‭Chapter 1: Energy Resources‬

‭// 1933 World Energy Council //‬

‭●‬ ‭published a report presenting statistics for reserves,‬
‭●‬ ‭and production of resources at the global level.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is a study group working to collect and evaluate data on resources‬
‭Natural resources‬
‭●‬ ‭resources that occur naturally in the environment‬
‭●‬ ‭undisturbed by mankind‬
‭There are two broad categories of resources‬
‭1.‬ ‭Renewable‬‭= can be replenished over a relatively short‬‭period‬
‭2.‬ ‭Nonrenewable‬‭= can be replenished in a longer period.‬
‭Fossil Fuels‬
‭-‬ ‭provides about 87% of all commercial energy in the world‬
‭-‬ ‭Tarbuck: “the hydrocarbons that may be used as fuel, including Coal, oil, and natural gas”‬
‭Energy and Mineral Resources‬
‭-‬ ‭fuel derived from tar sand and oil shales‬
‭-‬ ‭considered a substitute for petroleum‬
‭Formation of Mineral Deposits‬
‭-‬ ‭igneous rock processes and hydrothermal solutions‬
‭-‬ ‭cause the formation of mineral deposits like ore‬
‭Alternate Energy Resources‬‭– Because natural resources‬‭takes too long to be replenished‬
‭1.‬ ‭Solar Energy‬
‭●‬ ‭It is a free energy supply.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is a non-polluting energy‬
‭2.‬ ‭Wind Energy‬
‭●‬ ‭Wind force = taps a natural physical force.‬
‭●‬ ‭Wind power‬
‭○‬ ‭Abundant and non-polluting resource‬
‭○‬ ‭causes minimal environmental disruption‬
‭●‬ ‭Requires expensive storage during peak production times to offset no windy periods.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Geothermal Energy‬
‭●‬ ‭Earth’s internal temperature‬
‭○‬ ‭provides a useful energy source in some places.‬
‭○‬ ‭High-pressure, temperature steam exist below the earth’s surface.‬
‭●‬ ‭Around the edges of continental plates or where the earth’s crust overlays‬
‭●‬ ‭expressed as hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Hydroelectric Power‬
‭●‬ ‭power generated by strong falling water‬
‭●‬ ‭generate electricity from the kinetic energy in moving water‬
‭○‬ ‭the water has to move with sufficient speed and volume to spin a propeller-like device‬
‭“Turbine” = rotates a generator to generate electricity.‬
‭○‬ ‭1 gallon of water per second falling 100 feet = 1 kilowatt of electricity.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Biomass‬
‭●‬ ‭Production of biomass and biofuels are growing interest in sustainable fuel resources.‬
‭●‬ ‭Utilizing waste products avoids a food v.s.fuel trade-off‬
‭○‬ ‭Biofuels‬
‭○‬ ‭= represent a sustainable partial replacement for fossil fuels,‬
‭○‬ ‭= their net impact on greenhouse gas emissions depends on the agricultural practices‬

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 ‭Chapter 2: Water Resources‬
‭// WATER RESOURCES //‬
‭●‬ ‭Uses of water include but are not limited to:‬
‭○‬ ‭agricultural, industrial, household, recreational, and environmental activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭majority of human uses and require fresh water‬
‭●‬ ‭Freshwater = 1.3% /// Ocean water = 97% /// Frozen Freshwater = ____‬
‭Energy Products‬
‭-‬ ‭more than 95% of the economic value comes from energy products‬
‭-‬ ‭main energy products are: oil, natural gas, and gas hydrates (not utilized but have potential)‬
‭[ Arable Land ]‬
‭●‬ ‭capable of being plowed and used to grow crop‬
‭●‬ ‭traditionally contrasted with pasturable lands‬
‭○‬ ‭such as heaths which could be used for sheep-rearing but not farmland.‬
‭[ Waste Generation and Management ]‬
‭●‬ ‭process of treating solid wastes‬
‭●‬ ‭offers a variety of solutions for recycling items that don’t belong to trash.‬
‭●‬ ‭about how garbage can be used as a valuable resource‬
‭●‬ ‭Needed in every household and business‬
‭●‬ ‭disposes of the products and substances that you have used in safely and efficient manner‬
‭There are several types of waste disposal to conserve energy future.‬
‭..— Landfill —..‬
‭●‬ ‭popularly used method of waste disposal today.‬
‭●‬ ‭This process focuses on burying the waste on land.‬
‭●‬ ‭a process that eliminates the odors and dangers of waste before it’s placed in the ground‬
‭●‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬
‭○‬ ‭lack of space available‬
‭○‬ ‭strong presence of methane and other landfill gases‬
‭○‬ ‭can cause numerous contamination problems.‬
‭..--- Incineration/Combustion—...‬
‭●‬ ‭method in which municipal solid wastes are burned at high temperatures‬
‭●‬ ‭Wastes —-- burned —-- residue and gaseous products‬
‭●‬ ‭Advantage:‬
‭○‬ ‭can reduce the volume of solid waste to 20 to 30% of the original volume‬
‭○‬ ‭decrease the space they take up = reduce the stress on landfills‬
‭●‬ ‭Disadvantage: The production of air pollution adds problems of greenhouse effects.‬
‭..--- Recovery and Recycling —..‬
‭●‬ ‭process of converting waste products to prevent energy usage of fresh materials.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recycling‬
‭○‬ ‭is the third component of the Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle waste hierarchy.‬
‭Advantages: reduce energy usage, volume of landfills, air and water pollution, greenhouse‬
‭gas, and preserve natural resources for future use.‬
‭..--- Waste to Energy (Recovery Energy) —..‬
‭●‬ ‭converting non-recyclable waste items into usable heat, electricity, or fuel‬
‭●‬ ‭is a renewable energy source‬
‭○‬ ‭non-recyclable waste can be used over and over again to create energy.‬
‭●‬ ‭recognized by WTE (generation of energy in the form of heat or electricity from waste)‬
‭..--- Avoidance/Waste Minimization —..‬
‭●‬ ‭is the easiest method of waste management‬
‭●‬ ‭done by recycling old materials, avoiding the use of disposable products‬
‭●‬ ‭reusing second-hand items, and buying items that use fewer designs‬

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 ‭Chapter 3: Earth Process‬
‭// Earth Process //‬
‭●‬ ‭dynamics processes at work in the Earth’s landforms and surfaces‬
‭●‬ ‭the mechanics involved: weathering-erosion-plate tectonics‬
‭●‬ ‭combined processes that are in some respect destructive and in others constructive‬
‭/ Lesson 1: Endogenic and Exogenic Processes‬ ‭/‬
‭^_^‬ ‭Endogenic processes‬ ‭^_^‬
‭●‬ ‭processes of‬‭internal origin.‬
‭●‬ ‭take place inside the globe & started by forces inside the Earth‬
‭○‬ ‭take place internally leaving little impact from influences that take place internally.‬
‭○‬ ‭Causes: earthquakes, volcanic activities‬
‭Endogenic forces/process‬
‭●‬ ‭driven by the Earth’s‬‭vast heat engine‬
‭●‬ ‭movement of tectonic plates = product of‬‭convention‬‭currents in the mantle.‬
‭●‬ ‭Earth’s core = heat is generated by the‬‭radioactive‬‭decay of elements‬
‭○‬ ‭like uranium, thorium, and potassium.‬
‭●‬ ‭heat is transferred to warm the mantle = slowly circulates on the plates above‬
‭○‬ ‭plates are moved about, they interact by colliding, sliding, or diverging‬
‭○‬ ‭Resulting faults and earthquakes, volcanoes, creation of mountain systems,‬
‭or deep valleys and trenches‬
‭●‬ ‭Collusion of plates = The great mountain system and huge trenches‬

‭^_*‬‭Exogenic processes‬‭^_*‬
‭●‬ ‭anything that happens‬‭outside the Earth’s core‬
‭●‬ ‭such as the‬‭force of gravity‬‭, and energy from the‬‭Sun‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭processes acting at the surface‬
‭■‬ ‭which is primarily driven by solar energy‬
‭●‬ ‭Pressure Gradient Force‬‭= wind is created by variation‬‭in pressure over distance‬
‭●‬ ‭Pressure variations = created by the variation of surface heating due to unequal‬
‭distribution of solar energy receipt. As the wind blows it exerts an erosive force on the‬
‭surface to detach and transport soil particles.‬
‭Wind erosion‬‭= exogenic process‬
‭Erosion by rain‬‭is driven by initial evaporation due‬‭to the absorption of energy‬
‭The geologic work of glaciers is considered an exogenic process.‬
‭Glaciers‬‭= form when summer temperatures decrease‬‭and snowfall compacts into ice.‬

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 ‭/ Lesson 2: Endogenic Process /‬
‭ eformation of the Crust‬
D
‭Weathering‬
‭-‬ ‭physical disintegration or chemical alteration of rocks‬
‭Types of weathering based on how these rocks and minerals disintegrate:‬‭MCB‬
‭1.‬ ‭Mechanical or physical weathering‬‭FEAST‬
‭○‬ ‭physical disintegration and reduction in the size of the rocks‬
‭○‬ ‭without changing their chemical composition‬
‭➢‬ ‭Frost Wedging‬
‭❖‬ ‭caused by the freeze-thaw action of water that is trapped between cracks in the rock‬
‭-‬ ‭When water freezes, it expands forcing the rock to accommodate the expansion‬
‭-‬ ‭It gradually weakens cracks and breaks the rock through repetitive freeze-thaw‬
‭weathering cycles. It could produce‬‭angular blocks.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Exfoliation‬
‭❖‬ ‭pressure in a rock is released along parallel alignments‬
‭-‬ ‭near the surface layers of the rock along these alignments‬
‭-‬ ‭It breaks off from the bedrock and moves downhill by gravity.‬
‭❖‬ ‭occurs on metamorphosed rocks that are exposed to the Earth’s surface.‬
‭❖‬ ‭occur both very slowly and very rapidly as a form of mass wasting.‬
‭❖‬ ‭exfoliation domes‬‭= Large rocks can be characterized‬‭by exfoliation as‬
‭➢‬ ‭Abrasion‬
‭❖‬ ‭occurs when rocks collide against each other while they are‬
‭transported by water, wind, and gravitational force.‬
‭-‬ ‭constant collision or gravitational falling of rocks = slowly break apart‬
‭➢‬ ‭Salt Wedging‬
‭❖‬ ‭occurs when salt crystallizes out of the solution as water evaporates.‬
‭-‬ ‭salt crystals grow = apply pressure to the surrounding rock weakening it‬
‭-‬ ‭It eventually cracks & breaks, enabling it to continue growing.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Temperature Changes‬
‭❖‬ ‭Daily diurnal and seasonal temp changes affect‬
‭minerals and facilitate the mechanical weathering of bedrock.‬
‭-‬ ‭Warmer temperatures = minerals expand,‬
‭-‬ ‭Cooler temperatures = minerals contract‬
‭-‬ ‭The gradual expansion and contraction of minerals weakens the rock -break apart‬
‭2.‬ ‭Chemical weathering‬‭CHHOS‬
‭○‬ ‭decomposes, dissolves, alters, or weakens the rock via chemical processes to form‬
‭residual materials.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Carbonation‬
‭❖‬ ‭carbon dioxide and rainwater moisture in the surrounding environment chemically react‬
‭to produce carbonic acid (weak acid) which reacts to carbonate minerals in the rock.‬
‭-‬ ‭It simultaneously weakens the rock and removes the chemically weathered materials‬
‭-‬ ‭primarily occurs in wet&moist climates– affecting rocks on and beneath the surface‬
‭➢‬ ‭Hydrolysis‬
‭❖‬ ‭It is a chemical reaction between H+ and OH- ions in water and the minerals in the rock.‬
‭-‬ ‭The H+ ions in the water react with the minerals = weak acids (softer and weaker)‬
‭-‬ ‭commonly affects igneous rocks because they are composed of silicate minerals,‬
‭➢‬ ‭Hydration‬
‭❖‬ ‭mineral structure in rock forms weak bond w/ water = mineral grains expand = stress =‬
‭disintegration of the rock.‬
‭-‬ ‭produce new mineral compound (larger than the original compound) which can lead to decay.‬
‭-‬ ‭It can accelerate other weathering processes and may also be accompanied by hydrolysis‬
‭and oxidation.‬

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 ‭➢‬ ‭Oxidation‬
❖
‭ ‬ A ‭ ka “RUST”‬
‭❖‬ ‭occurs when oxygen and water react with iron-rich minerals and weaken the mineral.‬
‭❖‬ ‭Free oxygen + metallic elements = Oxidation‬
‭-‬ ‭the minerals in the rock will change colors = a rusty reddish-orange appearance.‬
‭-‬ ‭It accelerates rock decay, rendering it more vulnerable to other forms of weathering.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Solution‬
‭❖‬ ‭minerals in rock dissolve directly into the water‬
‭❖‬ ‭most commonly occurs on rocks containing carbonates such as limestone, halite rock salt‬
‭❖‬ ‭solution of large areas of bedrock == may cause sinkholes to form or collapse (depression)‬
‭3.‬ ‭Biological weathering‬‭PLODEM‬
‭○‬ ‭disintegration/decay of rocks and minerals = caused by chemical/physical organisms.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Plant Roots‬
‭❖‬ ‭most common form of biological weathering‬
‭when plant roots penetrate cracks/crevices of rocks = and cause the rock to split or break‬
‭-‬ ‭this process is gradual, it can be fairly effective at breaking apart rocks that have‬
‭pre-existing weaknesses such as fractures, faults, or joints.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Lichen, Algae, and Decaying Plants‬
‭❖‬ ‭ion-exchange mechanisms:‬
‭Organisms that live on bare rock and extract rocks’ minerals by ion-exchange mecha.‬
‭-‬ ‭This biochemical process “leaches” minerals from the rock = weakens and breaks.‬
‭-‬ ‭decaying plant materials = produce acidic compounds that dissolve rock.‬
‭-‬ ‭organisms growing, expanding, or moving = small abrasion and pressure as the‬
‭organisms extract various minerals.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Organisms Activity‬
‭❖‬ ‭Burrowing + tunneling + acid secretion of organisms = forms of biological weathering‬
‭❖‬ ‭animals may burrow or tunnel into cracks in rocks = the rock to break down and disintegrate.‬
‭-‬ ‭like worms, termites, and other insects = contribute to this biological weathering.‬
‭-‬ ‭snails, barnacles, or limpets attach themselves to rocks and secrete acids that‬
‭chemically dissolve the rock surface.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Differential Weathering‬
‭❖‬ ‭Weathering rates will not only vary depending on the type of weathering process,‬
‭❖‬ ‭they will also vary depending on the rock material that is being weathered.‬
‭❖‬ ‭Some rocks are harder than others = they will weather slower than softer rocks.‬
‭-‬ ‭The differences in rates of textures, or other characteristics are referred to as‬
‭differential weathering.‬
‭-‬ ‭This process contributes to the unique formation of many landforms including‬
‭pedestals, waterfalls, and monadnocks.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Erosion‬
‭❖‬ ‭physical removal & transportation of weathered material by:‬
‭a.‬ ‭Water erodes the rocks‬
‭-‬ ‭by transporting weathered materials from the source to another location to be‬
‭deposited.‬
‭b.‬ ‭Wind erodes materials‬
‭-‬ ‭by picking them up and temporarily transporting them to another location‬
‭-‬ ‭either stored or re-mobilized, and transported to another location.‬
‭c.‬ ‭Ice erosion‬
‭-‬ ‭particles are plucked up by moving ice and transported downhill‬
‭d.‬ ‭Gravity‬
‭-‬ ‭facilitates the downslope transportation of loosened materials‬
‭-‬ ‭move without the aid of water, wind, or ice.‬
‭-‬ ‭Gravity-related erosion is a major component of mass-wasting events.‬

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 ‭➢‬ ‭Mass Wasting‬
‭❖‬ r‭ apid form of erosion that works primarily under‬
‭the influence of gravity in combination with other erosional agents‬
‭-‬ ‭occurs very quickly and can result in small or large-scale changes to the landscape‬
‭Type of mass wasting:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Rock Falls‬
‭-‬ ‭occur when rock becomes dislodged because of a change in potential energy‬
‭-‬ ‭Potential energy → Kinetic energy = causing the rock fragment to fall, restoring equilibrium.‬
‭-‬ ‭Rocks may be loosened by a recent rainfall = causing the movement before it falls by gravity.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Landslides‬
‭-‬ ‭rock materials slide down a hillslope or mountainside primarily by gravity-related erosion‬
‭-‬ ‭occurs very quickly with incredible speed and destruction in its path‬
‭-‬ ‭all landslides are triggered by an earthquake or “lubricant agent” (rainfall, snow, ice)‬
‭-‬ ‭intensive rainfall = soil and weathered rock become loosened from the saturated‬
‭conditions that separate the individual grains and other material fragments.‬
‭Landslides = fluid pressures + loosened materials + gravity-related erosion + downhill‬
‭-‬ ‭are natural hazards & can cause serious damage to people‬
‭3.‬ ‭Debris and Mudflows‬
‭-‬ ‭heavy rainfalls produce large amounts of runoff that transport‬
‭eroded soils, sediments, etc. down the slope, the flows spread out across valley bottoms‬
‭-‬ ‭The consistency is thick, muddy sludge carrying rocks, twigs, branches, trees, etc.‬
‭-‬ ‭Are natural hazards that pose a threat to communities in their path‬
‭4.‬ ‭Slump‬
‭-‬ ‭a fairly common form of mass wasting where‬
‭-‬ ‭the rock or soil collapses, breaks off from the hill slope, rotates slightly, and slumps downhill‬
‭-‬ ‭Coherent = slump is a large consolidated mass of materials‬
‭-‬ ‭Incoherent = mass of unconsolidated materials or sediments‬
‭5.‬ ‭Creep‬
‭-‬ ‭the slowest mass-wasting process that involves a gradual downhill movement of soil‬
‭-‬ ‭entire slope is slowly creeping downhill as a complete unit‬
‭-‬ ‭occur nearly every hillslope because of gravity.‬
‭-‬ ‭evident by bent or extended tree trunks that adjust to soil they are rooted into.‬
‭-‬ ‭Solifluction = form of creep where tundra soils thaw out‬
‭6.‬ ‭Deposition‬
‭-‬ ‭is a constructive process‬
‭-‬ ‭lies down weathered & eroded materials in a location different from their source.‬
‭-‬ ‭can result from mechanical, chemical, or biological weathering, wind, ice, or‬
‭gravity-related erosional processes.‬
‭-‬ ‭The accumulation of deposited materials alters the landscapes‬
‭build various landform features‬
‭-‬ ‭floodplains = large depositional landforms built by the accumulation of fluvial deposits.‬
‭-‬ ‭Dunes = depositional landforms built by wind-related processes.‬

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