floor
surface, increase of stocking density increases
production at the level of 1250 grams (Edrisset al.,
2003), that is 1750 grams per each added bird in the
box(Thomas et al., 2004). Although in higher
stocking densities the profit per chicken decreases
and total production of meat per unit of floor surface
increases, which results in higher profit. It also
stimulates higher economical returns(Skrbicet al.,
(2009), efficiencyof production (Mirabitoet al.,
2002; Mortariet al., 2002) with possibility to
regulate environment conditions.
Several studies have been conducted to study the
effect of stocking density on broilers' production and
performance. However, many of these studies were
not always conclusive and had produced variable
conclusions. Some of the studies showed large

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benefits in reducing stocking density on the
performance of broilers (Bilgili and Hess, 1995;
Dozier et al., 2006; Chmelnicna and Solcianska,
2007; Mtileniet al.,2007; Skrbicet al., 2009), while
others reported that reducing stocking density had no
influence (Thomas et al., 2004) or even had negative
impacts on broilers performance (Feddeset al.,
2002). The discrepancies between these studies
clearly indicate the need for more oriented studies, to
clarify understanding of how broilers' performance
might be affected at different stocking density rates.
Relatively most researches focused on the effect of
stocking density on broiler production and were
primarily motivated by its great economic
importance (Proudfootet al., 1979, Shanawany,
1988), also factor of carcass quality (Edriss et al.,
2003; Yadgariet al., 2006) and in recent time, as
factor of poultry welfare (Weeks et al., 2000;
Thomas et al., 2004).
Thus, this study sought to evaluatethe effect of
stocking densities on growth response, carcass
characteristics and blood profiles of broiler
chicken.
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted at the Teaching and
Research Farm of Federal College of Animal Health
and Production Technology, Moor Plantation,
Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.A total of ninety (90) day
old marshal broiler chicks were purchased from a
reputable hatchery in Ibadan. The chicks were raised
for eight weeks. The birds were weighed to
determine their initial weight and were randomly
allotted to three treatments. Each treatment was
replicated three times in a completely randomized
design. In treatment 1 (T1) the birds were placed on
2
stocking density of 7 birds/m , in treatment 2 (T2) the
2
birds were on 10 birds/m and in treatment 3 (T3) the
2
birds were on 13 birds/m . Each of these was
replicated three times.
The birds were fed ad libitum with broiler starter diet
between weeks 1 to 4 of age and finisher diet week 5
of age to the end of the experiment. The gross
composition of the starter and finisher diet is
presented in Table 1.
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Table 1: Gross Composition of Experimental Diet, Starter and Finisher

Phase
Ingredient (%) Starter Finisher
Maize 55.00 50.00
Groundnut cake 6.00 3.00
Soya meal 30.00 30.00
Fish meal (72%) 2.00 2.00
Wheat offal 5.00 10.00
Bone meal 1.70 2.50
Salt 0.25 0.25
Broiler premix 0.25 0.25
Lysine 0.10 0.10
Methionine 0.10 0.10
Limestone 1.00 2.00
Total 100.00 100.00
Calculated analysis
Crude protein (%) 22.74 19.89
Crude fibre (%) 3.54 3.64
Metabolizable energy 3063.21 3172.62
(kcal.kg)

Data were collected on growth performance of the
birds such as initial and final weight, feed conversion
ratio, weight gain and mortality. Also, at the end of
experiment, one bird per replicate was randomly
selected and slaughtered for carcass characteristics.
The parameters on carcass trait were: live weight,
slaughtered weight, defeathered weight, dressed
weight and eviscerated weight while the parameters
on the cut part were breast, wings, thigh, drumstick,
shank, head, neck and leg, other parameters
measured includes; offal with gizzard, liver and heart
weight.
Similarly, blood samples were collected from wing
vein from three birds per replicate and samples for
haematological parameters were collected into
ethylene diamme tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) coated
sterile bottles while blood samples for serum
biochemical indices were collected into a sterile
uncoated bottles. The blood samples were taken to
the laboratory for analyses.

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All data collected were subjected to analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and significance among the
means were separated using Duncan Multiple Range
Test (Steel and Torrie, 1980).
Results and Discussion
Table 2 shows the results of growth performance of
broiler chicken raised on different stocking
densities. The results revealed that there was no
significant effect (p < 0.05) of stocking density on
the growth performance of the chicken.Although
chickens raised on 7 birds/m2 performed best in term
of growth performance (1.9kg). also it had the lowest
feed conversion ratio (2.62) and had the lowest
2
mortality rate (9.23%). Treatment 3 (13 birds/m ) as
the lowest final body weight (1.56kg) which agreed
with the submission of Dozreet al. (2005) who
suggested that reduction of final body weight can be
connected to decrease of food consumption because
of difficult access to feeding and water space in
condition of high stocking density and Al-Homidan
and Rebortson (2007) also indicated that body
weight gain decreased by increasing stocking
density of broiler from 10-15 birds/m2. Treatment 3
had the highest mortality rate, this can be as a result
of high stocking density. The birds in treatment 3 (13
2
birds/m ) has the lowest feed intake (5.02kg), this
may be due to less feeder space and immovability of
birds within the pen and inability of birds to express
normal postural adjustment and to access feed.
Several authors agreed that the feed consumption
decreases with increasing stocking density
(Scholtyssek and Gschwindt 1983, Thomas et al.,
2004). However, the study revealed that increased
stocking density reduced feed utilization in broiler as
2
shown by the birds in treatment 3 (13 birds/m ).

Table 2: Effect of Stocking Density on Growth Performance of Broiler

Chickens
Parameters T1 T2 T3 SEM (±)
Initial weight (kg) 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.01
Final weight (kg) 1.91 1.77 1.56 0.10
Weight gain (kg) 1.87 1.72 1.52 0.10
Feed intake (kg) 5.84 5.27 5.02 0.13
Feed conversion 3.12 3.06 3.30 0.20
ratio
9.25 13.33 10.27 0.10
Mortality (%)
T1 - 7 birds/m2; T2 - 10 birds/m2; T3 - 13 birds/m2

Table 3 shows the result of stocking eviscerated weight of the chickens were
density on carcass characteristics of not significantly (p < 0.05) affected by
broiler chickens. The results shows that the stocking density. However, the
live weight, de-feathered weight and dressed weight of the chicken were

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significantly affected (p < 0.05) by the in birds raised on 13 birds/m2 (1.42kg).

stocking density. Chicken raised on The result also showed that there were no
stocking density of 7 birds/m2 had the significant effect (p < 0.05) of stocking
highest dressing weight (1.75kg), while density on the cut parts and offal of the
the lowest dressing weight was obtained chicken.

Table 3: Effect of Stocking Density on Carcass Characteristics of Broiler

Chicken
Parameters T1 T2 T3 SEM (±)
Live weight (kg) 2.48 2.46 2.10 0.12
Defeathered weight 2.19 2.29 1.94 0.10
(kg)
1.90 1.96 1.65 0.08
Eviscerated weight
1.75a 1.59ab 1.42b 0.06
(kg)
70.56 64.63 67.64 0.03
Dressed weight (kg)
Dressing (%)
Cut parts expressed as percentage of live weight of the birds
Breast 21.49 20.67 19.03 0.48
Wings 4.03 3.97 4.53 0.13
Thigh 5.00 5.52 6.30 0.12
Drumstick 10.41 10.86 10.22 0.15
Head 3.12 3.83 3.20 0.23
Neck 3.32 3.52 3.37 0.11
Leg 3.29 3.47 3.25 0.15
Offal expressed as percentage of live weight of the birds
Gizzard 2.22 1.56 2.29 0.19
Liver 2.38 2.55 2.99 0.22
Heart 0.67 0.70 0.76 0.05
a, b
of means on the same row with different superscripts are significantly
different. (p< 0.05); SEM (±): Standard Error of Mean. T1 - 7 birds/m2; T2 - 10
birds/m2; T3 - 13 birds/m2

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Table 4 shows the effect of stocking density on serum
biochemical indices of broiler chickens. The result
obtained showed that Total Protein, Albumin,
Globulin, Glucose, Urea and Albumin Globulin
Ratio had no significant difference (p < 0.05)
statistically across the treatments.It was observed
that, the serum biochemical indices of broilers
chicken across the treatments had no significant
different (p < 0.05). the value obtained for total
protein range between 5-7mg/dl and the albumin
value range between 2.00-3.50mg/dl and the same
for globulin which range between 2.00-3.50 mg/dl,
these value obtained for all the above mention serum
biochemical indices were within the normal range
for healthy, chick reported by Doumaset al., (1997).
This simply indicated that, stocking density does not
significantly influence the blood proteins. The value
obtained was in line with Jain (1989) who reported
for almost the same value which are within the
normal range reported for healthy chicken. Hence,
the birds are not susceptible for any kind of
infections of the internal organs such as kidney,
heart, liver, spleen
More so, glucose value range between 152.00-
185.00 g/dl which was in agreement with Yakubuet
al., (2009) who found that stoking density did not
result in a recognizable trend in glucose, albumin,
globulin, total protein e.t.c. which is an indication
that the birds blood sugar effectively regulated by
insulin; an hormone that regulates the blood sugar,
thereby the energy metabolism of the birds is mostly
effective and balance. The value of urea obtained for
the birds used during the experiment was in line with
the value reported for healthy chicken (Doumaset
al., 1997). This shows that the kidney of the birds is
healthy because the kidney helps to excrete the
poisonous nitrogenous substances which urea is
among, thereby ensuring total well-being of the
birds.

Table 4: Effect of Stocking Density on Serum Biochemical Indices of

Broiler Chickens
Parameters T1 T2 T3 *Normal SEM
(±)
Range
Total protein 6.37 5.97 5.77 5-7 0.77
(mg/dl)
3.47 3.50 3.00 2.00-3.50 0.55
Albumin (mg/dl)
2.90 2.47 2.77 2.00-3.50 0.22
Globulin (mg/dl)
181.33 182.00 180.00 152.00- 6.25
Glucose (g/dl) 185.00
1.14 1.16 2.67 2.76
Urea (mg/dl) 1.47-8.00
SEM = Standard Error of Mean.* Doumaset al., (1971). T1 - 7 birds/m2; T2 - 10
birds/m2; T3 - 13 birds/m2

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Table 5 shows the effect of stocking density on
haematological indices of broiler chickens. It
showed that parameter of interest investigated such
as haemoglobin (Hb), White Blood Cell (WBC),
Packed Cell Volume (PCV), mean corpuscular
volume (MCV) and Mean Corpuscular
Haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) had no
significant (p < 0.05) difference across the
treatments. However, there were significant
difference (p < 0.05) for the White Blood Cell
(WBC) across the treatments.It was observed that,
haematological parameter investigated were not
significantly influenced by the treatments except the
white blood cell (WBC) in which the birds raised on
2
treatment 3 (13 birds/m ) recorded the highest value
5
(18.37 x 10 µl) followed by those on treatment 1 (7
2 5
birds/m ) recorded (16.57 x 10 µl) and treatment 2
2 5
(10 birds/m ) recorded 15.87 x 10 µl). the increment
in the white blood cell (WBC) as a primary function
helps to fight against foreign harmful cell that try to
invade the immune system. The birds stressed up
will tend to produce enough white blood cell (WBC)
so as to fight the harmful cell such as bacteria, virus,
protozoa e.t.c. although the value were within the
normal range reported by (Mitruka and Rawnsley,
1977). It was also denoted from table 3, that the
packed cell volume (OCV) across the treatments
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
were normal, since the (PCV) range between 25.00-
26.60% and Mitruka and Rawnsley (1977) reported
that the packed cell volume (PCV) range between
25.00-26.00% for domestic fowl, the result was in
line with Oyewole (1987) who also obtained the
same value of 25.00-26.60% for domestic fowl in the
tropical environment.
It was also observed that, there was decrease in red
blood cell (RBC) as the placement of bird increases.
This could be as result of effect of high placement in
the physiological status of the birds. The value of
RBC obtained in the table were within the normal
6
range of 1.45 – 4.10 x 10 µl reported by MItruka and
Rawnsley(1977). The value obtained for (RBC) in
this work is lower than value reported by Epelle
(1982) (2.6 – 3.3 x 106 µl) these could be as a result of
environmental factors and management.
However, other parameter such as Haemoglobin
(Hb), mean corpuscular volume (MCV) mean
corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) and mean
corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC)
value were all within the normal range reported by
(Mitruka and Rawnsley, 1977) for healthy chicken,
indicating that birds were healthy throughout the
course of the experiment.
 ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Table 5: Effect of stocking density on haematological parameter of broiler

chickens
Parameters T1 T2 T3 *Normal SEM
(±)
Range
Packed cell volume (%) 26.67 25.00 26.60 24.50-45.20 1.4
Haemoglobin (g/dl) 8.97 8.40 8.97 7.40-13.10 0.4
White Blood Cell (x 103 16.57ab 15.87b 18.37a 9.20-31.00 0.5
µl)
1.55 1.46 1.49 1.45-4.10 0.6
6
Red Blood Cell (x 10 µl)
109.90 188.50 100.80 100.00- 2.6
Mean Corpuscular volume 129.00
34.03 37.53 37.53 0.8
(pg)
25.40-40.70
Mean Corpuscular
Haemoglobin (f/l) 33.63 33.53 33.63 0.04
25.30-33.90
MCHC (g/dl)
a,b,ab
: means on the same row with different superscripts are significantly
different (p < 0.05), MCHC: Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration,
Range: Mitruka and Rawnsley (1977), T1 - 7 birds/m2; T2 - 10 birds/m2; T3 -
13 birds/m2

Conclusion
2
Based on the results from this study, it can be concluded that the fewer the numbers of birds/m the better the
performance and carcass yield of the birds.It can therefore be recommended that a stocking density of 7
broilers/m2 should be adopted by farmers to maximize productivity.

References
Al-Homidan, A. and Robertson, J.F. (2007): The effect of stocking density and litter typeonammomia, dust,
carbon dioxide concentration on broiler performance. Egyptian poultry science. 24: 37-51.
Bessei, W. (2006): Welfare of broilers: A review; World poultry Sci. J. 62: 455-466.
Biligilij, J. and Hess, B.B. (1995): Placement density influences on broiler carcass grade and meat yield. J.
Appl. Poultry Res. 4:384-389.
Chmelnicnal L. (2007): Relationship between cage area and yield of main elements of chicken carcasses. Pol. J.
food Nutr. Sci. 57:81-84.
Doumas, B. T., Watson, W., and Biggs H.H. (1997): Abumin standard and measurement of serum albumin with
biomocresol green. Clinical Chemical AOTA 31: 87-96.
Dozier, W.A., Thaxton, J.P., Purswell, J.L., Olarenwaju, H.A., Branton, S.L and Roush, W.B (2006): Stocking
Density effects on male broilers grown to 1.8kilogram of body mass. Poultry Science 85: 344-351.

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Edriss, M.A., Davoody, D.W and Pourreza, J. (2003): The effect of stocking density on the production
performance and carcass traits i broiler chickens. Proceeding XVI the European symposium on the
quality of Poultry meat, September 2003, Saint-Brienc, france, 695-700.
Epelle, J.J. (1982): Haematological studies in local chicken and their carcass with parent stock of Gold line
chicken. B. Agric. Thesis University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Fanatico, A.C., Pillai, P.B., Emmert. J.L., and Owens, C.M. (2007): Meat quality of slow and fast growing
chicken Genotypes fed low – Nutrient or standard diets and raised indoor or with outdoor access.
Poultry Science 86: 2245-2255.
Feddeses. J., Emmanuelm., and Zuidho, F. (2002): Broiler performance, body weight varience feed and water
intake and carcass quality at different stocking density. Poultry Sci. 81:774-779.
th
Jain, N.C. (1989): Veterinary haematology, 4 ed. Febinger, Philladelphia, U.S.A
Mirabito, Berthelot, A., Baron.,Bouvarel, I., Aubert, C., Bocquire, C., Dalibard, F., Sante, V. and Pottier, G.
(2002): Influence of reducing the stocking density on the performance, behavoir and physical integrity of
meat turkey. 11th European Poultry Conference, Bremen 2002. Abst., 35:4.
Mortari, A.c., Rosa, A.P., Zanella, I., Neto, C.B., Visentin, P.R., and Brites, L.B.P. (2002): Performance of
broiler reared in different population density, in winter in south Brazil, ciancia Rural, 32:3.
Oyewole, (1987): Comparative study on haematological values of blood of indigenous chicken in Sudan.
Proudfoot, F.G., and Hulan, H.W. (1979): The effect of four stocking densities on broiler carcass grade the
incidence of breast blisters and other performance traits. Poultry Science 58: 791-795.
Scholtyssek, S. and Gscqwindt, B.D. (1983): Investigations on stocking rate and feed space for broilers in deep
litter, poultAbstr., 9:198-202.
Shanawany, M.M. (1988): Broiler performance under high stocking densities. British Poultry Science 29:43-
52.
Thaxton, J.K., Emmert, J.L., and Owens (2007): Meat quality of slow and fast growing chicken Genotype Fed
low Nutrient or standard diets and raised indoor or with outdoor Acess. Poultry Science 86: 2245-2255.
Thomas, D.G., Ravindran, V., Camden, B.J., Cottam, Y.H., Morel, P.C.H. and Cook, C.J. (2004): Influence of
stocking density on the performance, carcass characteristics and selected welfare indicators of broiler
chickens. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 52:76-81.
Weeks, C.A., Danbury, T.D., Davies, H.C., Hunt, P. and Kestin, S.C. (200): The behaviour of broiler chickens
and its modification by lameness. Apllied Animal Behaviour Science. 67:111-125.
Yadgari, L., Kinreich, R., Druyan, S. and Cahaner, A. (2006): The effect of stocking density in hot conditions on
growth, meat yield and quality of featherless and feathered broilers. XII European Conference, Verona,
Italy. World's Poultry Science Journal. Book of abstracts. 62:603.
Yakubu, A., Gwaska, J.A and Salako, A.E (2009): Strain and placement density effects on welfare haematology
and serum biochemical indices of broilers in North Central Nigeria. Acta. Agric., Slonvenica. 94: 153-158.

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EFFECTS OF REPLACING PERIODS OF FEEDERS ON GROWTH

PERFORMANCE, CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS AND
HAEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF BROILER CHICKEN

Odukoya S.O.
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Ibadan
e-mail: sesanolubukola@gmail.com

Abstract
This study was designed to assess the effects of replacing periods of poultry feeders on the growth response,
carcass characteristics and haematological characteristics of broiler birds. A total number of ninety-nine
broilers (99) day old Anak broiler chicks were purchased and randomly allotted in three treatments and each
treatment was replicated three times with eleven birds per replicate. Bird in T1, were served with tray feeders
for two weeks and replaced with galvanized hanging feeders from third week till finisher phase, T2 was the
conventional method in which birds were served with tray feeders for four weeks and replaced with galvanized
hanging feeder from fifth weeks till the finisher phase, while in T3 the birds were served with galvanized
hanging feeders from day old till the finisher phase. Data were collected on growth performance, carcass
characteristics and heamatological parameters of the chicken. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences
across the treatments in all the parameters recorded for growth performance carcass parameters and
haematological indices of the birds. In conclusion, serving birds with chick feeders from day old to weeks and
replacing it with galvanized hanging feeders from 3 weeks till finisher phase reduces feed wastages and
increases higher performance and carcass yield.
Keywords: Broiler chicken, feeder, finisher phase, performance, period

Introduction utilization account for 65.45% - 69.33% of the total

The success of the poultry enterprise is mainly
determined by the management practices employed
by farmers which include personnel management,
bio-security, good and nutritive food, cool and fresh
water, housing system vaccination programme,
feeding system among others. Efficient feed
utilization has great effect on profitability as feed
represent the major cost of production. Difference in
the way animals consume their feeds is influenced by
the design and allocation of feeding equipment
(Hyun and Elis, 2002). In broiler production, feed
production cost (Nworgu, 1997).
Efforts to increase broiler production has been
intensified to increase their general performance of
the birds through the use of appropriate feeding
equipment. As a result, feed wastage should be
reduced as much as possible and this can be achieved
by the use of appropriate feeders at different stages of
growth of the birds as well as adequate feeding
space. Gietema, (2005) reported that construction of
feeders should be in a way to avoid wastage of feed,
prevent fouling of feed with droppings, litters and to

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facilitate ease of cleaning or washing.
Feed distribution and the proximity of the feeders to
the birds are important determinants of feeding habit
of broiler chicken. Thus, this study sought to assess
the effect of replacing periods of different feeders on
growth performance, carcass characteristics and
haematological parameters of broiler chicken.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted at Teaching and Research
farm of the Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology, Moor Plantation Ibadan.
Ninety-nine (99) day old chicks (Anak breed of
broiler) were purchased from a reputable hatchery in
Ibadan. All necessary medication and vaccination
programs were carried out. There were 3 treatments
(T1, T2, T3) and 3 replicates per treatment. A total
number of 33 birds were weighed and randomly
allotted into each treatment at 11 birds per replicate.
The birds were fed on broiler starter and finisher diet
with variation occurring only in the periods at which
each feeding troughs was used. Birds in T1 were
served with chick feeders for the first two weeks and
replaced with galvanized hanging feeders till
finisher phase. Birds in T2 were served with chick
feeders for the first four weeks and replaced with
galvanized hanging feeders till finisher phase. Birds
in T3 were served with galvanized hanging feeders
from day old till finisher phase.The birds were fed
broiler starter from day one to week four and finisher
from week five to week eight.
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Data were collected on growth performance of the
chicken such as initial weight, final weight, feed
conversion ratio. At the end of eight weeks of the
experiment, one bird from each replicate were
randomly selected, starved for 12 hours then
slaughtered by cutting the jugular veins. The birds
were dipped in hot water of about (65 – 85)OC and
defeathered manually. The dressed weight and
carcass weight was determined and recorded. The
carcass was cut up into parts which include head,
neck, wing, drumstick, thigh, shank and organs such
as heart, liver, gizzard were also weighed and were
expressed as percentage of live weight.Similarly, at
the end of the experiment blood samples were
collected from one bird which were randomly
selected from each replicate, 4ml blood sample was
withdrawn from the wing vein of each bird using
cotton wool, syringe and needle into a labelled sterile
universal bottle containing ethylene diamine tetra-
acetic acid (EDTA) as anticoagulant. This was used
to determine the Haematological parameters in the
laboratory immediately after sample collection.
The chemical compositions of the experimental diets
were determined according to the method of AOAC,
(1990), the data obtained were subjected to statistical
analysis of variance and means were separated by
Duncan Multiple Range Test (SAS 1995).
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Table 1: Gross composition of broiler starter and finisher diet (0 – 4 weeks)

Ingredients (%) Starter Finisher

Maize 55.00 55.00

Soyabean meal 30.00 27.00

Bone meal 1.80 2.00

Fish meal 3.00 3.00

Oyster shell 1.00 1.20

Wheat offal 8.40 11.00

Broiler starter premix 0.25 0.25

Salt 0.25 0.25

Lysine 0.15 0.15

Methionine 0.15 0.15

Total 100.00 100.00

CALCULATED ANALYSIS

Metabolized energy (kcal/kg) 2949.00 2914.00

Crude protein (%) 23.09 20.29

Crude fibre (%) 3.80 3.82

Results and Discussion
Table 2 shows the results of performance
characteristics of the experimental birds from the
results, there were no significant (p > 0.05)
differences across the treatments in all the
parameters recorded, treatment 3 with the highest
initial weight had the lowest values in almost all the
parameters recorded, while treatment 1 had the
highest values in almost all the parameters taken
followed by treatments 2 which is the conventional
method. The feed conversion ratio revealed that T2
was the lowest value (2.91 ± 0.08) while the highest
value has the observed in T3 (3.36 ± 0.08).
Birds in T2 had the highest final weight (2050.00g)
average daily and weekly weight gains (35.05g) and
(245.35g) respectively and lowest feed conversion
ratio (2.91) than those in T1 which is convectional
method. The differences could be as a result of the
birds having proper access to feed at the initial phase
with less feed wastage which was in accordance with
Emmanset al., (2001) who observed that in the
second and third weeks of growth, birds are still

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young and probably do not show much aggression
when disrupting feed. Birds in T3 with the highest
initial weight (100.80g) had the least final weight
(1787.30g) which was as a result of the birds not
having proper access to the feed at the initial stage.
Which was in accordance with Goliemytiset al,
(2003) who reported that easy access to the feed and
avoidance of feed waster are of great importance.
There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference also in
the daily and weekly weight gain across the three
treatments which could be as a result of the birds not
having equal access to feed that leads to non-
uniformity in body weight.
Bird in T2 and T1 competes favourably in terms to
feed intake while T3 consumed least. Similarly, T2
and T1 had the lowest values for feed conversion
ratio compared to T3, which was in agreement with
the study of Oladele et al (2001) who linked lower
value of these parameters to inadequate nutrition
which may be resulted due to changing in feeding
system. All these results shows that the way animals
consume feed is highly influenced by the design
(Size, geometry, angle, spacing) and allocation of
feeding equipment (Hyun et al., 1998; Hyun and
Ellis 2002).

Table: 2 Effect of Replacing Periods of Feeding Trough on the Growth Response of

Chickens

Parameters T1 T2 T3 SEM ±

Initial Weight (g) 85.00 87.23 100.80 2.11

Final Weight (g) 1991.77 2050.00 1787.03 57.88

Total Weight (g) 1906.33 1962.77 1681.23 58.49

Average Weekly Weight Gain (g) 238.30 245.35 212.00 7.08

Average Daily Weight Gain (g) 34.07 35.05 30.03 1.04

Weekly Feed Intake (g) 713.44 714.50 685.80 10.27

Total Feed Intake (g) 5707.57 5715.83 5486.27 82.17

Average Daily Feed Intake (g) 101.93 102.07 97.97 1.47

Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) 3.02 2.91 3.26 0.08

SEM (±): Standard Error of Mean

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Table 3 shows the result of carcass characteristics of
the experimental birds. From the results, there were
no significant difference across the treatments in all
the parameters measured, but treatment 1 has the
lowest live weight (2,100g) but had the highest
values in almost all other parameters measured.Birds
in T2 had the highest live weight of 2300.00(g),
while T1 had the lowest of 2100.00(g) in other
parameters taken T1 supersede T2 and T3 in terms of
weight of head, shank, leg, thigh, wing, liver and
drumstick. This shows that birds in T1 had direct
access to feed from initial stage to finisher phase also
in T2 there were feed shortage due to wastage by the
bird from (2 – 4) weeks before replacing with
galvanized hanging feeders while in T3 there was
under feeding as the birds were unable to access the
feed directly at the initial stage due to their height in
relation to the feeding through they were served
with. The result of this study also agrees with the
report of Hyun and Elis (2002) who reported that the
difference in the way animals feed is highly
influenced by the designs (Size, geometry angle and
spacing) and allocation of the feeding equipment.

Table 3: Carcass Characteristics of Experimental Birds

Parameters / Treatments T1 T2 T3 SEM ±

Live Weight (g) 2100.00 2300.00 2200.00 68.72

Dressed Weight (g) 1666.67 1666.67 1600.00 70.93

Carcass Weight (g) 1833.33 1900.00 1800.00 85.17

Cut Part (%)

Head 2.87 2.84 2.29 0.17

Shank 0.75 0.66 0.67 0.44

Leg 2.45 1.72 1.90 0.16

Thigh 4.72 4.53 4.58 0.18

Gizzard 2.14 3.79 1.96 0.09

Wing 4.17 3.80 3.88 0.14

Heart 0.31 0.23 0.36 0.27

Liver 2.07 2.05 1.40 0.22

Drumsticks 10.89 10.04 9.62 0.39

SEM (±): Standard Error of Mean

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Table 4 shows the result of the haematological
parameters of the experimental birds, the values
obtained for packed cell volume (PCV) ranged from
26.67 – 29.33% with T3 having the highest value
(29.33%) and T2 having the lowest value (26.67%).
The value obtained for haemoglobin concentration
ranged from 61.67 – 67.67g/dl with T3 having the
highest value (67.67g/dl) and T2 having the lowest
value (61.67g/dl). White Blood Cell (WBC) mean
3
value ranged from 310.27 – 323.57 (x 10 /dl) with T2
3
having the highest value (323.57 x 10 /dl) and T1
3
having the lowest value (310.27 x 10 /dl). The value
obtained for Neutrophil ranged (71.33%). The value
obtained for lymphocytes ranged from 26.33 –
28.67% with T3 having the highest value (28.67%)
and T1 had the lowest value (26.33%).
Mitruka and Rawnsley, (1977) ; Mc Donald (1996)
stated that if all parameters are normal on the
Complete Blood Count (CBC), then this is a good
indication that the bird is not currently fighting some
type of generalized infection or inflammatory
Table 5: Haematological Characteristics of the experimental broiler chickens
Parameters T1
Packed Cell Volume (%) 27.33
Haemoglobin comc (gm%) 63.67
White Blood Cell (10 3 /dl) 310.27
Neutrophil (%) 73.67
Lymphocyte (%) 26.33
SEM (±): Standard Error of Mean
171
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
disease process.Mc Donald, (1996), however
stressed that a normal CBC does not rule out the
possibility that the bird is an asymptomatic carrier of
psittacosis, a viral disease, a gram negative bacteria,
or has a localized infection. From the result obtained,
it was deduced that there was no significant
difference (p > 0.05) in blood parameters measured
across the dietary treatments. The values obtained
for PCV and HB fall within the recommended
numerical value for normal chicken (Mitruka and
Rawnsley, 1997). This indicates adequate nutrition
for these birds, in accordance with the report of
Ikhimioya, (2000).Oladele, et al (2001) linked
values of these parameters to inadequate nutrition
which may be resulted due to changing in feeding
system. The variation observed in WBC, Neutrophil
and lymphocytes across the treatments was an
indication of a better utilization of the experimental
diet. This observation supports the finding of
McDonald (1996) as a result of the high response of
the defence mechanism (immune response) of the
birds to defend the body.
T2 T3 SEM ±
26.67 29.33 2.47
61.67 67.67 5.85
323.57 320.70 28.09
72.33 71.33 2.56
27.67 28.67 2.56
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Conclusion
From the results obtained, it could be concluded that serving birds with chick feeders from day old to weeks and
replacing it with galvanized hanging feeders from 3 weeks till finisher phase reduces feed wastages and
increases higher performance and carcass yield. Similarly, time of replacing feeders have no significant
changes on the haematological indices of the experimental birds.Since treatment 1 supersedes treatment 2
which is the conventional method in terms of growth and carcass yield, it is therefore recommended that the use
of chicks feeders from day old for 2 weeks and replacing it with galvanized hanging feeder from 3 weeks till
finisher phase.
References
th
A.O.A.C., (1990): Official Methods of Analytical (14 Ed) Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Washinton, DC.
Donaldson, W.E., Combs C.E., Edward, G.L., and Suples, W.C. (1998): Body composition, energy intake, feed
efficiency of browning chickens and influenced by caloric: Protein Poultry Science. 34: 1190 – 1193.
Emmans, G.C., Kyriazakis, I. (2001): Consequences of genetic chamge in farm animals on food intake and
feeding behaviour. Proceedings of Nutrition society, cork republic of Ireland; (60): 115 – 125 link.
Goliomytis, M., Panopoulou E., Rogdakis E, (2003): Growth curves for body weight and major component
parts, feed consumption and mortality of male broiler chickens raised to maturity. Poultry Science
2003; 82: 1061 – 1068.
Hyun, Y. Ellis M. (2002): Effect of group size and feeder type on growth performance and feeding on finishing
pigs. Journal of Animal Science 2002; 80: 568 – 574.
Hyun Y., Ellis M., and Johnson, R.W (1998): Effects of feeder type, space allowance and mixing on the growth
performance and feed intake pattern of growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 1998: 76: 2771 –
2778.
Ikhimioya, (2000): The nutrient intake of given a choice of diets in relation to their protein requirement. Br.
Poult. Sci.18: 227 -236.
McDonald, S. (1996): Complete blood count. Midwest Bird Exotic Animal Hospital, 1923 south Mannhei
road, Westchester,IL 60154.
Mitruka, A. J., and O. Rawnsley (1977): Standard blood parameters of avian species. Poultry Science 96: 109 –
110.
Nworgu F.C., Adebowale F.A., OredeinO.A.and Oni A. (1999). Prospects and economies of broiler production
using two plant protein sources. Tropical Journal of Animal Sci. 2: 159-166.
Oladele, S.B., Ayo, J.O., Esiero, K.A and Ogundipe, S.O., (2001): Seasonal and sex variations in packed cell
volume, haemoglobin and total protein of indigenous Ducks in Zaria, Nigeria journal of tropical
Bioscience 40: 84 -88.
S.A.S (1995): Poultry S.A.S users guide; statistics version 6.12 edition.

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MARKETING MARGIN AND STRUCTURE OF DRIED YAM IN

IBADAN METROPOLIS, OYO STATE.
*Ogunleye,T.B., Taiwo, O.D., Hamzat, O. A., Ishie D.N.and Esezobor, O.S.
Department of Agribusiness Management, Federal College of Animal Health and Production
Technology Moor Plantation, P. M. B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: tolulopeomojola@yahoo.com; GSM: + 2348038272095

Abstract
Dried yam marketing margin and structure was the focus of this study carried out in Ibadan, South -western
Nigeria. Dried yam is a common staple cropthat was once fresh yam tubers peeled; chipped and dried that is
processed into flour and consumed in especially in Oyo state. The study involved eliciting information through
interview schedules and questionnaires from 125 dried yam sellers using multi-staged sampling techniques.
Descriptive statistics, Marketing margins and Gini coefficient analysis were used to analyze the data. The
descriptive statistics revealed that dried yam business was a female dominated enterprise with mean age of 43
years. Majority (48%) of yam sellers had secondary education. The marketing margins calculated across
Bodija, Ojaoba and Orita-merin markets were7.3%, 8.9% and 7.6% respectively. However, the Gini coefficient
from the data was 0.551 and it implies an inequitable distribution of market shares and income of sellers. This is
a reflection of inefficiencies of market structure in dried yam business.
Keywords: Agriculture; Yam value addition; Marketing margin; Market structure; Gini coefficient.

Introduction after cassava, yams are the most commonly

Yam (Dioscorea species) is an annual tuber and
monocotyledonous crop. It is a staple food crop in
the Nigeria food system. Nigeria alone accounted for
26million tonnes followed by Ghana and Cote
d'Ivoire with 3million and2.9million tonnes
respectively (IITA, 2006). The most economically
important species grown as staple foods in Africa are
Dioscorearotundata (white guinea yam), Dioscorea.
cayanensis (yellow yam) Dioscorea. durnetorum
(bitter yam), and Dioscorea. bulbifera (aerial yam),
(Onwueme 1978; Raemaekers, 2003). Yam tubers
are the consumable product of yam crop and the
tubers are sources of carbohydrate. It accounts for
over 70% of the daily calorie intake of millions of
people in (Onwueme 1978). Yams are the fifth most
harvested crops in Nigeria, following after cassava,
maize, guinea corn, and beans/cowpeas. More so,
harvested tuber crops in the country (National
Bureau of Statistics, 2012). Yams do not only serve
as the main source of earnings and food
consumption, but also as a major employer of labour
in Nigeria. Yam is therefore a highly economic crop
that contributes greatly to gross domestic product of
the country (Salako et al, 2002).
Dried yams are fresh yam tubers that are peeled,
sliced, blanched, steeped and sun-dried (Omohimi et
al., 2007). It is an improvement of fresh yam tubers
in order to minimize losses by reducing the moisture
content Akissoe et al (2003). The nutritional value of
yam flakes has been recently assessed by Omohimi
et al. (2007).
Over the last few years, much attention has been
drawn to the quality of dehydrated food product

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obtained through yam processing. The lack of
quality consciousness by the producers and sellers is
astonishing, considering the fact that processed yam
of various forms is a major staple food in the country,
there are many export opportunities for Nigerian
products to countries in the West African sub- region
(Philips et al, 2004). From the foregoing, there is
need for yam-based research and development in
Nigeria to exploit the technological opportunity for
development of storage, processing and marketing
infrastructure of yam crop.
Yam flakes is one of the Nigerian Food products
which could be exported if produced and displayed
in a more hygienic condition. Also, yam flakes
production have been faced with constraints which
includes poor processing, inadequate storage
facilities, poor transportation, lack of infrastructural
facilities and problems associated with climatic
change, numerous efforts have been made to counter
all these problems by individual business owners,
investors, government, policy makers and non-
governmental organization. These differ due to
various limiting barrier which has resulted into poor
return of their investment (Adenekan et al, 2012).
Also, the concentration of buyers and sellers is
scarce with respect to literature; this study seeks to
identify the marketing channel of dried yam and
estimate the market structure of dried yam market in
the study area.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted in Ibadan. Ibadan is the
capital of Oyo state and thelargest city south of
Sahara. It has an estimated population of about
2,550,593 (Nigeria population census, 2006). Ibadan
0 0
lies between latitude 7 N and 9 E of the equator,
0 0
longitude 3 and 5 E of the Greenwich Meridian. It is
situated in the rain forest zone of Nigeria with
rainfall of average distribution of about 1250mm and
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
1800mm. The temperature of Ibadan ranges between
0 0
27 c and 32 c with relative humidity of about 75% to
90%. The major crops grown in the state include
cassava, maize, yam, sorghum, cocoa, cocoa yam,
melon, peppers soya bean, bitter kola, walnut and
okra. The major livestock reared in the state include
cattle, sheep, goat, pig fish production and poultry
production. Ibadan is predominantly a commercial
center with various markets. It is known for cheaper
source of food materials because of the farming
activities which is the major occupation of the
neighbouring towns. The agricultural products from
these agrarian towns are brought to Ibadan for sales
at interval (Ashaolu et al, 2013).In this study,
primary data were collected by administering
structured questionnaire and interview schedule to
the respondents.
Multi-stage sampling procedures were adopted for
data collection. In the first stage, purposive selection
of three (3) local government areas from the eleven
(11) existing local government areas within Ibadan
metropolis namely; Ibadan north, Ibadan north east,
and Ibadan North west local government areas. The
second stage involves the selection of one market
from each of the selected local governments namely,
Bodija, Oja-oba and Orita-merin markets. In the last
stage, proportionate to size sampling technique in
which 50% of sellers were randomly selected from
each market to make one hundred and twenty (125)
respondents.
Data Analysis
Marketing Margin
Marketing margin, according to Kohls (1985),
represents the difference between the price paid by
the final buyer (consumer) and the price paid to the
first seller (at farm gate). It is a measure ofmarket
performance of the product. It isgiven as:
ISSN: 2811-1842
MM= SP – PPX 100
SP....................................................... (1)
Where,
MM= Marketing margin
SP= Selling Price
PP= Purchase price
Gini coefficient
The Gini coefficient has a value ranging from 0 to 1
expressing the extent to which the market is
concentrated. When G = 0, there is perfect equality in
the size of the distribution of the sellers and when G
is one, there is perfect monopoly in the market. It was
used to measure the level of sellers' concentration in
the market to determine the degree of competition or
monopoly in the market. The dried yam market
concentration was determined using Gini coefficient
and it is given as:
G = 1 - ∑XY………………………………….. (2)
G = Gini coefficient
X = Percentage/ proportion of sellers per period of
study
Y= cumulative percentage of sellers revenue total
sale per period of study
Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows the socioeconomic characteristics of
the respondents. The mean age of the respondents
was 43 years which showed that most of the
respondents were still very strong and energetic to
carry out the rigorous activities involved in the trade
and this could contribute positively to the
productivity of the enterprise. This result agrees with
Akerele and Obafunso (2019), who reported that the
average age of 43 years obtained for the yam sellers
in Yewa north, Ogun state, indicates an economic
active age that can make positive contribution to
agricultural production which may translate to
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
improved profitability of yam marketing.
The result revealed that majority (91.2%) of the
respondents was female and this indicates that the
business of dried yam is a female dominated
enterprise. This finding conforms to the general
notion that women are relatively more prominent in
farm produce marketing than their male
counterparts. This is in tandem with the finding of
Salawu et al (2014) and Oluwalana et al (2019) as
yam processing enterprise appears gender sensitive.
Most (48%) of the marketers had secondary
education. This shows that about 80% of the
respondents had formal education and it is similar to
the findings of Akerele and Obafunso (2019) who
reported that about 78.9% of the respondents had
acquired one form of formal education or another.
Almost (98.4%) of the respondents reported a
household size between the range of 1-3 and the
mean household size comprised of 3 members
persons indicating that the respondents do not have a
large family and it is contrary to the finding of
Ashaolu et al (2013) who reported an average
household size of 5 people in Oyo state.
Furthermore, 72% of the sellers were married. This
is in consonance with Ashaolu et al (2013) who
reported that 85.0% of the yam sellers were married;
Okwuokenye and Onemolease (2011), explained
the dominance of married people in the trade could
imply that yam trade is a source of livelihood for the
marketers and their families.
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Table 1: Distribution of the Socio economic characteristics of Dried Yam sellers

Variable Frequency Percentage Mean
Age (years)
21-30 15 12 43
31-40 26 20.8
41-50 38 30.4
51-60 39 31.2
>60 7 5.6
Sex
Female 114 91.2
Male 11 8.8
Educational level
No formal education 18 14.4
Primary education 40 32
Secondary education 60 48
Tertiary education 7 5.6
Household size
1-3 123 98.4 3
>3 2 1.6
Marital status
Single 8 6.4
Married 90 72
Widowed 13 10.4
Divorced 14 11.2
Total 125 100
Field survey, 2016

The result in Table 2 revealed the average monthly
sale of dried yam was ? 117,475 in the study area.
Most (48.8%) of the respondents reported to have
spent between 11 to 20 years in the business with
mean marketing experience of 12 years which depict
that the respondents were experienced and
conversant with the market dynamics of dried yam
and could easily use previous experience to sail
through future difficulties. Most (64%) of the dried
yam sellers used cooperative as a means of sourcing
for credit to boost their enterprise.

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Table 2: Distribution of market-related characteristics of Yam flakes marketers

Variable Frequency Percentage Mean
Monthly sales (? ’000)
141.001-150,000 85 57.5 117.475
151.001-160,000 10 9.6
160.001-170,000 23 24.7
170.001-180,000 7 8.2
Marketing experience
1-10 35 28 12
11-20 61 48.8
21-30 25 20
>30 4 3.2
Source of capital
Bank 2 1.6
Cooperative 80 64
Family and friends 30 24
Cooperatives, family and 13 10.4
friends
Total 125 100
Field survey, 2016

The results in Table 3 showed that majority of the key
players were retailers who mainly sell directly to the
consumers (end users) while very few of them were
processors and sellers; the remaining of the
respondents were involved in wholesaling. This
could mean marketers had little capital to operate
with and could be classified as small scale enterprise
owners. Also, Bodija market had all the three key
players represented with more retailers than other
markets. This could as a result of higher market
concentration of other food commodities as Bodija is
perceived to be the largest food market within Ibadan
metropolis. This is consistent with Osalusi and
Oloba (2018), who reported that Bodija market has
the highest number of sellers when compared with
other food markets. However, Oja-oba had more
wholesalers than the other markets.

Table 3: Distribution of key players involved in marketing chain of Dried Yam

Value Markets Total
Bodija Oja-oba Oritamerin
Processor and seller 3 - - 3
Wholesaler 19 20 11 60
Retailer 35 26 11 72
Total 57 46 22 125
Source: Field Survey, 2016

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Result in Table 4 shows the marketing margin of the
three markets under study. It revealed that dried yam
sellers in Oja-oba had the highest (8.9%) marketing
margin followed by Bodija. This suggests that
marketing of dried yam is a profitable business in
Table 4: Marketing Margin of Dried Yam markets
Market Selling price(N)
Bodija 3443200
Ojaoba 2761400
Oritamerin 1320000
Total 7524600
Source: Field Survey, 2016.
The dried yam market concentration was determined
by means of Gini coefficientMathematically, it is
represented by equation;
G.C = 1 – ÓXY ………………… (3)
Where G.C = Gini coefficient, X = Proportion of
sellers, Y = Cumulative proportion of total sale.
That is X = proportion of sellers from ≤ N15100000
– N18000000.
The summation total of sales is N14684415 and the
summation of proportion of total sales is 1 and the
summation of the product of cumulative and
proportion of total seller is = 0.44872
G.C = 1- ÓXY
G.C = 1- 0.44872 = 0.551
G. C = 0.551, that is, when G.C. tends towards 1; that
is the market is imperfect.
The yam market concentration was determined by
meansof Gini coefficient. Table 1 shows that 68%
(less than -? 150,000) of yam sellers accounted for
56% of the totalmonthly sales,8% (? 150,001-
? 160,000) accounted for9.6% of total monthly
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Oja-oba as compared with the other two markets.
However, this is in contrast to the findings of
Ashaolu et al (2013) who reported that yam market
efficiency was higher at Orita-Merin market than
Bodija market.
Purchase price(N) Market margin %
3192000 7.3
2517000 8.9
1233000 6.8
6942000 7.7
sales, 18.4% (? 160,001- ? 170,000)accounted for
24.7% of total monthly sales, 8.3% (? 170,001-
? 180,000) accounted for 5.6% of total
monthlysales, 8.2% (? 170,001- ? 180,000). The
result of the Gini coefficient for yam sellers obtained
in the study area was 0.551 and it implies high
inequality in the sale distribution and income among
dried yam sellers in the study area.This implies that
yam marketin the study area is imperfectly
competitivewith the market structure inclined
towards being a monopoly.This is in contrast with
study by Mafimisebi et al (2006) on the analysis of
thefundamentals in palm oil marketing in Osun
state,Nigeria, which shows Ginicoefficient of
0.4277,meaning low levelincome inequality.
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Table 3: Result of the Gini- Coefficient Analysis showing the distribution of Dried Yam
Sellers by monthly Sales in selected Markets Ibadan, Oyo State

Cumulative
Proportion Cumulative Cumulative Total Sale Proportion Proportion Total
Sales (? ) Freq. (X) Freq. Proportion (? ) Total Sale Sale (Y) XY
=
150,000.00 85 0.68 85 0.68 8443750 0.575 0.575 0.391
150,001.00-
160,000.00 10 0.08 95 0.76 1407500 0.096 0.671 0.00768
160,001.00
–
170,000.00 23 0.184 118 0.94 3630000 0.247 0.918 0.045448
170,001.00
-180,000.00 7 0.056 125 1 1203165 0.082 1 0.004592
Total 14684415 1.000000 0.44872

Source: Field Survey, 2016

Table 6 showed the constraints facing yam flakes
marketers in the study area. The major constraints
faced by the respondents were unfavorable weather
condition (88.0%), and a major constraint that affect
all the key actors along the dried yam value chain
including the end users. This is germane to the shelf
life ofdriedyam especially during the wet season as it
affects the quality of the flour when milled.
Oluwalana et al (2019), mentioned that climate
change(66.7%) is among the problems faced by yam
flour traders in Saki, Oyo state. Another constraint
was supply of product (84.8%) considering the value
chain analysis of yam tubers especially during the
wet season.Conversely, transportation (27.2%), was
not really considered a constraint as the product is
dried, devoid of moisture and not as heavy as the yam
tubers. This is in consonance with Oluwalana et al
(2019)who worked on the economics of yam flour
and reported that 64.9%of the respondents claimed
that transportation was not a major constraints to
them however, in contrast to the findings of Akerele
and Obafunso (2019),who reported for yam tubers
that transporting yam output to market is a constraint
which could result in low income and losses
resulting from breakages and spoilage.

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Conclusion and Recommendation market) depicting greater inequalityinincome

distribution of the sellers. The major constraint
The study revealed that Yam flakes markets were
facing the respondents was unfavorable weather
majorly dominated by the female folks in their active
condition. Based on the findings of the study, the
age with majority having secondary education. Most
following recommendation was made; dried yam
of the marketers sourced for credit through
sellers should be encouraged through the provision
cooperative with mean marketing experience of 12
of accessible and low interest loan to be able to
years. The Marketing margin of the three markets
operate on a larger business scale that can
showed that Oja- oba market had the highest which
accommodate higher volumes quantities of dried
suggests that dried yam business was profitable there
yam during the dry season then store in a better
than the two markets. The market structure of dried
environment that is protected against unfavorable
sellers in the study area was monopoly (imperfect
weather.

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DETERMINATION OF BROMATE AND SELECTED HEAVY METALS

LEVELS IN SOME COMMONLY AVAILABLE BREAD SAMPLES WITHIN
IBADAN METROPOLIS

Ojezele OJ*, Obisesan LO, Odusola KB, Shorinmade AY, Adamu MM, Obero OJ,
Oyeleke PO, Okparaocha FJ

Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal College of Animal Health and Production
Technology, PMB 5029, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: Tel: +2348066463730, E-mail: omolaraojezele@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Materials used in bread making and the environments where bakeries are sited are not free from varying

degrees of heavy metal contaminations. Potassium bromate is added to flour in order to enhance the maturing

process and increase the bread size artificially. However, the presence of bromate in bread has been associated

with toxicological risks to consumers. This work was done to determine of bromate and selected heavy metals

levels in some commonly available bread samples within Ibadan metropolis. The samples obtained were

digested according to Association of Analytical Chemist method and analyzed using Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer (AAS) while the bromate analysis was carried outusing UV Spectrophotometer.The range

of the heavy metals (mg/kg) determined were Fe:0.456-0.683, Ni:0.002-0.017 but not detected in FB and SD,

Cd: 0.010-0.043 except in XY and UB where it was not detected, Cu: 0.034-0.064, Zn:0.320-0.456.The heavy

metal levels were below the WHO/FAO standard. Potassium Bromate was detected in all the samples and the

levels (mg/kg) in the bread samples were 0.133, 0.147, 0.128, 0.089, 0.145, 0.134, and 0.144. The presence of

heavy metals and Bromate in bread samples can pose toxicological risk to health after long exposure.

INTRODUCTION needed by the body and also plays an important role

Bread is a staple food that is closely related to in balancing blood glucose levels (Andrikopoulos,

people's daily life, Nigeria inclusive. It is prepared 2010; Psaltakis 2002.) Potassium bromate,

by baking dough which consists of flour, leavening commonly referred to as “bromate,” is a slow-acting

agents, water and other ingredients.It is popular oxidizer, it contributes its functionality throughout

around the world and one of the oldest foods. Bread the mixing, fermentation and proofing stages, with

is an important source of carbohydrates and it important residual action during the early stages of

ensures that the consumer gets enough nutrition baking bread(Sivam, et al., 2010).

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Heavy metals are potential environmental slow wound healing, and lead to eczema and acne.

contaminants that are capable of finding their ways Potassium bromate (KBrO3), is a flour “improver”

into the food we eat and thereby causing human that strengthens dough allow for greater oven spring

problems. Many heavy metals are considered as and higher rising in the oven.. The primary concern

toxic contaminants when they occur in certain levels regarding the use of bromate in baking is its

in food (Rather et al., 2017). The major route by demonstrated link to cancer in laboratory animals.

which human beings are exposed to heavy metals Potassium bromate is a mutagen and shown the

through soil-crop-food pathway. (Das, 2006). Heavy potential to cause cancer. (Achukwu et al., 2009).

metals such as Cadmium (Cd) and Cr) are considered Studies have also shown that bromate can induce

carcinogenic while Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc multiple organ toxicity in humans and experimental

(Zn), Nickel (Ni) are considered as essential metals; animals (Kujawska et al., 2013; Ahmad et al., 2015).

however, if the concentrations of the later elements The objective of the study wasto determinebromate

are higher than their permissible limits, they may and heavy metals (Cd, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Fe) in selected

exhibit toxic effects in humans (Gulfrazi et al., bread samples in Ibadan metropolis using UV

2003). spectrophotometer and Atomic Absorption

Copper is an essential element that is required to Spectrophotometer (AAS) respectively.

maintain good health. The biological function of MATERIALS AND METHODS

copper includes metabolism, red blood cell The project was carried outat Multipurpose Science

(hemoglobin) synthesis, connective tissue Laboratory of Federal College of Animal Health and

metabolism and bone development (Izah et al., 2016; Production Technology Moor Plantation Apata

Prashanth et al., 2015). Zinc is also one of the Ibadan.

elements that contribute positively to the function of Sample collection and preparation:Sixteen (16)

the body. The importance of zinc in brain Bread samples (of 8 different types) were randomly

development and function is emphasized recently, it collected at different shops and bakeries within

was reported that hyperactive children showed some Ibadan. The samples were air-dried at room

degree of zinc deficiency (Abu Mweis et al., 2010). temperature, pulverized with mortar and pestle and

General symptoms of zinc deficiency in human sieved.

include retarded growth, hypoganadism, anorexia, Digestion and Analysis of bread samples for

mental lethargy, skin changes, and night blindness. heavy metals: All glassware used were cleaned

Zinc deficiency may also impair the immune system, thoroughly with detergent and rinsed with distilled

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water. They were then soaked in dilute nitric acid and samples obtained from different Local Government

rinsed thoroughly with distilled water. The element Areas within Ibadan metropolis are shown in figure

standard solutions used for calibration were freshly 1. Selected metals determined in bread samples were

prepared by diluting stock standard solution for each Ni, Cd, Cu, Zn and Fe. The result showed Ni was

element (1000mg/L) in nitric acid solution detected in all the Bread samples except FB and SD.

immediately before use. 1.0g of each sample was Nickel ranged from 0.000mg/kg-0.017mg/kg for all

digested with 15mL of concentrated HNO3 with thebread samples. Permissible level of Ni in food

heating on the hotplate at 3500C for 10-15mins in a according to literature (WHO/FAO, 1992) is in the

fume cupboard until a clear solution was observed. range of 0.1mg/kg. The main source of Ni in the

The digest was then allowed to cool and filtered environment are industrial production processes and

using Whatman filter paper into 50mL standard flask their emissions, road traffic with loaded petrol

and made up to the mark with distilled water. Heavy smoke, dust emission of coal and gas-fired power

metal analysis of the digested sample was done using stations etc. It was observed that all the bread

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer samples analyzed for Ni were within the acceptable

Preparation of Bread Samples and Analysis for limits, but they may still have toxic potentials, with

Bromate:1.0 g of pulverized bread sample was detrimental input becoming apparent after only

weighed accurately into 250mL beaker and 20mL of decades of exposure. Also, excessive content of Ni in

distilled water was added. The mixture was stirred food has been associated with a number of disease,

and filtered with Whatman No1 filter paper. A especially of the cardiovascular, renal and skeletal

measured volume of the filtrate was transferred into systems. Cadmium levels ranged from 0.010mg/kg –

a 20mL volumetric tube (8.8mL) and mixed with 0.043mg/kg for all the bread samples with the

1ml of 0.01M promethazine and 0.2mL of conc. HCl exception of samples XY and UB where Cd is not

was added. The quantitative analysis was carried out detected. Sample CF had the highest level closely

by measuring the absorbance of the colored solution followed by sample AO. According to WHO/FAO,

in a spectrophotometer at 515nm. Various permissible limits for Cd in food is 0.05mg/kg. This

concentrations of bromate present in the samples result indicated that Cd levels in the samples were

were obtained by the plot of absorbance against within the permissible limit.

concentration in the standard curve.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results of heavy metals concentration in bread

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Figure 1: Comparison of Heavy Metal Levels in Bread with Standard

However, accumulation over time can pose concentrations are within the permissible level in

toxicological risks to the consumers as Cd is highly foods (10mg/kg).

toxic and is regarded as the most serious contaminant

of modern age. High concentration of Cd exerts Zinc levels in the bread samples analysed varied

detrimental effect on human health and causes from 0.320- 0.448mg/kg with SD having the highest

severe disease such as tubular growth, kidney level while the lowest Zn level was observed in

damage, cancer diarrhea and incurable vomiting sample CF.Zn levels in all the samples were lower

(Sabine and Wendy, 2009). than the permissible limit in food as Zn has been

Copper is a nutritionally essential metal, referred to found to be essential for humans. However excessive

as trace element and commonly found naturally in intake of Zn has been associated with acute effects

food stuffs, but could be toxic when taken in excess. such as vomiting and gastrointestinal irritation

The concentration of copper in the bread samples (nausea, cramps and diarrhea).

ranged from 0.034mg/kg – 0.124mg/kg. Sample CF

was observed to have the highest level of Cu while Iron is an essential trace element required by all

sample CD had the lowest Cu level. These forms of life. In man, it is required for the synthesis

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of harem protein as well as many enzyme systems. of iron in all the five (8) bread samples ranged from

Iron deficiency is one of the most common 0.456mg/kg- 0.646mg/kg. The permissible limits for

nutritional deficiencies in children, women of child iron in food is in the range of 5.0mg/kg depending on

bearing age and pregnant women. The concentration the food stuff (WHO/FAO, 1992).

Figure 2: Bromate Levels in Selected Bread Samples

Despite the fact that potassium bromate was banned in reality examine the breads before registering them

by NAFDAC in Nigerian in 1993 due to its adverse or that, once registration number is given, there is no

effect on human health, Potassium bromate was device in place to observe the acquiescence by the

detected in all the bread samples. The highest level of bakers. It is eminent to recognize that, there are

bromate was observed in sample SB while the lowest principally two means by which humans get

bromate level was in sample FB. The result obtained poisoned with potassium bromate; by inhalation in

from this study indicated that, there is zero changes its powdery form and by ingestion when it is used in

in terms of the attitude of bread industries to the use food such as bread. Therefore, it is not safe for the

of potassium bromate in Nigeria nearly 16 years after bread consumer and the factory worker who works in

its ban (Alli et al., 2013; Ojo et al., 2013). a bakery where bromate is used as bread improver.

Surprisingly, every bread samples in this study The toxic effects of potassium bromate have been

possessed NAFDAC registration number. There is a expressed in literature (Giesecke and Taillie, 2000).

grim inference to this; it is either NAFDAC does not Conclusion: There were variable levels of the

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selected heavy metal concentrations in the bread the bread samples is therefore undesirable

samples. Cadmium was not observed in sample XY considering the long term effect as Potassium

and UB while Nickel was determined in sample FB bromate is a mutagen and has shown the potential to

and SD. The concentrations of all the heavy metals cause cancer. Bakers did not comply with the

determined in bread samples were within bromate free rule stipulated by both NAFDAC and

WHO/FAO limit. However consumers are WHO contrary to the “bromate free” indicated on

susceptible to toxicological risk over long exposure. their labels.

Despite the ban on the use of Potassium bromate in RECOMMENDATION

baking in Nigeria by NAFDAC in 1993, the presence Further study on bromate and heavy metal levels in

of detectable residue levels of potassium bromate in bread samples from other areas will need to be

done.

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Abu Mweis, S. S., Jew, S. and Ames, N. P. (2010). “Beta-Glucan from Barley and its Lipid lowering Capacity:

A Meta-analysis of Randomized, Controlled Trials.” Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 64 (12): 1472-80.

Achukwu, S. A., Ufelle, E.O., Ukaejiofo F. E., Ejezie D. N., Nwachukwu U. I., Nwagha W.C ;Nworie U.S.

and Anyaehie S. B. (2009). The effect of potassium bromate on some hematological parameters of

wistar rats. Nigerian journal of physiological sciences24 (1): 59 – 61.

Ahmad, M.K., Khan A.A., Ali S.N. and Mahmood, R. (2015). Chemo protective effect of taurine on

potassium bromate induced DNA damage, DNA-protein crosslinking and oxidative stress in rat

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Alli, L.A., Nwegbu, M. M., Inyang, B. I., Nwachukwu, K.C. and Ogedengbe, J.O. (2013). Determination of

potassium bromate content in selected bread samples in Gwagwalada, Abuja-Nigeria. Int. Health

Nutr. 4: 15-20.

Andrikopoulos, N. (2010). “Food Analysis, Methodology-Organology Theory and Laboratory Exercises.”

Athens: Bistikea Publications.

Das, A. (2006). Metal Ion Induced Toxicity and Detoxification by Chelation Therapy. In: 1st (ed). A Text

Book on Medical Aspects of Bioinorganic Chemistry. CBS, Delhi. Pp 17-58.

Giesecke A.G., and Taillie S.A., (2000). Identifying factors affecting bromate residue levels in baked

products: preliminary studies. Cereal Foods World, 45: 111-120.

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Izah, S.C., Chakrabraty, N. and Srivastav, A. L. (2016). A Review on Heavy Metal Concentration in potable

water sources in Nigeria: Human Health Effects and Mitigating Measures. Exp. Health. 8: 285-304.

Kujawska, M., Ignatowicz, E., Ewertowska, M., Adamska, T., Markowski, J. and Jodynis Liebert, J. (2013).

Attenuation of KBrO3 induced renal and hepatic toxicity by cloudy apple juice in rat. Phytother.

Res. 27: 1214–1219

Ojo, R.J., Kajang, D. D., Adebayo-Gege, G. I. and Akintayo, C. O. (2013). Analysis of potassium bromate

and hydrocyanic acid contents of commonly consumed loaves of bread and wheat flour samples in

Karu, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. IOSR J. Envtal. Sci., Toxico. AndFood Techn., 6: 42-46.

Prashanth, L., Kattagari, K. K., Chitturi, R.T., Baddam, V.R. and Prasad, L. K. (2015). A Review on role of

essential trace elements in health and disease. J. NTR Univ. Health. 4: 75-78.

Psaltakis, G. 2002. “Old Testament.” Volume B 'Exit-Lefkion. Ed. SOTIR. Crop: Exit Book: 16: 12-5,

ISBN 978-960-9575-42-3

Rather, I. A., Key, W. Y., Paek, W. K. and Lim, J. (2017). The Source of Chemical

Contamination in Food and their Health Implication. Frontier in Pharmacology. 8: 830.

Sabine, M. and Wendy, G. (2009). Human Health Effects of Heavy Metals. CHSR. Environmental Science

and Technology Briefs for Citizens.

Sivam, A.S., Sun-Waterhouse, D., Siew, Y. Q. and Perera, C. O. (2010). “Properties of bread dough with

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Additives and Contaminants. FAO/WHOJECFA, Geneva, 25-33.

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INFORMATION NEEDS, SOURCES AND UTILIZATION BY POULTRY

FARMERS IN IJEBU NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF OGUN STATE
1
Olarewaju, T.O., 1Olugbire, O.O., 1Orumwense, L.A., 1Awe, F., 1Oke, S.O. and 2Adekoya, A.D.
1
Department of Forest Economics and Extension Service, Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria,
Jericho, Ibadan, Nigeria
2
National Open University of Nigeria, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
Knowledge is important to improving poultry production and achieving desirable results in the sector.
Therefore, this study examined information needs, sources and how they are utilized by poultry farmers in Ogun
State.The study was conducted in Ijebu North Local Government Area of Ogun State. Multi stage sampling
technique was employed in selecting 60 poultry farmers used for the study. Responses were obtained through
the use of questionnaires and both descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. The results
of the study revealed that majority (85.0%) of the farmers are between the ages of 26-35 years. They were also
mainly single (65.0%) with about half (41.7 %) of them being female. The farmers agreed that they need
information on what poultry products to produce (88.3%), type of housing and environment management
(93.4%) and day-old chicks and their sources (76.7%). The common sources of information available to the
farmers are agricultural extension agent (16%), internet/social media (16%) and radio, television and
newspapers(16%). Furthermore, this studyidentified the most pressing constraints associated with poultry
production as lack of credit (30%). The test of hypothesis revealed a significant relationship between socio
economiccharacteristics of poultry farmers andtheir information needs. The study concludes that farmers need
information on various aspects of poultry production. Based on the above findings, the study recommends that
older poultry farmers should be particularly targeted through their association when disseminating poultry
information so as to help them adapt production technique to current ones.

Keywords: Information Needs, Sources, Utilization, Poultry, Ogun State

INTRODUCTION continued to increase in Nigeria (FAO 2011).

Agriculture is a major economic activity accounting Popularity of poultry birds in Nigeria is noteworthy

for 30 percent of the national income in Nigeria and and can be attributed to numerous benefits

large proportion of the overall exports. According to associated with poultry production. Poultry birds are

Connolly (2014), about three-quarters of the total good sources of protein either used as eggs or meat.

population in Africa depend on agriculture for Production of poultry birds is relatively cost

livelihood and the demand for various agricultural effective, thus, making it possible for low-income

products has continued to increase in recent years. farmers to start up the business (Heiseet al., 2015).

With the increase in the disposable income of the The return on poultry investment is relatively high

population, demand for agricultural produce compared to other livestock production and the meat

especially poultry products (eggs and meat) have is generally acceptable across diverse ethnic

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backgrounds and religious beliefs(Ojo 2003; Aboki production systems, particularly among small-scale

and Onu 2013). Furthermore, poultry eggs are more poultry egg producers is necessary to drive and

affordable for low-income earners compared to other sustain supply of poultry products in the country. To

sources of protein (Ojo 2003;Abokiand Onu, 2013). this end, this study examinedinformation needs,

This has broadened the market share of poultry and sources of information andhow they are utilized by

makes the business very viable. poultry farmers in Ogun State. Specifically, the

study identified information needs of poultry

The shortfall in poultry production amidst the farmers; examinedsources and usefulness of

growing demand has remained key challenge as it information available to poultry farmers. It also

reduces the net-marginal contribution of this assessed constraints associated with poultry

livestock segment to the agricultural output. This lag farming.

in poultry production has remained major source of Hypothesis of the Study

worry to the government and other relevant H01:There is no significant relationship between the
stakeholders in the agricultural sector. Recent ban on poultry farmers' socio-economic characteristics and
importation of poultry and its products by Federal theirinformation needs.
Government had further increased the need to MATERIALS AND METHODS
harness all the potentials of poultry industry in order
The study was carried out in Ijebu North local
to meet the anticipated growing demands for it
government area (LGA). Ijebu North is a Local
(Noremet al., 2012). However, it is regrettable to
Government Area in Ogun State, Nigeria. The local
note that this vital role of poultry production to both
government was established in 1979 and has its
farmers and the nation cannot be achieved if there is
headquarters in Ijebu Igbo at 6°57'N4°00'E.It has an
no effective communication channel and unless
area of 967 km² and a population of 284,336 at the
adequate information which is central to all
2006 census. It is bounded by Oluyole Local
economic activities including farming.However,
Government of Oyo State in the north, in the west by
village extension agents are known to be less
Ijebu East Local Government, in the south by Ijebu
knowledgeable inlivestock production as their
North East, Odogbolu and Ijebu Ode Local
training is more biased in favour of crop production.
Government and in the east by Ikenne Local
Generally, extension officers are grossly inadequate
Government. The region is partitioned into local
and effective communication of research findings to
wards Atikori, Oke-Agbo, Ojowo/Japara, Oke-
users is missing.A good knowledge of poultry
Sopen, Ome, Oru-awa-ilaporu, Osun and Ago-

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Iwoye urban I, Ago-Iwoye urban II, Ako- environmental condition, type of feeds and others.

OnigbagboGelete and Mamu/Ehin-Etiri. It plays The Rensis Likert scoring method was used for some

host to OlabisiOnabanjo University. items on the questionnaire. A Four points Likert

This region is occupied by the Ijebus, who live in the scale was used. The following points were attached

major towns of Ago-Iwoye, Oru, Awa, Ilaporu, etc. to items on the instrument. 4 – Strongly agreed (Very

There are several markets in the town but the most useful), 3 – Agree (Useful), 2 – Disagree(Slightly

popular of them all is Station Market. Also, several useful) and 1 – Strongly disagree(Not useful).

indigenes of the town engage in timber business so The data collected were analysed using descriptive

there are many sawmillsin the town. Multi stage and inferential statistics. Pearson Product Moment

sampling technique was used in selecting 60 farmers Correlation (PPMC) was used to test the hypothesis.

used for this study.The first stage involved random RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents
selection of poultry production centres in the local
Figure 1 shows that 85.0% of the respondents are
government.Usually, poultry farmers come around
between the age of 26-35 years. This implies that
such centres for feed formulation and production,
majority of the respondents are youth and within
veterinary services and purchase of stocks. The
economically active category. They are also matured
centres selected include Lakunce Farms Oru- Ijebu,
enough to respond to the questionnaire. This is in line
Customs Farms Ilaporu- Ijebu, and Oba Abib Farms,
with the findings of Butt et al. (2011) who asserted
Awa- Ijebu, Ogun State. From these centres, 10
that age of an individual makes him mentally mature
farmers were randomly selected from Lakunce farm
and able to take rational decisions. This also
Oru Ijebu, another 10 from Customs Farm Ilaporu-
corroborates the findings of past studies (Adisa and
Ijebu, 10 from Oba-Abib Farms Awa- Ijebu while the
Akinkunmi, 2012; Gingraset al., 2008, Okeke et al.,
remaining 30 farmers were selected through
2018; Oyelami and Ajanaku 2019) who reported that
snowball method in Ijebu North Local Government
younger people are more involved in livestock
Area.
farming than aged people. Figure2 reveals that
Primary data were collected through the use of
majority (65.0%) of the respondents were single. It is
questionnaires. The data consists of information on
likely that these youths are just out of school or
socio economic characteristics of poultry farmers,
graduates with entrepreneurial drive. Furthermore,
information needsandsources of information
Figure 3 reveals that about half (58.3%) of the
available to farmers. Other information includes
respondents are male while the remaining 41.7% of
usefulness of information in disease control,

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the respondents are female. This indicates that both Educational qualification of poultry farmers is

male and female are involved in poultry business. presented in Figure4. The result reveals that 20.0%

This is in line with the findings of Ogunwaleet al., of the respondents have SSCE with 41.7% of them

2021 in which majority of the respondent poultry with first degree or Higher National Diploma

farmers were male. (HND). About one of every five (18.3%) of the

poultry farmer sampled has National Diploma (ND),

Nigeria Certificate of Education (NCE). In essence,

poultry farmers are educated as majority (60%) has

at least a national diploma or certificate of education.

This agrees with the findings of Oyelamiet al.,

(2017) and Okeke et al., (2018) that poultry farmers

are educated. Figure5 shows that majority (66.7%)

Figure1: Distribution of Respondents by Age
of the poultry farmers have 1-5 individuals in their
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
household. Since poultry farmers are mostly single

(Figure2), it means that most of them are still living

with their parents or living within a family setting.

This is in line with the submission of Oyelamiet al.,

2022 whose study confirm that large household size

among the farming households indicates family as a

work force that supply the most needed labour

Figure 2: Distribution of Respondents requirement for production activities in the study
by Marital Status
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019 area.

Figure 3: Distribution of Respondents

by Gender Figure4: Distribution of Respondents by
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019 Educational Qualification
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019

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Figure5: Distribution of Respondents
by Household Size
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
Figure6 reveals that a large proportion (36.7%) of
poultry farmers are students. Since majority (60%)
haveat leastNational Diploma or certificate of
education, it is safe to assume that they are either still
in school or recently completed their education and
are involved in poultry production as source of
income. This is also valid as 65% are single and
mainly (85%) youth (26-35 years). In terms of
experience in poultry production (Figure 7), these
young farmers have between 1-3 years' work
experience (46.7%), and a quarter (25.0%) with 4-6
years. This shows the newness of these farmers in
this business. It further confirms poultry production
as an employment opportunity for youth.
Figure6: Distribution of Respondents
by Occupation
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
Figure 7: Distribution of Respondents
by Work Experience
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
Information Needs of Respondents
From Figure 8, it can be concluded that 45.0% of the
respondents strongly agreed that they need
information on what poultry products to produce
with another 43.3% of the respondents agreeing with
the statement. It shows that the young farmers need
to be properly guided as to which of the poultry
products to invest time and resources in producing.
This will ensure good marketing and returns
inproduction. The findings of this study on
information needs of respondents corroborates the
findings of Msoffeet al., 2018 and Fueet al. 2017
who opined that majority of the poultry farmers
sought information on poultry feeds and feeding, egg
production, poultry breeds and breeding, poultry
housing, and poultry diseases diagnosis and control.
Figure 8: Respondents opinion on the need
for information on what poultry products to produce
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
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Figure 9shows that about half (46.7%) of the 46.7% of the respondents strongly agreed that they

respondents strongly agreed that they need for need information on poultry growth, disease

information on the type of housing and environment prevention and cure. Furthermore, 45.0% of the

management for poultry farming, 46.7% of the respondents also agreed there is need for information

respondents agreed. This implies that majority of the on poultry growth, disease, prevention and cure.

respondents agreed that they need for information on

the type of housing and environment management

for poultry farming.

Figure 11: Respondents opinion on

the need for information on poultry growth,
disease, prevention and cure.
Source: Datafromfield Survey,2019

Figure 12 shows that 40.0% and 43.3% of the

farmers strongly agreed and agreed that they need

Figure 9: Respondents opinion on the need
for information on the type of housing and information about credit facilities for poultry
environment management for poultry farming
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019 farming. This implies that majority (83.3%) of the

respondents agreed that there is need for information

about credit facilities for poultry farming.Majority

(65.0%) of the respondents strongly agreed that they

need information on the marketing of poultry

products (Figure 13). Only a few (3.3%) disagreed.

This implies that poultry farmers need information

Figure 10: Respondents opinion on the
need for information on day old chicks on the marketing of poultry products.
and their sources
Source: Datafromfield Survey, 2019

Figure 10 indicates that 46.7% and 30% of the

poultry farmers strongly agreed and agreed that they

need information on day old chicks and their

sources. This implies that majority (76.7%), of the

farmers agreed that information on sources of day- Figure 12 Farmers opinion on the need
for information about credit facilities for
old chick is very important. Figure11 revealed that poultry farming
Source: DatafromfieldSurvey,2019

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across to these farmers. This is in line with the

findings of Angelloet al., 2016 who found out that

poultry keepers benefit more by accessing

information from many different sources including

veterinary shops, extension services, fellow

Figure 13: Respondents opinion on the livestock keepers, print sources, agricultural
need for information on the marketing
of poultry products exhibitions and seminars.
Source: DatafromfieldSurvey,2019

Information Needs Score and PrimarySources of

Information Available to Farmers

According to Figure 14, overallinformation need

score shows poultry farmers strongly agree (40%)

that they need information relating to poultry

production. Also, majority (55%) of them agree they Figure 14: Overall information score
of poultry farmers
have need for information in poultry Source: Data from field Survey, 2019

production.Information sources are very important

as the results indicated that farmers have need of

various types of information. Agricultural extension

agent (16%), internet/social media (16%) and radio,

television and newspapers (16%) are the most

common sources of information available to farmers

according to Figure 15. Although it is possible that

famers get information from more than one of the

above, these however remain the primary sources Figure 15: Distribution of farmers
according to primary sources of
available to them. It therefore shows that poultry information available to them

farming information will get to poultry farmers if it's Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
passed through one of the above sources. Famers

association with others also follow these sources

very closely, it thereby reveals that they also are

viable sources that can be used in getting information

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Utilization of Poultry Farming Information Figure 19 reveals that 48% and 45% of the farmers

Figure 16shows that information on disease control agree that information on breeding of day-old chicks

was regarded as very useful (56%). Such is very useful and useful to the farmers. None of the

information is seen as also useful by another one farmer said such information is not useful to them.

third (35%) of the farmers. Also, information on Evidence on figure 20 shows that poultry farmers

environmental condition and management (Figure agreed that information on marketing of poultry

17) was rated as very useful by some (40%) of the products is very useful (45%) to them. Marketing

farmers. Majority (51%) also however regarded the and sales of products is important in poultry

information as useful. Figure 18 reveals that production because it increases returns so

information on feed for different poultry type is very information on marketing is very important. The

useful (48%). Very few (2%) of them only said such result has further corroborated this as majority (89%)

information is not useful to them. of farmers agrees that information on marketing is

useful to them.

Figure 16: Utilization of poultry information Figure 19: Breeding of day-old chicks
on disease control Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019

Figure 17: Environmental condition Figure 20:Marketing of products

and management Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
Constraints Associated with Poultry Production

The result presented on Figure 21 shows that lack of

credit (30%) was the most pressing constraint

identified by poultry farmers. This is followed by

irrelevant messages from agricultural extension

Figure 18:Feed of different poultry type
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019 agents (24%) and un-timeliness of relevant

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Thus, there is relationship between socio-economic

information (24%). This is in line with earlier reports
(Okeke et al., 2018;Oyelami and Ajanaku, 2019) that
finance is one of the major constraints of livestock
Farmers.
characteristic of poultry farmers and their
information needs.
Therefore, the higher the age of poultry farmers, the

higher their information need. It shows that older

farmers will require more information about poultry

farming. The younger farmers are more likely to be

more proactive and therefore require lesser

information in poultry farming as against the older

ones. This is in line with the findings of Ogunlade et

Figure 21:Constraints associated with

poultry production
Source: Data from field Survey, 2019
Test of Association Between Socio-Economic
al. (2017) where information needs of commercial
poultry farmers on environmental management
increases with increase in age of farmers.

Characteristics of Poultry Farmers and Their

Information Needs of poultry farmers

Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was

used to assess association between socio-

economiccharacteristicsof poultry farmers andtheir

information needs.Result shows that there is a

significant positive relationship between age and

their information needs at 0.05 level of significance

(r=-0.265, p=0.041). Although, marital status,

educational level, household size, primary

occupation and farming experience had no

significant relationship with information needs

(p=0.005), the significance of one of the

characteristics (age), had invalidated the hypothesis

(Table 1). Therefore, the hypothesis that socio-

economic characteristics of poultry farmers had no

relationship with their information needs is rejected.

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Table 1: Test of association between socio economic characteristics of poultry farmers and
their information need
Variable r P- Decision Remark
value value
*
Age .265 .041 S Reject
Marital status .073 .577 NS Accept
Sex .133 .311 NS Accept
Educational level -.106 .418 NS Accept
Household size -.237 .068 NS Accept
Primary -.065 .623 NS Accept
occupation
Experience -.096 .464 NS Accept
S-Significant NS-Not significant

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

products to produce, type of housing and
Based on above findings, it can be concluded
environment management, day old chicks and their
thatpoultry farmers need information relating to
sources, poultry growth, disease prevention and
poultry production and there is a significant
cure, credit facilities and marketing of poultry
relationship between socio-economic characteristics
products. Older poultry farmers should be
of poultry farmers and their information needs.
particularly targeted through their association when
Therefore, the study recommends that extension
disseminating poultry information so as to help them
services should include information about poultry
adapt production technique to current ones.

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PRODUCTION OF MOSQUITO REPELLENT AND NEEM OIL USING

NEEM LEAVES(Azadirachtaindica)

*1Shittu S. M. A., 2Ogunlesi O. O., 3Oloruntola R. F., 4Akinfoyeku A. F., 5Akinade A.A.
12345
Science Laboratory Technology Department, Federal College of Animal Health and
Production Technology, Moor Plantation Ibadan, Nigeria.
E – mail:*abdullahnacega@yahoo.com

Abstract
All over the developing countries in the tropical region mosquito menace has been very acute leading to many
diseases. Many chemicals have been used for the purpose of mosquito repellency or killing, however they are
extremely harmful for human beings as well. This research describes plant-based repellents for mosquitoes for
personal protection measurement based on the knowledge traditional repellent plants obtained through ethno
botanical studies; development of new natural products is the need of the hour. The product developed that
offers high repellency as well a good consumer safety. Thus this plant-based repellent made from dried and wet
neem leaves in ratio 1:2 mixed with propanol and starch in specific grams to produce mosquito SLT repellent
and tested with numbers of live mosquitoes and observed that at some interval, certain number of mosquito
died. Also, blended neem leave was fry with coconut oil to produce neem oil. Therefore, mosquito SLT is made
from natural source that does not pose health risk on human. In addition, neem oil is strongly recommended for
our body and hair treatment than chemical composition cream that might has effect on humans.

Keywords: Diseases, Mosquito, Neem Oil, Repellant.

Introduction (Azadirachta indica). Neem oil is generally light to

Neem (Azadirachtaindica) is one of the very few
trees known in the Indian sub-continent (Puri, 1999).
This tree belonged to meliceae family and grows
rapidly in the tropic and semi tropic climate. It is also
observed that this tree could survive in very dry and
arid condition (Puri, 1999). Indian, it is variously
known as “Divine Tree”, 'Life giving tree 'Nature's
Drug store Village Pharmacy and panacea for all
diseases. It is one of the major components in
Ayurvedic medicine, which has been practiced in
Indian since many centuries.
Extract from the Neem tree (Azadirachtaindica) also
called 'Dongoyaro' in Nigeria are most consistently
recommended in ancient medical texts for gastro
intestinal upsets, diarrhea and intestinal infections,
skin ulcer and malaria (Schmutterer, 1995).
Neem Oil
Neem oil is a vegetable oil pressed from plant
dark brown, bitter and has a rather stronger odour
that is said to combine the odour of peanut and garlic.
It comprises mainly triglycerides and large amounts
of triterpenoid compounds, which are responsible
for the bitter taste. It is hydrophobic in nature and in
order to emulsify it in water for application purposes,
it must be formulated with appropriate surfactants
(Rajeev, 2009)
Natural Mosquito Repellent (Neem)
The attraction of mosquitoes towards human beings
is due to lactic acid and Co2 which is present in our
sweat. The chemoreceptors present in the antennae
of mosquito perceive the smell of the sweat. The role
of natural mosquito repellent is to mask human scent
Co2 which is present in our sweat. The role of natural
mosquito repellent is to make human scent
controlling mosquitoes is of utmost importance in
the present dry scene flow with rising the range of
mosquitoes is mainly due to deforestation

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industrialized farming and stagnant wall special
products like mosquito repellent for combating
mosquitoes are requires. Mosquito repellents based
on chemicals has a designed with remarkable safety
profile but even they are toxic against the skin and
nervous system and usually cause rashes swelling
and sometimes eye irritation. Hence, natural
mosquito repellents are preferred over chemical
products. (Thwara et al., 2001). Thus, this study
assessed the production of mosquito repellent and
neem oil using neem leaves (Azadirachtaindica)
Cultivation and Collection of Neem
Neem tree can grow under various conditions of
climate and soil types. The ripe seeds should be
grown soon after collection. Neem can also be
propagated in a variety of other ways. (Biswas and
Gapta, 2007).
Sample Collections
The neem leaves used were collected from the
Federal College of Animal Health and Production
Technology, Ibadan. While the coconut oil used was
purchase from Dugbe Market.
Materials and Methods
The neem leaves used were collected from the
Federal College of Animal Health and Production
Technology, Ibadan. While the coconut oil used was
purchase from Dugbe Market. Other materials used
were propanol, molder, starch, candle (grind),
Results and Discussions
Table 1: Ambient Temperature of Neem Leave
Day Morning(am) Temp(0c) Afternoon(pm)
1 8-10 28 12.45 – 3.30
2 8-10 28 1.01 – 3.02
3 7-9 27 12.00 – 1.08
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Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2
coconut oil, pan, electric blender, sieve, bowl, spoon,
aluminum foil, whatman qualitative circles of 150
mm filter paper , conical flask, funnel, grater, oven,
weighing balance, sprayer bottle, 2 litres of water.
Production Procedure of Mosquito SLT
Repellent
Separation of fresh neem leaves from the stem; part
of the neem leaves was air-dried for 3 days. The fresh
and the air dried neem leaves were blended
separately using electric blender.
62 g of blended fresh neem leave 124 g of dried neem
leave in ratio 1:2, 52 g of propanol, 17 g of starch, and
68 g of candle (grind) were weighed and mixed
thoroughly with spoon in a large bowl.
Small quantity of the mixture which is in paste like
form was poured on the aluminum foil using spoon
to smooth the edges.
The molder molded in form of SLT was placed on top
of the smooth mixture which brings the shape of SLT.
0
Then, it was placed in the oven at temperature 105 C.
After 15 minutes the Mosquito SLT Repellent got
dry shaped and ready for used.
For production of neem oil; after separating the
neem leave from the stem, it was blended with water
using electric blender. Blended fresh neem leave of
62 g was fry with coconut oil of 1 litre on a low flame
for 15 minutes. After frying it was allow cooling for
some minutes. And after cooling the neem oil was
sieved and filtered because of some particles that
might be present in the neem oil. Then, it was packed
into the sprayer bottle for use.
Temp(0c) Evening(pm) Temp( 0c)
31 5.00 – 7.14 29
31 5.11 – 7.01 28
30 4.00 – 5.14 31
ISSN: 2811-1842 Ann. Res. J. 2022, Vol. 2

Discussion
Table 1 shows the ambient temperature of Neem
leave. Day 1, from 8 am to 10 am in the morning the
0
temperature was 28 C and rise in the afternoon to 31
0 0
C and also falls in the evening to 29 C.
Day 2, from 8 am to 10 am in the morning the
temperature was 28 0C and rise to 31 0C in the
0
afternoon. It later falls back to 28 C in the evening as
it was in the morning.
Day 3, from 7 am to 9 am the temperature was 27 0C,
0 0
it rise from 27 C to 30 C in the afternoon and also
0 0
increase from 30 C to 31 C in the evening.
From day1 to day 3, it was only day 3 that the lowest
temperature in the morning and afternoon and
highest temperature in the evening.

Day 1 and day 2 have the same temperature in the

morning and afternoon but different temperature in
the evening. It was only day 2 that has the lowest
temperature in the evening.
In conclusion, Day 1 has the highest temperature
followed by Day 2 and Day 3

Discussion

Table 2 shows the proximate measurement of each

sample. Each sample was measured using weighing
balance before it was mixed together in form of
paste- like. The ratio of wet to dry was 1:2, 2 of wet
neem leave which is 62 g of 1 dried neem leave
which is 124 g.

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Table 3: Dead Number of Mosquito

Before using TimeInterval After using

SLT Repellent (minutes) SLT Repellent
LIVE 10 1 DIED
LIVE 20 1DIED
LIVE 30 4 DIED
Discussion mosquitoes died. Making total number of 6
mosquitoes that dead after using SLT mosquito
Table 3 shows the dead number of mosquito and the repellent.
time interval. Before using the SLT repellent the six
mosquitoes were all alive and strong in a net trap. Conclusions

After using SLT mosquito repellent, 1 died out of six
mosquitoes within 10 minutes the SLT mosquito
repellent was used, remaining 5 mosquitoes. The
remaining 5 mosquitoes were still struggling. Then,
after 20 minutes another 1 died remaining 4
mosquitoes still battling for their lives.
After another 30 minutes the remaining 4
Repellent made from natural botanical source such
as neem leaves for mosquito eradication are less
toxic as compared to those from the synthetic origin
hence it is safe to use repellent prepared from natural
raw materials since they have little or no adverse
effect on human health. Therefore mosquito SLT
repellent from natural source that does not pose
health risk on human.

References
Biswas, B., and Gapta S. (2007). Micropropagation of Elite Neem tree (Azadirachtaindica) . Protocols for
micropropagation of woody trees and fruits 32:345-357
Puri, P. (1999). History of neem leave. New Delhi
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(Azadirachtaindica).Formulation against mosquitoes malaria j 8:124.
Schmutter, (1995). Economic, socio-economic and policy consideration on neem's current for pest
management in: The Neem Azadirachtaindica and other meliaceous plants.Germany pp 559-578.
Thawara, U., Tawatsin, A., Chomposri, J.(2001). Laboratory and evaluation of the insect repellent
3535(Ethyl butylaccetylamino propionate and dect against the insect mosquito vectors in Thailand
J.A.M mosquito control assoc.(17). 190-195.n

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CONSTRUCTION OF NITRATE DETECTOR AND ITS PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION ON FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
*1
Shittu S. M. A., 2Ogunlesi O. O., 3Oloruntola R. F., 4Fajemiroye J. A., 5Agboola R. O.
1235
Science Laboratory Technology Department, Federal College of Animal
Health and Production Technology, Moor Plantation Ibadan, Nigeria.
4
Physics department, the polytechnic, Ibadan, Oyo State

Correspondence: Email: *abdullahnacega@yahoo.com

Abstract
Application of mineral fertilizer such as nitrate or urea derivatives to crops is an essential agricultural step
for fruits and vegetables production. This step may lead to accumulation of nitrate levels in fruits and
vegetables creating health risks such as cancer. This study aimed to construct a nitrate detecting device and
evaluating performance in some chosen fruits and vegetables. Construction of the device were carried out in
two phases: The circuit and The cases, by arranging the components like ( Arduino UNO, Nitrate sensor, Liquid
Crystal Displayed, variable resistors, capacitor, Buzzer, Push bottom, Crystal oscillator, Microcontroller and
9v battery) on the Vero board according to the circuit diagram of the device and minded the polarity and
terminals of some components during the construction before using plastic Case material to couple all the
component together and show case liquid Crystal Displayed and probes for effective use. The result shows there
is consumable Nitrate concentration (Mg/Kg) in fresh fruit and vegetables tested compare to the nitrate
concentration tested in rotten fruits and vegetables. It is also presented in graphical presentation. Therefore,
the concentration of nitrate detecting device help in detecting nitrate concentration in farm product before
consumption so also limit the problem like (lower blood pressure; Cancer cardiovascular diseases) that
rampant in our society mostly caused by too much intake. It is recommended that Farmers should limit the
application of nitrate fertilizer to their farm land and more research should be carried out on putting the unit of
the device in milligram per kilogram (mg/kg) for research purposes.

Keywords: Nitrate sensor, power, Audino Board, Liquid Crystal Display

Introduction antioxidant vitamins such as vitamin A and E have

The health effect of the dietary consumption of been used in secondary prevention trials for the

vegetables and fruit have been attributed to their prevention of lung cancer. Albanes et al (1996),

constituent including vitamins minerals fiber and so- Omenn et al (1996). These trial found that b-

called nonnutritive substance such as flavonoids and carotene, alone or in combination with vitamin E or

glucosinolates to name a few. Nothlings et al (2008), retinyl palmitate, increased the incidence of lung

Van-Duyn and Pivonka (2000). Dietary supplements cancers and cardiovascular disease mortality rates,

containing food components such as b-carotene and Omenn, (2007) indeed, meta-analyses of primary

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and secondary cancer prevention trials of dietary loss Bertoia et al (2015). Their low glycerin loads

antioxidant supplements consistently show a lack of prevent blood sugar spikes that can increase hunger.

efficacy and an increased risk of mortality, Vitamins and minerals in fruits and vegetables

Bjelakovic (2007). Clearly, more research is needed Fruits and vegetables contain many vitamins and

to identify the nutrients and food components of minerals that are good for your health. These include

vegetables and fruit associated with a decreased risk vitamins A (beta_carotene) C and E magnesium zinc

of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Whereas the phosphorus and folic acid. folic acid May reduce

health benefits of vegetables and fruit may derive blood levels of homocysteine a substance that may

from the contribution of their constituents of food be a risk factor for coronary heart diseases.

pattern such as the Mediterranean-type pattern, Fruits and vegetables for sound health

Trichopoulou and Critselis (2004), Visioli et al Fruits and vegetables are low in fat salt and sugar.

(2005). Recent research has found specific food to be They are a good source of dietary fibre. As part of a

associated with a decreased risk cardiovascular well_ balanced regular diet and a healthy active

disease. Recent prospective epidemiologic studies lifestyle a high intake of fruit and vegetables can help

have shown that green leafy vegetables are among to:

the foods most protective against coronary heart Reduce obesity and maintain a healthy weight

disease and ischemic stroke risk Lucarini et al Low cholesterol

(2012). The Dietary Approaches to Stop Low blood pressure

Hypertension (DASH) studies. Nitrate

Fruits and vegetables Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the molecular

Vegetables and fruits are an important part of a formula NO-3 and a molecular Mass of 62.0049u.

healthy diet and variety is as important as quantity. A Organic compound that contain the nitrate ester as a

diet Rich in vegetables and fruits can lower blood functional group (RONO2). Hord et al (2009).

pressure reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke Nitrate ion is very prevalent in the environment and

prevent some type of cancer lower risk of eye and it's naturally found in plant foods (i.e. fruits and

digestive problem and have a positive effect upon vegetables) as a part of the nitrogen cycle, it plays an

blood sugar which can help appetite in check. Eating important role during nutrition, growth and

non_ starchy vegetables and fruits like Apples pears development of plants because of their cumulative

and green leafy vegetable May even promote weight properties. Lucarini et al (2012). Nitrate is converted

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in mammalian system (through bacterial and ATmega 328AVR Microcontroller. It has 20 digital

mammalian enzyme action) to nitrate and then react input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as analog

with amines, amide and Amino acid to form N- inputs). programs can be loaded on to it from the easy

nitroso compound while nitrate does not have direct to use Arduino computer program. The Arduino has

to be biologically active in mammalian system an extensive support community, which makes it a

Gangolli et al (1994). Both nitrate and nitrite as the very easy way to get started working with embedded

sodium or potassium salt are used as additives in electronics. The R3 is the third, and latest, revision of

meat products to provide colour, taste and protect the Arduino Uno. The Arduino UNO

against micro-organisms; in spite of, excessive use Microcontroller board based on the ATmega 328. it

of these substance can cause toxicity and has 20 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be

carcinogenic effect in which higher dietary intake of used as PWM outputs and 6 can be used as analog

nitrate and nitrite have been implicated in the inputs), a 16 MHz resonator, a USB connection, a

efiology of human gastric cancer based on power jack, an in-circuit system programming

epidemiology and clinical studies. (ICSP) header, and a reset button.it contain

How nitrate work in human body everything needed to support the microcontroller;

Nitrate are vasodilator (dilator of blood vessels that simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or

increase their diameter) that allow blood to Flow power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get

more easily. Blood returning from the body in the started (www.pololu.com). The Uno differ from all

vein must be pumped by The heart through the lungs preceding board in that it does not use the FTDI

and into the body's arteries against the high pressure USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features an

in The arteries.in order to accomplish this work, the ATmega16U2 programmed as a USB-to-serial

hearts muscle must produce and used energy ( fuel) , converter. The auxiliary microcontroller has its own

and this requires consumption of oxygen that is USB bootloader, which allows advanced users to

supplied by the blood. angina (angina pectoris or reprogram it. The Arduino has a large support

heart pain) is due to an inadequate flow of blood (and community and an extensive set of support libraries

oxygen) to the muscles of the heart. and hard ware add-on "shield" (e.g. you can easily

Arduino UNO section make your Arduino wireless with our wixel shield),

The Arduino UNO R3 is a Microcontroller board making it a great introductory platform for

based on a removable, dual_ online, _ package (DIP) embedded electronics. Note that we also offer a

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sparkFun inventor's Kit, which includes an Arduino the components and materials like: Regulator,

UNO along with an assortment of components (e.g. power, the sensor, liquid crystal display, arduino

breadboard, sensor, jumper wire, and LEDs) that board, capacitor, buzzer etc. accordingly on the

make it possible to create a number of fun beard board in which it is carefully tested to confirm

introductory projects. its values , polarities as well as terminals before

Materials soldering it to the vero board .

The materials used are: The construction of the casing was done using a

Fruits and Vegetables, Nitrate sensor, Soldering iron, white plastic casing material which was joined

Wire cutter, Bolts and nuts, Soldering lead, together with bolts and nuts in order to hold it firmly.

Resistors, Crystal Oscillator, Micro controller,

buzzer, vero board, Capacitor, 9V Battery,
Regulator, Push botton, bread board, Probes,
connecting wires, Audino board.
Construction Method
Construction of the device was carried out in two
phases; the circuit and the casing construction. The
device constructed were carried out by arranging all
Working Principle
The block diagram of the constructed device has four
sections: one supplies power to the system with the
use of a 9V nickel battery. The second section is the
Audino UNO , the third section is the Nitrate sensor
that determines the amount of nitrate present in fruit
and vegetable by the used of probes and the forth
section is the liquid crystal displayed that gives the
amount of nitrate in pounds present in fruits and
vegetables as the output on the screen.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power

Nitrate Audino
Sensor Board

Liquid Crystal
Display

Figure 1: BLOCK DIAGRAM O F THE NITRAT E DETECTING DEVICE

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF NITRATE DETECTING DEVICE

RESULTS

3.5

TABLE : NITRATE CONCENTRATION IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLE (mg/kg)

N IT R A T E CO NC E N T RA T I O N VA L U E S IN m g/k g
3

FRUITS / FRESH ROTTEN 2.5

VEGETABLE
(mg/kg) (mg/kg) 2

1.5
APPLE 3.18 2.28

0.5
ONION 2.72 2.28

0
APPLE ONION BANANA ORANGE

FRESH ROTTEN
BANANA 2.72 2.72

GRAPH: GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF THE NITRATE

ORANGE 3.18 2.72 CONCENTRATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLE

Conclusion way, they take in larger amounts of nitrate which if

The entitled Nitrate detector device helps to detect
the amount of nitrate present in some chosen fruits
and vegetables. It is important to emphasize that due
care should be taken with spinach consumption in
childhood, but in people who consume vegetables in
larger quantities than recommended, because in this
continuing for a longer period of time could
adversely affect health .According to the research
work farmers should limit the excessive application
of fertilizer to their farmlands due to increase in
nitrate concentration in the farm produces.

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