Indian-Political-Thought-ENGLISH--ckq7nm

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Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought
Contents
UNIT – I
Foundations of Indian Political Thought:
 An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought
 Cultural and Territorial conception of India
 Distinctive Features of Indian Political Thought
UNIT – II
Manu:
 Authenticity of Manu smriti (Talking Point)
 Social Laws and Conception of Justice
UNIT – III
Brihaspati: Statecraft, Justice, Inter-state Relations
UNIT – IV
Shukra/Usana
 Talking Point: Debate on the authenticity of Shukra-Niti
 The Concept of Kingship and Statecraft in Shukra-Niti
UNIT – V
Kautilya: Theory of State
UNIT – VI
Aggannasutta (DighaNikaya): Theory of kingship
All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/
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UNIT – VII
Tiruvalluvar: Ethical Life and Politics
UNIT – VIII
Basavanna
UNIT – IX
Adi Shankracharya: Advaita
UNIT – X
Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism
UNIT – XI
Abu’lFazl: Monarchy
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Q 1. Discuss the development, characteristics and sources of knowledge of Indian
political thought.
Answer - Introduction
Indian thought has a glorious tradition in the field of political thought. India was called
Vishwa Guru on the basis of its thought and philosophical ideas. Ancient Indian
political thought meant how the state should be run, how society should be
governed, and how systems of justice and security should be established. This thought
was achieved through ancient texts and scriptures which provided guidance for
political actions in ancient Indian society. Responsibility of the ruler, justice in society,
and religious and moral values were an important part of it.
According to Dr. Om Nagpal, "Enough had been written on political science in India
centuries before Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle's contemporary Kautilya, who can be
called the father of realistic politics,, is a testimony to the fact that India was never
behind anyone in the field of knowledge & science."
Development of Indian political thought:
The development of thought in India is considered to have started with the arrival of
the Aryans. Its time ranges from 1600 to 1400 years BC. It is considered to start from
the Vedic period till the Mughal period. The Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads of India are
excellent examples of ancient Indian thought. Kautilya's Arthashastra is an ideal
example of modern form of thought. The philosophy of Kautilya, a contemporary
of Plato, is practical. Indian thought is not only practical but also extremely useful.
The core of Indian thought is human and revolves around humans. Man became the
center point in Western thought in the 18th century. Whereas it is present in Indian
thought since the beginning. Indian thought is called by different names. Sometimes
it is known as Rajdharma, Rajshastra, Dandaneeti and Nitishastra. In Panchatantra
it was called Nripatantra.
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Sources to know about Indian political thought:
For the convenience of study, the sources of Indian thought can be divided into the
following parts-
 Native or Indian sources
 Foreign sources
Native or Indian source
1. Vedas – The oldest texts of Indian religious literature are the Vedas. It is in four parts
which are Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Yarthavveda etc. In these, the principles
of governance and the origin of the state are revealed through the Vedas. It gives
detailed information about the rights of the king, king-people relations and
governance policies.
2. Brahmins and Upanishads - The gatha commentaries of Vedic mantras and codes
are called Brahmins. Through the Upanishads, the contemporary society, government
system, king-people relations are revealed.
3. Epic – After Vedic literature, two pillars of literature, Ramayana and Mahabharata,
are composed. The credit for bringing out the ancient Indian social, political and
economic condition is attributed to
4. Puranas – Along with the epics, the Puranas provide historical material of their time.
These are contemporaries of the epics. It mentions all the material from the primitive
period to the Gupta period. From the political point of view, Agni Purana is of utmost
importance in which public welfare has been described as the basis of governance.
5. Memories - Memories have special importance from the point of view of historical
utility. The memories of Manu, Vishnu, Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati, Parashar, etc.
are important. These are famous by the name of Dharmashastra. In these Smritis, there
is a detailed description of general varnashram, religion, duties of the king, repentance

etc.
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6. Jain Literature - "Parishistha Parvan" written by Acharya Hemchandra is very
important from the historical point of view in Jain literature. This book gives a detailed
description of the Maurya period from the time of Mahavira.
7. Buddhist Literature - There are three main texts in Buddhism. Which is known as
Tripataka. These include Sant Pitaka, Dhamma Pitaka and Vinay Pitaka etc. It contains
a collection of Buddha's teachings. From this, knowledge of the then social, political,
religious and economic system is obtained.
8. Kautilya's Arthashastra - Kautilya's Arthashastra was one of the major political
texts not only of India but also of the world. It is considered the basis of political
science. In "Arthashastra" the king was asked to study subjects like Vedas and
philosophy etc. Is.
9. Ethics - After Kautilya, this is the most important among the texts written on state
and governance. Kamdaniya Nitisara was written during the Gupta period around 500
AD. Shukraneeti also describes the then governance system. By this time, republics had
come to an end, hence only the king is described in it. According to Shukra, the
objective of governance is the all-round development of the people.
10. Other historical sources - Other historical sources include various works written
in different periods. Rajatarangini written by Kalhan is prominent in this. It covers
Kashmiri history from ancient times to the 12th century. Various aspects of Harsha's
rule are described in "Harsha Charita" written by Banabhatta. Nandvansh and

Mauryavansh are mentioned in Visakhadutt's play "Mudrarakshas". Chandvardai's work
'Prithviraj Raso' provides information about the then social and political situation.
Foreign Sources
The second important source for the study of Indian thought is called foreign sources.
It mainly includes the thinkers of Greece and Rome. For convenience of study, Greek
thinkers are also divided into three parts:-
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1. Thinkers before Alexander Scyllacus, Herodotus,
Hesias
2. Contemporaries of alexander nioxi, oniscratis
3. After alexander megasthenes
 Nioxi, Oniscratis came to India with Alexander. He was closely associated with the
Indian society. This was the reason why their descriptions are considered more
accurate and authentic.
 Megasthaniya, gave ideas in his work ‘Indika’.
 Chinese travelers included Falyan and Hiuen Tsang.
 'Tahqeek Ekhind' written by Alvaruni gives a description of the geography, politics,
society, religion, customs etc. of the then Rajput period.
 Archaeology, inscriptions, currencies, monuments, sculptures, stupas etc.
Characteristics of Indian political thought
1. Emphasis on spirituality
The state is considered the means to attain salvation. It is the state that implements
such a system in the society which takes man towards salvation. India is called a
spiritual country because India has been inclined towards spirituality since the
beginning. India is called the spiritual teacher of the world. The approach taken here
on every aspect of life has always been spiritual.
2. The king is not supreme
In ancient Indian political thought, the place of the king was very important but the
king himself was not supreme. Despite giving a very high position to the king, he was
not given the position of autocracy. The king was mainly restricted by religion.
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3. Coordination of politics and religion
In ancient India, there is description of the mutual religion between the king and the
people, the method of coronation, performing yagya by kings, appointment of priests,
rituals of princes etc. These religious books not only describe what the king and the
government should do and what they should not do, but also describe the duties of
ministers, priests, generals, messengers, judges, employees and soldiers. Duty and
religion are synonymous, that is why the ideas related to the state are inspired by
religion.
4. Effect of social system
Every social system is the basis of political system. In ancient India, due to the division
of the entire society into four varnas according to the varna system, the main function
of the state was to protect this system and to keep every person in its respective class.
5. State is a necessary and useful institution
Ancient political thinkers supported the fact that having a state is very important and
useful for social life. All the ancient political ideas believed that the three goals of life
– religion, money and work – cannot be achieved without the state.
6. Importance of penal policy
According to Mahabharata and Manu, "Punishment is the ruler." Punishment is called
religion because it keeps every person within his limits, punishment is the basis of the
state. According to Kautilya, "Punal policy must be used judiciously. If this is not done,
chaos and anarchy will spread in the state."
7. Religion supreme
One characteristic of Indian thought is that religion was considered supreme in ancient
India. Indian thought neither considered the king to be an incarnation of God nor
considered him arbitrary and autocratic nor did he consider him the source of law.
Religion is considered paramount in Indian though. It is mandatory for the king to
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behave according to religion. If the king does not behave according to religion, then
the people have every right to revolt against him.
8. People have the right to revolt
In Hindu scriptures, the people have been given the right to get rid of the tyrannical
king by warning the king to change his behavior and if he does not change his
behavior, then to warn him to leave the state. If the king's behavior does not change
even after warning, then it is said in Shukra Niti that if the king does not improve even
after this, he should be removed from the throne and a capable person from the royal
family should be installed on the king's throne. Mahabharata even allows killing of the
king if no solution is found.
Evaluation
Indian political thought is very ancient. Some scholars consider it to be more than five
thousand years old. It is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Although some
western scholars 'covered such a lie in which it was proved that there was no ancient
thought in India. Whatever it was, it does not stand in front of western thought. New
researches and discoveries of the Archeology Department have proved that political
thought has not only existed in India since ancient times but its level is also quite good.
Conclusion
In this way it becomes clear that the history of Indian thought is very ancient. It is
considered to start from the Vedic period till the Islamic rule in India. Although the
view of western critics regarding Indian thought has not been positive. Despite this,
Indian thought is not only realistic but it is also modern to a great extent. Human
beings are at the center of Indian thought. Whereas human is not Involved at the center
of western thought.
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Q 2. Describe the social laws given by Manu.
OR
Critically analyse the role of Manu Smriti in the formulation of social laws.
OR
Critically Examine social laws as prescribed by manu.
Manusmriti, also known as the Laws of Manu, is an ancient Hindu legal text believed
to have been composed in India between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE.
It is one of the most famous and widely studied texts of its kind and has had a
significant impact on the social and legal systems of ancient India. However, the role
of Manusmriti in the formulation of social laws is a complex and controversial subject

that requires critical analysis.
Manu and Manusmriti
Manu, among the ancient Indian thinkers, has given us his rich
political and administrative ideas and policies. Manusmriti enjoys the
highest place in Hindu literature. It is the oldest and well-known
Smriti Manusmriti or human theology is a "work of encyclopedic
scope". Manu was one of the most original thinkers of ancient Indian
political thought. Thinkers of ancient Indian thought believe that Manu
belongs to the fourth century. Manusmriti is a storehouse of
information about the social, judicial and political life there before BC. It includes the
social responsibilities and duties of individuals of different castes at different stages.
Manusmriti, translated as "Laws of Manu" or "Institutes of Manu", is the most

important and authoritative theology, which served as a foundational work on Hindu
law and jurisprudence in ancient Indian society. Manu propounded the caste system
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and determined social parameters. This was the norm until modern times, followed by
rulers who patronized the Vedic faith.
Varna System
Manu propounded the varna system in Manusmriti and classified the varnas on the
basis of their occupation. While classifying the society into four varnas, the society was
divided into four varnas namely Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
Brahmins: In order of their superiority, Brahmins are said to have originated from the
head of the creator Brahma and hence are at the highest position and are considered
as the incarnation of law. Because of this purity or 'origin' he deserves it. “Everything”
in the world be it learning, agriculture etc. Manu said, “Whatever exists in the world
was the business of the Brahmins. Learning was his main occupation, Manu also
allowed him to do agriculture.
Kshatriya: According to Manu, Kshatriyas should be second in the hierarchy, they
originated from the arms of Brahma. They have been kept in the category of warriors.
His duty was to protect the society. Manu was in favor of harmonious relations between
the two upper varnas.
Vaishyas and Shudras: The Vaishyas born from the thighs of Brahma were allowed to
be included in trade and business, whereas the Shudras born from the feet of Brahma
had to be limited to the profession of service.
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According to Manu, the caste system is not optional but an integral part of the socio-
political system and should be strictly implemented. Thus, Manusmriti accepts and
justifies the caste system as the basis of the system.
Social Law
The preservation of social order – control over women coupled with the hierarchy of
the caste system – is the main concern of Manusmriti. That is why Rajdharma is also
largely concerned with the king's duty to use the means of punishment to maintain
social order. It advocated a social system where each caste held its allotted place.
Marriage
The marriage laws prescribed by Manusmriti strictly follow the caste category. It states
that the first marriage of a Brahmin must necessarily be with a woman of the same
caste. For his subsequent marriages he could take as his wife a woman from the three
lower varnas. But the text strongly advises a Brahmin man against marrying a Shudra
woman, warning that such a union would bring bad luck to the man. 'Twice-born men
who, in their foolishness, marry women of the lower (Shudra) caste, soon reduce their
families and their children to a lowly position. Similarly, he opposes marriage outside
the caste.
Woman
The duties prescribed for women by Manusmriti, expect women to train themselves
and learn to enjoy their status as property owned by men. 'In childhood a woman
should be submissive to her father, in youth to her husband, and when her master dies
she should be submissive to her sons; 'A woman should never be independent,' say
the Laws of Manu. The woman who leaves her father or husband of her own free will
brings dishonor to herself and her family. Manusmriti states that a woman should not
only manage the household but also nurture it.
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Mixed castes
Although Manusmriti lays great emphasis on the maintenance of social order, it seems
that an ideal system where each caste maintains marital boundaries and remains
attached to its prescribed profession is more ideal than what exists concretely. This
shows that at the time of creation of Manusmriti there were inter-caste marriages. It is
because of this marriage that mixed castes are formed.
Criticisms
Discrimination: Manusmriti has been widely criticized for promoting discrimination
and inequality on the basis of caste and gender. The caste system and its endorsement
of unequal treatment of different groups has been a source of social injustice and
conflict for centuries.
Changes over time: Manusmriti is not a static text, and its interpretation and influence
have evolved over time. It has been the subject of reinterpretation and reformulation
by various social and religious movements, with some trying to tone down its more
regressive aspects.
Limited Impact: While Manusmriti had an important role in ancient and medieval
India, it is important to recognize that not all legal or social norms were based solely
on this text. Different regions and periods observed different legal and social practices,
influenced by other texts, regional customs, and administrative needs.
Conclusion
Manusmriti has had a significant impact on the formulation of social laws in India,
particularly in the codification of the caste system and gender norms. However, its role
must be evaluated critically, taking into account the historical context in which it was
written, the controversies surrounding it, and its evolving influence over time. Modern
India has largely moved away from strict adherence to Manusmriti, and its principles
have become the subject of debate, reformulation, and reinterpretation in

contemporary society.
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Q 3. Briefly describe the seven nature theory of Brihaspati.
Or
Briefly describe the political system of Brihaspati.
In Indian mythology, Brihaspati holds a high position as
Devguru, the guru of the gods. Like other ancient thinkers,
Acharya Brihaspati has also emphasized on all activities based
on the principles of social welfare. Envisioning a welfare state,

Brihaspati says, "Never try to destroy or even harm your
people".
Sapta Prakriti theory of Brihaspati:
The author of Kamandakiya has quoted the Barhaspatya Sapta-Prakriti principle.
Among the religious scholars, Gautam had given recognition to it (as is clear from the
Gautam definition quoted in 'Saraswati Vilas'), but Dr. Ramsharan Sharma does not
consider it as authentic and says that the first complete definition of the state is
available in the era of Kautilya. It is especially worth noting that the author of
Kamandakiya presents the evidence of Brihaspati for the Sapta Prakriti Rajya
theory, and not of Kautilya. Again, the work of edition and re-edition continued
along with the writing work in both our religious texts and literature.
Brihaspati's political system:
Brihaspati's view of the state is not merely a state of mind, but a great living system,
this living system requiring for its origin and operation the combined efforts of seven
different organs or nature:
State organs
1. Prithvipati
2. Amatya
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3. Rashtra
4. Durga
5. Kosh
6. Danda
7. Mitra
(i) Prithivipati - Prithivipati had a central place in the Barhaspatya political system.
Under the monarchical system of governance, the king was the center point of
administration. His personality was important. The future of the state depended on his
personality and efficiency. According to Panini tradition also he was called 'King' and
'Swami'. Both the words were indicative of his governing power. Therefore, keeping in
mind its importance, Brihaspati considered it necessary for the king to have all the
qualities. Vidyagun, Arthagun and Sahaygun made him virtuous and by becoming
accomplished with them he could become an emperor from an ordinary king.
(ii) Amatya – In the teachings of Brihaspati and ancient Indian political thought, the
word "amatya" refers to a high-ranking official or minister who serves in the
administration of a ruler or king. Brihaspati considered Amatya to be the most
important nature after the king. Reliable information about the efficient operation of
the administrative machinery, implementation of government policy and the presence

of friendly and enemy forces could be available only with the help of skilled assistant
and advisory ministers. Amarkosh uses the words "Karmasachiv" and "Dhi Sachiv" for
acting and advisory ministers respectively. The best supporter of the ministers was
Bhardwaj. They considered Amatya Shakti and Amatya-Vasana to be the most

dangerous of the afflictions (adversities) that befell the king. Although there is no
discussion of addictions anywhere in the available Barhaspati quotes, yet on the basis
of the order of description of the state natures, it can be unquestionably assumed that
Brihaspati considered the previously mentioned nature to be more important.
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(iii) Rashtra – Refers to the concept of a state or political unit ruled by a ruler. It
includes territories, governance structures, and people within a defined geographic
area. The major principles associated with the Rashtra include upholding religion in
governance, ensuring the welfare of citizens, maintaining law and order, managing
finances and providing security and defence. The Rashtra symbolizes the holistic view
of the state as a moral and political entity, in which the responsibility of the ruler is the
well-being and prosperity of the people living in the territory. This concept has deeply
influenced ancient Indian political thought and principles of moral governance.
(iv) Durga – Refers to a fortified structure or citadel, often used for defensive
purposes. This shows the importance of protecting the state from external threats.
Brihaspati emphasized the need for rulers to maintain well-fortified strongholds to
ensure the safety and security of their territories. These strongholds served as a symbol
of the ruler's preparedness and commitment to defend the state against potential
invasions, thereby contributing to the overall stability and sovereignty of the state.
(v) Kosh – Refers to the concept of treasury or storehouse where the money, resources
and treasures of the state are kept. These treasures play an important role in the
governance and prosperity of the state. Brihaspati emphasizes the importance of
maintaining and managing these treasures efficiently. Proper management of the

treasury ensures the financial stability of the state, enables the ruler to fulfill his
responsibilities, and allows investment in various governance initiatives, including
infrastructure, defense and public welfare. Treasury management is integral to the
overall well-being and success of the state as it supports the ruler's ability to carry out
his duties and serve the people effectively.
(vi) Danda – Refers to the concept of use of punitive measures or force by the state to
maintain law and order and administer justice. Brihaspati emphasizes the importance
of using punishment judiciously and within the limits of dharma. This includes
enforcing laws, imposing fines, and the use of coercion when necessary to maintain
order and protect the state and its citizens. The Danda serves as a tool for the ruler to
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ensure compliance with the law and prevent wrongdoings as well as maintain social
harmony. The teachings of Brihaspati emphasize the need for fair and balanced
application of punishment to maintain a stable and moral society.
(vii) Mitra – represents the concept of friendship and alliance in the context of
statecraft and strategy. Brihaspati highlights the importance of maintaining friendly
relations with neighboring states and forming alliances to ensure the security and
stability of the state. Friendship, or the cultivation of alliances and friendships, is seen
as a strategic approach to diplomacy, helping the ruler avoid conflicts and secure
support when needed. Brihaspati's teachings emphasize the importance of diplomatic
skills and peaceful relations as essential elements of statecraft that contribute to the
overall well-being and security of the state.
Conclusion
Thus, while imagining the policy of governance and the power of the king to use force,
the king does not forget even for a moment the purpose of the state and the king that
the purpose of all this is the security and prosperity of the people. Keeping in mind the
welfare of the people, it introduces democratic elements into the governance policy
and laws of the state.
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Q 4. Explain the Saptanga principle as a definition of state in Shukraneeti.
Shukraneeti is a famous policy book. The name of its
creator Shukra is found in the Mahabharata as
'Shukracharya'. Nothing is known about the creator of

Shukraneeti and his period. It is written in it that a king who
thinks about this Nitisar day and night is completely capable
of carrying the burden of his kingdom. It is also said in it
that there is no other Niti like Shukra Niti in the three worlds.
Out of its four chapters, the first chapter discusses the subjects related to the king, his
importance and duties, social system, ministers and crown prince.
Shukraneeti book:
Despite Shukraneeti being such an ancient text, it contains details of many such topics
which are relevant and useful even today. Shukraneeti gives knowledge of the glorious
and rich tradition of thinking. Like Kautilya's 'Arthashastra' and Machiavelli's 'The
Prince', in Shukra's Shukraneeti also the king has been taught to rule.
According to Shukra – “Abandoning all apprehensions, the king should follow such a
policy that the enemy can be killed, that is, victory can be achieved”.
Just as food fulfills the basic needs of physical life, similarly ethics fulfills the basic needs
of social life. A policyless “state is like a leaky ship”. The emperor who rules according
to the teachings of the Niti Granth is praised. On the contrary, the emperor who rules
as per his wish is condemned. By following the teachings of ethics and science, the
emperor should do good to the state and himself.
State related ideas in Shukraneeti:
The theory of origin of the state has not been discussed in detail in Shukraneeti.
There is only one verse in the entire book which can be considered related to the origin
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of the state. Venus has accepted the state as an essential and natural institution
because the state is the basis of the growth of this world. Just as the moon is the reason
for the growth of the ocean, similarly the state is the basic basis for the growth of the
people. It is the state that fulfills the three categories of Dharma, Artha and Kama
(trivarga) through justice.
“Just as a boat gets destroyed in the absence of a boatman, in the same way, in
the absence of the king's leadership, there is a possibility of the people getting
destroyed.” Shukra created the state not only for the material security of the people
but also for their moral upliftment. Is considered responsible.
Definition of state and Saptanga principle:
In ancient Indian thought, the state has been defined as a seven-fold state. The state
is organically made up of seven organs-
1. Swami
2. Amatya
3. Mitra
4. Kosh
5. Rashtra
6. Durga
7. Sena
It is said in Shukraneeti, “These seven constituent elements of the state are the master
head, immortal eyes, friendly ears, kosh mouth, army mind, fort arms and nation feet.”
In another context, while comparing the state with a tree, the king was called the root
of the tree, the ministers were called the branches, the commander was called the
branch, the army was called Pallava, the people were called dust, the factors obtained
from the land were called fruits and the land of the state was called the seed. Are. It is
noteworthy that while modern political thinkers consider 4 constitutive elements of a
state - population, territory, government and sovereignty, Venus considers 7

constitutive elements.
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Amatya has been compared to eyes because all the dealings of the state are carried
out under the supervision and consultation of the ministers.
The Kosh has been compared to the mouth, just as food taken from the mouth
provides strength to all the organs of the body, in the same way accumulation of wealth
in the treasury strengthens all the organs.
The Rashtra has been compared to feet because it is the foundation of the state.
With that the body of the king remains stable. Just as the mind engages the senses in
any work, similarly if the state does not have power or army then it cannot do any
work.
The durga has been compared to the hand because when someone attacks the
body, the first blow of the hand is neutralized or stopped, in the same way the Durga
has to bear the first blow of the attack on the state.
Conclusion
In this way, Acharya Shukra has appropriately compared the state with the human body
and its parts. Like the body parts, if any one part of the state gets damaged then its ill
effects fall on the entire body of the state. Because due to unhealthy or diseased organs
the body is not fully capable of performing any of its functions. For this reason, Acharya
Kamandak considers each state to be complementary to each other. While in the

western countries the principles of the organic form of the state were developed in the
nineteenth century, in India the components of the state were fully developed during
the Mahabharata period itself. These seven parts of the state have been accepted
objectively by all the policymakers and scholars of Rajshastra.
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Q 5. Discuss Kautilya’s views on theory of state. How is it relevant today?
OR
Write a critical essay on the Saptang theory as expounded by Kautilya in
Arthashastra.
Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, was a prominent ancient
Indian philosopher, economist, and political strategist who
lived around the 4th century BCE. He is best known for his
treatise "Arthashastra" on statecraft and politics, which
contains his views on the theory of the state. Kautilya's views
on statecraft remain relevant and have been studied and
debated for centuries, as they provide valuable insights into

governance and diplomacy.
Origin of the state: He has given a compromise theory of the origin of the state, that
is, he said that earlier there was Matsya Nyaya in the state due to which chaos arose,
then people chose Manu as their king. The people of the kingdom promised to give
one-sixth of their grain, one-tenth of their trade and one-fiftieth of the animal trade
profit to Manu as tax.
Theory of state
It was for the first time in ancient India that Kautilya's Arthashastra (his work) defined
the state as, "No territory is entitled to the name of a state unless it is filled with
people and controlled by a group Otherwise, there should be power with
complete authority over the area.” The definition of the state as described in the
Arthashastra is similar to the modern definition of the state. One of the core concepts
of Kautilya's thought is his awareness of the dangers of acute anarchy as well as the
absolute need to transcend it by establishing order in society. awareness.
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Kautilya has basically classified the functions of the state into four parts:
1. Security: The first function of the state is to protect the country from internal and
external threats. Internally the people and their property have to be protected from
thieves and dacoits etc. and there may be a threat of attacks from outside the state
too which has to be dealt with.
2. To maintain the law: The king and the state, are expected by the people, to
maintain the customs and laws of the country. According to Kautilya, the king should
settle legal disputes in accordance with sacred principles and laws in consultation with
learned Brahmins.
3. Protection of social system: Kautilya considered it the duty of the king to protect
the religion of the country, by which he meant social system. It is the duty of the king
to provide justice and help the people of different varnas to maintain their professions
or in other words to help in maintaining varnadharmashrama.
4. Promoting the welfare of the subjects: According to Kautilya, the king should
work with the goal that his happiness lies in the happiness of his subjects. The state
should control the entire social life. It should promote religion and spirituality.
Kautilya's Saptanga theory
Kautilya has described seven organs of the state. The seven parts of the state described
by Kautilya are as follows-
1. Svami (King)
Kautilya has considered the king as the center and an integral part of the state and he
has compared the king to the top. they believe. That the king should be far-sighted,
self-controlled, noble, healthy, rich in intellectual qualities and a great hero. They advise
the king to be welfare and responsible towards the public because according to them
the king is bound by duties, although they consider the king supreme but do not give
22
him autocratic powers. He has also divided the king's daily routine into periods. That
is, they divide the day and night into eight periods for the king.
2. Amatya (ministers)
Kautilya has compared both Amatya to the “eye”. According to him, Amatya and Raja
are two wheels of the same cart. Only that person should be chosen as Amatya who
can handle his responsibilities and can play the role of an assistant to the king in his
work.
3. Janapada (territory)
Kautilya has compared it to “foot”, Janapada means “peopled land”. Kautilya has
considered both population and land area as Janapada. He has talked about setting
up a “Sanghraan” in a group of ten villages, a “Sarvatrik” in a group of two hundred
villages, a “Dronmukh” in a group of four hundred villages and a “Local” officer in a

group of eight hundred villages.
4. Durga (fort)
Kautilya has compared the fort to “arms” or “arms” and he has discussed four types of
forts:-
 Audic fort – which has water all around it.
 Mountain fort – which has rocks all around it.
 Dhanvan Fort – around which there is barren land.
 Forest fort – which has forests and jungles all around it.
5. Kosha (treasury)
Kautilya has compared it with “Mukh”. He has considered treasury as the main part of
the state because according to him, a state grows only through treasury and to remain
powerful, it sustains its army only through treasury. He suggested that the way to
increase the treasury would be through taxation, in which the subjects would have to
23
pay one-sixth of the grain, one-tenth of the trade and one-fiftieth of the profit from
the cattle wealth to the king as tax.
6. Danda ( justice or force)
Kautilya has compared the army with the “brain”. He has described four types of army–
elephant army, horse army, chariot army and infantry army. According to him, the army
should be such that it is courageous, strong and in which every soldier has patriotism
in his heart and whose family is proud of him after getting martyred.
7. Mitra (ally)
Kautilya has called friend as “ear”. According to him, the state needs friends for its
progress and for help in times of trouble.
Criticism of Kautilya's Saptanga theory
 From Kautilya's Saptanga Siddhanta we get an idea of the body principle of the
state. According to critics, it is unfair to consider the state as a body.
 Kautilya has considered fort, treasury, army and friends as essential parts of the
state. It is true that all these organs are necessary for the state but they cannot be
considered as the basic elements of the state. According to critics, army is found in
every state and emphasis is laid on it, but the absence of an army does not mean
that any state ceases to exist.
 According to critics, sovereignty, government, population and territory are essential
parts of a modern state. But Kautilya has not described them clearly anywhere.
 The Saptanga principle propounded by Kautilya is suitable only for monarchical
governance. Democracy has been completely neglected in this.
Relevance of Kautilya's kingdom
Presently we see that to establish good governance it is necessary to provide

welfare to the citizens of the country. At the center of this good governance is the
24
responsibility and duty of the state or king and the administrative department to fulfill
all the needs of the general public. The administration was always informed about
various strategies to maintain transparency and dynamism, which was essential for
good governance. And the king was to be held accountable for the work of the
departments. It is clear from this that Kautilya was very skilled in establishing good
governance.
The seeds of the welfare state that we find in modern state thinking are contained in
Kautilya's state theory or Saptanga theory. According to modern political scientists,

there are two main aspects of welfare state - social work and social security work which
are found in Kautilya's state theory.
Kautilya made his politics completely secular. The secular character of this state in
ancient India bears the hallmark of modernity. Kautilya has beautifully thrown light on
the issue of international relations in his description of Mitra and Ari(enemy). At

present, discussion of international relations has become a major part of the policies
of the states.
Conclusion
Kautilya's Saptanga theory, while providing a comprehensive framework for statecraft,
governance and geopolitics, is not without its criticisms. Its centralized approach,
limited emphasis on social welfare, ethical considerations and potential applicability to
diverse societies raise questions about its relevance in modern governance.
25
Q 6. What is Lingayatism? What was the role of Basavanna in the establishment
of Lingayat sect?
Basavanna was the founder of Lingayat religion in
Karnataka. Born in a Hindu Brahmin family, Basava saw

his parents following superstitions since childhood, and
he also realized that In the name of religion, educated
Brahmins are also doing the same bad things which are
common for educated people of other castes. To

eradicate these evils, Basava took the good things
from Hindu religion and left the bad ones there and established a new sect, which
came to be known as the Lingayat sect. This sect has been given the status of religion
just before the Karnataka elections.
Lingayat religion - Lingayats are a religious community that are followers of the 12th
century social reformer Basavanna. Basavanna believed that people should be

classified not on the basis of their birth but on the basis of work. This community,
formed on this basis, started by protesting against social inequalities. But with time the
caste system got incorporated into Lingayats themselves.
Demand of Lingayats -
Lingayats believe that they are not Hindus, because their way of worship is completely
different from Hindus. They worship formless Shiva. They do not go to temples nor
worship idols. Therefore, they should be given religious minority status apart from
Hinduism. Now if they get religious minority status then they will get the benefit of
reservation for economically and socially backward people.
People of Lingayat community do not burn dead people, they bury them:
In Lingayat, there is a tradition of burying the dead body in two ways. Either in sitting
or lying position. The family chooses which of the two methods of burial.
26
Role of Basavanna in the establishment of Lingayat sect :
The journey from king's minister to becoming a social reformer -
After taking education from Gurukul, Basava started working in the court of the king.
His personality attracted everyone towards him. It was here that he got the opportunity
to see the mirror of society along with religion. He found that the caste system was
very widespread in Hindu religion. The entire society was divided into four classes –
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. It was believed that Brahmins were
superior to Shudras in terms of birth and karma. Basava understood that this caste
system corrupts people. He openly opposed it. Till that time the condition of women
was very bad, there was a ban on women even going out of the house.
At that time Basava openly talked about equality of women. By giving the slogan
'God is one', he shook the concept of 33 crore gods and goddesses of Hindu religion.
Many people started opposing him but there were many who found these words of
Basava true and interesting. Basava used to say that work is worship. Gradually he
established the Lingayat sect with the promise that it would not contain any of the evil
that was there in Hinduism.
Basava told his followers that if they wanted to follow him then they would have
to accept these 'seven' things -
1. Not stealing.
2. Not to kill.
3. Not telling lies.
4. Stay away from anger.
5. Cooperating with each other.
6. Facing sadness.
7. Stay away from ego.
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Against idol worship -
Basavanna, the founder of Lingayat, rejected the Vedas. He said that there are many
descriptions in the Vedas of dividing the Hindu society. He was also against idol
worship. That is why people of Lingayat community do not worship the idol of any
god. But people of this religion who consider Shiva as the center of this universe, wear
Ishtalinga on their body. This is an egg-shaped ball which they tie on their body with
a thread.
Thoughts and Contribution-
Basavanna's poems are called Vachanaas, through which he spread awareness in the
society.
Basavanna rejected gender or social discrimination, superstition and customs. He
started new public institutions like Anubhav Mantap (or, Spiritual Experience
Building). As a leader he led a new devotional movement called 'Veerashaiva' (devout
worshipers of Lord Shiva). The movement has its roots in the Tamil Bhakti movement
prevalent during the seventh to eleventh centuries, particularly the Saiva Nayanar
traditions.
The 'Sharan Movement' led by Basavanna attracted people of all castes, and like most
branches of the Bhakti movement, produced literature in the form of 'Vachana', which
contained the spiritual teachings of the saints of the Veera Shaiva sect. Description of
the world is available. Basavanna's 'Sharan Movement' was a very radical reformist
movement as per the times.
Conclusion
Jagatguru Shivmurti says that influenced by the words of Basavanna, people of all
castes adopted Lingayat religion in which there was no difference regarding caste and
work. He says, "Just that the worship of formless Shiva and working against
ostentation. This is the karma and dharma of Lingayats."
28
Q 7. In what ways do you think Kabir’s and Guru Nanak philosophical tenets
represent the idea of ‘Syncretism?
There are many similarities in the thoughts of Kabir and
Guru Nanak. Both of them described God as one and

raised their voice against evil practices. Kabir and Guru
Nanak chose the language spoken by the people
instead of the language of the elite.
Both Kabir and Guru Nanak were staunch supporters and promoters of Hindu-
Muslim unity, communal harmony and national, social integration. In fact, both
spiritual giants strongly condemned any discrimination on the basis of a person's birth
(be it religion, caste, creed, ethnicity, etc.). Thus, both of them did not believe in the
caste system.
Meaning of ‘Syncretism‘ –
Kabir and Guru Nanak supported syncretism. Syncretism means mixing worship
systems, sects, cultures, and religions.
According to Kabir, there should be cultural unity. He had said that both Hinduism
and Islam say the same thing. He rejected polytheism, incarnationism, and idol
worship.
Guru Nanak, influenced by the "Bhakti" ideology of Ramanand, Kabir, and Namdev,
and assimilating the philosophies of Sufism and Islam, gave Sikhism a true syncretic
form. He criticized many evils prevalent in the society. Touching and Tantra-Mantra
remained their target. He founded Sikhism by combining elements of Islam and
Hinduism.
29
Philosophical principles of Kabir and Guru Nanak (as syncretists)
Kabir and Guru Nanak were two great Indian saints who revealed social, religious and
philosophical principles during their lifetime. Kabir and Guru Nanak made the Indian
society realize the importance of syncretism during their lifetime and their
philosophical thoughts depend on the basic principles of equality, unity and
togetherness.
Kabir:
1. Principle of Unity: Kabir considered all human beings as followers of one God and
mentioned the unity of all. He saw everyone as a single tribal or supreme caste.
2. Formless Brahma: Kabir considered God as formless, unmanifested and
omnipotent. He considered God to be omnipresent in everything.
3. Importance of devotion: He described devotion as a path and explained the
importance of attaining God through devotion.
4. Fearlessness: Kabir considered fearlessness an important virtue and advised
people to kill themselves.
Guru Nanak:
1. One God and one Father of all: Guru Nanak worshiped one God and treated all
human beings as members of one family.
2. Sarvadharma Sambhavna: He described all religions as equal and capable and

accepted their goodness.
3. Service and well-being: Guru Nanak considered service as a medium of mutual
exchange and advised to make it capable for the well-being of the society.
4. Guru-Shishya Tradition: Guru Nanak initiated a unique Guru-Shishya tradition, in
which his disciple Guru Angad was considered his successor.
30
Kabir and Guru Nanak propagated their philosophical principles to unite the
society, increase religious tolerance and promote the basic principles of equality. His
philosophical ideas are still important for humanity today and are a source of
inspiration to follow his syncretic core principles.
Conclusion
Kabir and Guru Nanak made the society realize the importance of syncretism during
their lifetime. His philosophical principles promoted the basic principles of equality,
unity and empowerment. The philosophical thoughts of these two saints are a source
of inspiration for humanity even today and are an important medium to promote unity
and religious tolerance in the society. His principles guided the society towards
religious and social upliftment and appreciated individual and social life.
31
Q 8. Comment briefly on the following:
(a) Manu's views on justice
(b) Kingship in Dighanikaya.
(c) Thiruvalluvar's ethical life and political views

(d) Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankaracharya
(e) Abul Fazal on Kingship
Answer -
(a) Manu's views on justice
Introduction
The thoughts of Maharishi Manu is considered most
important in ancient Indian thoughts. He has presented
political thinking in his work "Manusmriti". His Manusmriti

served as an important source of guidance for rulers, law
makers and individuals in shaping the socio-political and
moral framework of ancient Indian society.
Manu's views on justice :
Manu has described the law and justice system in his 'Manusmriti'. In Manusmriti,
Dharma Sabha has been arranged as the supreme court for justice. Manu has entrusted
the task of law making to a council of the state. That council should have
knowledgeable and intelligent people of religion and Vedas. In which the number of
members of the "Council" (legislature) should be 10. Among these, 3 people should
be experts in Vedas, 1 Nirvakta, 1 Mimansakar, 1 Nirukta and 1 theologian and 3
should be main businessmen.
32
Apart from the council, the people could also make laws through their own
institutions, in which clan (dynasty), category (gana-jaati), district were such
institutions. The king gives his approval to the laws made by these institutions. And to
check the authenticity, the written device and witnesses etc should be examined.
Manu divided these evidences into two parts:
1. Human evidences
Manu has divided Human evidences into three parts. These are mainly written, device
and witness. Manu further clarifies that written evidence has the utmost importance.
In this also it should be seen that no written evidence has been prepared by force.
Manu had a clear belief that one should not trust a liar, a servant, an enemy, an ascetic
or a leper. There should be a provision of oath before giving evidence. Those who give
false evidence should be punished severely. Female witness should be accepted for the
woman. Special importance should be given to Brahmin witness as a witness.
Regarding Yukti Praman, Manu says that if someone has been consuming an item
belonging to another person for more than 10 years, then that item will become his.
2. Divine evidences
Divine evidences includes taking oath, drowning in water, consuming burning fire etc.
This evidence becomes relevant only when human evidence fails. Elements of judicial
review are also found in Manu. He makes it clear that if the king feels that justice has
been wrong, he can re-examine the dispute.
Conclusion
Manu was also a great law maker and the first great thinker of socio-political ideas and
institutions of the ancient era. The Code of Manu not only belongs to the culture and
civilization of ancient times, but it is the richest heritage of urban civilization. Manu's
greatest contribution lies in his theory of law and punishment. The Code of Manu is
useful for all classes of people and for all future ages.
33
(b) Kingship in Dighanikaya
Introduction
The Digha Nikaya is a collection of dialogues of the Buddha himself,
dialogues of the Buddha, who is also the principal interlocutor, in
conversations with his disciples arranged according to their length. In the

Suttapitaka or basket of discourses, there are four great Nikayas or
collections, the first two of which form a single book and are collectively
called the Dighanikaya, grouped into 34 long suttas. The twenty-
seventh (27) of these, the Agganasutta, is known for Buddhist thinking

on the origin and development of the state.
State power in Dighanikay:
The basis of the theory of origin of kingship is spread in Pali texts. Its origins can be
traced back to a quasi-contractual concept where the king agreed to perform specific
duties on behalf of the public in exchange for certain privileges, which included the
right to collect taxes.
BG Gokhale has outlined the development of Buddhist thinking on the nature and
functions of the state in three distinct phases:
 The initial stage is rooted in the theory of the origin of the state as it emerges from
the Mahasamanta story.
 The second stage deals with the possibility of all-powerful monarchical despotism
and a possible co-relation between the two spheres of life, i.e. Dhamma and Anā
(kingdom). Here, the ana provided protection to the monasteries and the Dhamma
facilitated collective acceptance of the Vinaya rules and regalia.
 The third stage reflects the emergence of the Dhamma as a cosmic force and the
state becoming an instrument of the Dhamma, where the Dhamma has the power
of the state to regulate its behavior; Where the State derives its authority from the
34
Dhamma and gives direction through its depository, the Sangha; Therefore,
Kakkavatti or follows the idea of the ideal righteous ruler.
Principles of kingship
The need for the existence of the state was felt for an organized human society.
According to Dighanikaya, the rights of private property and family could prevail only
under the regulatory and punitive authority of the state. The Buddha describes the
origin of 4 social classes; Landlords, ruling class, priestly class, merchant class and
hunters.
Symbols of republican states
For early Buddhists, the state usually meant the emperor, although the Buddha and
many of his disciples came from aristocratic republics. (Gokhale) Commonly used terms
for the state included country, raja or subordinate territory.
 Republics within tribal groups were known for their regular assemblies, where
government by discussion was the main feature. They collapsed after the Buddha
in the mid-5th century.
 The federation is an intermediate stage between the collectivity of the popular
tribal assembly and the individualism of the monarchical state.
 Monarchy flourished in 3 contexts – individualism, urbanization and population
density.
Conclusion
The origin of the state is described in the Dighanikaya as a social contract, an
agreement between the king and the people. The king agrees to perform specific tasks
on behalf of the people and the people are bound to obey him. More importance is
given to two key areas and the state interacts between Anā, i.e. authority and Dhamma.
35
(c) Thiruvalluvar's ethical life and political views
Introduction
Thiruvalluvar is a renowned Tamil poet who created 'Thirukkural',

a work based on ethics in Tamil literature. Which is a collection of
couplets based on morality, political and economic matters and
love. Thiruvalluvar, also commonly known as Valluvar, has many
accounts of Thiruvalluvar's life, but little actual information is

available about his family background, religious affiliation, or
birthplace.
Thirukkural consists of 10 poems and 133 sections, each of which is divided into
three books:
 Aram – (Virtue).
 Porul- (Government and society).
 Kamam- (love).
Thoughts on the moral life of Thiruvalluvar:
Thiruvalluvar's moral teachings form the cornerstone of Tirukkural, often called the
"Book of Virtue". The first section, Aram (virtue), covers topics such as righteousness,
honesty and integrity. Thiruvalluvar emphasizes the importance of living a morally
upright life and says virtue is the foundation of a harmonious society. Their emphasis
on dharma, or moral duty, reflects a commitment to moral conduct in both the
personal and social spheres.
One of the notable ethical principles of Thiruvalluvar is the concept of "non-violence"
and charity. In the Kural, he says, "To avoid causing pain to others is virtue; not to
suffer pain yourself is the height of justice." This echoes the broader Indian tradition
of nonviolence, which emphasizes compassion and empathy as essential components
of human conduct.
36
Thiruvalluvar's views on politics
Porul, the second book in Tirukkural, deals with political ideas. In which the ethical
king has been fully praised. where the six elements of a state refer to:
1. State
The king is at the center of the kingdom described by Valluvar. Family is the basic
concept of society. His kingdom is largely family based and the king's authority over
his subjects is not unlike that of his parents.
2. Kingship and Justice
Thirukkural envisages an ideal monarchy. Thiruvalluvar says, "He is a lion among kings
who owns army, people, wealth, lawyers, friends and fortresses these things." This
comes very close to the Saptanga theory of the state. The king is also one of the seven
organs.
3. Ministry
Thiruvalluvar discussed the ministry in detail. Ministry is a very important element in
the state. Ministers play a very important role in advising the king in the performance
of his duties. Valluvar says, "A minister is one who is wise in the choice of means and
reasoning and skilful in the execution of rare enterprises".
4. Diplomacy
Thiruvalluvar's political philosophy also touches upon the concept of diplomacy and
the importance of alliances. “If even a small state knows the art of diplomacy it can
crush a big state.” It reflects a pragmatic approach to international relations,
emphasizing the importance of strategic alliances and diplomatic skills in maintaining
the security and stability of a state.
37
5. Fort
There is a separate section on forts in Thirukkural. Forts had to be strong, impregnable
and of good height and thickness. All the items necessary for war and means of
defense should be kept inside the fort. All things necessary for life should be stored
inside the fort in case of emergency.
6. Allies
Analyzing the importance of allies in the international arena, Kural believes that
friendship is the most difficult thing to achieve, according to Valluvar there is no better
enemy than friendship. Thirukkural says, “Friendship is that which prevents from
leading to destruction, inspires entry into right paths and shares suffering in times of
adversity.
Conclusion
The moral life and political thought of Thiruvalluvar, as told through Tirukkural
Thiruvalluvar has also beautifully explained the polity, monarchy and community. Kural
deals with sociological ethics. It sets norms and establishes social adjustment, harmony
and brotherhood. It wanted to promote harmony, peace and goodwill among the
people of the society.
38
(d) Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankaracharya
Introduction
The most important exponent of Vedanta before Shankara

was Shankaracharya's guru's guru Gaudapada. He
composed a book named Mandyukyakarika. From the
name it appears to be a commentary on Mandyukya
Upanishad, but it is an independent philosophical text in

which Vedanta philosophy is explained. The commentary
written on Brahmasutra by Shankaracharya is famous by
the name of Physical commentary. The work of Shankaracharya is considered to be the

official presentation of Vedanta.
Vedanta philosophy propounded by Shankaracharya
The following are the main principles of Vedanta philosophy propounded by

Shankaracharya:
1. Brahma is the only truth
According to Shankaracharya, Brahma is the only truth and all other things are unreal
or false. This world is impermanent and unreal because it is constantly changing. The
form of Brahma is truth, consciousness and joy. Brahman is Nirguna – devoid of all
forms. Due to ignorance he is considered virtuous.
2. The universe is created by Brahma
According to Shankaracharya, Brahma is the basic element and the universe is created
through it. And through that, visible and invisible changes keep happening in it daily.
The power of Brahma by which he creates the universe has been called 'Maya' by
Shankaracharya. The entire world is a reflection of Brahma. If there is a sense of
existence in an element then it is called Vivarta. The entire shape of the world is as
39
false as a bubble on water. Brahma creates the world for play or play and is transformed
into the form of the world itself.
3. Brahma and soul are one
According to Shankaracharya, Brahma and soul are not different. The living being is
pure form of consciousness and form of Brahma from the soul. Basically there is no
difference between Brahma and soul, that is why it is called "Advaita". Due to the
illusory power of Brahma, the soul appears separate from Brahma. As soon as Maya or
Avidya are destroyed, there is no difference between the two.
4. Man is the source of infinite power and knowledge
Shankaracharya has considered the soul to be the form of Brahma. Like Brahma, the
soul is also the source of infinite power and knowledge. He is omniscient, omnipresent
and omnipotent. Due to ignorance based on illusion, man is unable to know his infinite
powers. Therefore, one remains in the bondage of life and death. The human being
who recognizes his soul becomes 'Brahma Swarup'.
5. The goal of human life is liberation
The goal of human life is 'liberation'. Liberation is possible only by ending worldly
bonds. The path to liberation is knowledge. Shankaracharya has explained liberation
in many forms. When a person becomes aware of the transience of the world and
happiness and sorrow do not affect him, then Shankar called it 'life free'. A life-free
person sees his own form in all beings. He rises above discrimination and remains
engaged in good deeds; he does not differentiate between soul and Brahma.
Shankaracharya called such liberation 'Videha Mukti'. 'Liberty in life gives joy and
liberation in the body gives 'ecstasy'.
40
6. The means of liberation is knowledge
Shankaracharya has called the attainment of knowledge as 'mukti'. In the absence of
knowledge, man remains under the influence of 'Avidya' or 'Maya' and he accepts only
the material world as truth. When the living being gets the right knowledge then he is
able to know the true nature of the soul and Brahma and he reaches from liberation of
life to liberation of the body. He says 'Aham Brahmsmi' - I am Brahma.
Conclusion
Shankaracharya believes that Brahma is the only truth in the world, the world is false,
living beings and Brahma are not separate. The living being is unable to know Brahma
only because of ignorance, whereas Brahma resides within him. Acharya Shankar can
be a guide of unity even in global contexts. The capability exists in their principles that
protection of the entire creation will be possible at all times. Acharya Shankar as a
whole is still relevant today.
41
(e) Abul Fazal on Kingship
Introduction
Abul-Fazl's major importance was as a theorist who

developed an ideology not only for the Indian Empire ruled
by Akbar, but for Mughal civilization in a broader sense.
Also implemented a new method to sort them. He
expanded the scope of the history by recording a mass of

facts relating to political, social, economic and cultural
life and by including chapters on administrative rules,
procedures and topographical accounts of different

provinces.
Abul Fazal in the context of state power:
According to Abul Fazal, the word Padshah (Badshahat) means 'an established
master' where Pad denotes stability and Shah denotes master. Hence Padshah means
powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone. The Emperor had a
great position in the Mughal Empire. He had the final authority over all social,
economic, political and judicial powers. This principle of kingship was a combination
of Mongol, Turkish, Iranian, Islamic and Indian political traditions. According to Abul
Fazal, 'Kingdom is the light received from God which has been sent by God himself.
God bestows His mercy on the king; Who works as a messenger of God.
 Sovereignty in the kingdom
The king established his sovereignty by considering himself the messenger of God and
exercised his full powers as the controller, guide and law of the state. Abul Fazal
considered the Emperor as the father of his people, so it was the duty of the people to
respect him and follow his orders. But if the king discriminated on the basis of caste,
religion and class, he could not be considered a good king. He also differentiated
between a just and unjust ruler.
42
 Just and unjust rulers
While the king's rule is legitimated by divine light, this does not mean that it relieves
the ruler of his duties. He makes an important distinction between a just and an unjust
ruler. It is only "a just ruler (kar-giya)" who is able to transform the impure into pure,
the bad into good. The characteristics of a just ruler were tolerance, respect for reason
and love for the subjects regardless of religion or creed.
 Supreme authority of the just ruler
During the Delhi Sultanate, the king was the final authority in governance,
administration, agriculture, education and other areas, but had no role in matters
related to religious matters. But when Akbar attained kingship, he made himself the
final authority in religious disputes even in comparison to Imam-e-Adil because he
followed the orders of God and could not be wrong. Therefore people should follow
his orders. It is clear that Akbar was the ideal king for Abul Fazal and that is why he
saw Akbar as a 'perfect man who could never go wrong'.
 Divine tolerance, and sulh-i-kul
Sulh-i-Kul – better known as universal peace, pervades all of Abul-Fazl's political and
religious doctrine. It was in the spirit of universal peace that, for example, Akbar's
government integrated diverse cultural groups into a stable administrative and military
system. Insofar as this theory provided an antecedent to the secular ideology of
independent India, it remains Abul-Fazl's most far-reaching legacy.
Conclusion
Abul Fazal was an important figure in the history of the Mughal Empire. His works,
including the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, are invaluable resources for historians and
scholars studying the Mughal Empire. According to Abul Fazal, if the king discriminated
on the basis of caste, religion and class, he could not be considered a good king.

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1

Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought

Foundations of Indian Political Thought:

 An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought

 Cultural and Territorial conception of India

 Distinctive Features of Indian Political Thought

 Authenticity of Manu smriti (Talking Point)

 Social Laws and Conception of Justice

Brihaspati: Statecraft, Justice, Inter-state Relations

 Talking Point: Debate on the authenticity of Shukra-Niti

 The Concept of Kingship and Statecraft in Shukra-Niti

Kautilya: Theory of State

Aggannasutta (DighaNikaya): Theory of kingship

Tiruvalluvar: Ethical Life and Politics

Adi Shankracharya: Advaita

Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism

Q 1. Discuss the development, characteristics and sources of knowledge of Indian

behind anyone in the field of knowledge & science."

Development of Indian political thought:

example of modern form of thought. The philosophy of Kautilya, a contemporary

it is known as Rajdharma, Rajshastra, Dandaneeti and Nitishastra. In Panchatantra

it was called Nripatantra.

Sources to know about Indian political thought:

 Native or Indian sources

Native or Indian source

system, king-people relations are revealed.

is a detailed description of general varnashram, religion, duties of the king, repentance

6. Jain Literature - "Parishistha Parvan" written by Acharya Hemchandra is very

description of the Maurya period from the time of Mahavira.

religious and economic system is obtained.

8. Kautilya's Arthashastra - Kautilya's Arthashastra was one of the major political

philosophy etc. Is.

in different periods. Rajatarangini written by Kalhan is prominent in this. It covers

rule are described in "Harsha Charita" written by Banabhatta. Nandvansh and

thinkers are also divided into three parts:-

1. Thinkers before Alexander Scyllacus, Herodotus,

2. Contemporaries of alexander nioxi, oniscratis

3. After alexander megasthenes

accurate and authentic.

 Megasthaniya, gave ideas in his work ‘Indika’.

 Chinese travelers included Falyan and Hiuen Tsang.

 'Tahqeek Ekhind' written by Alvaruni gives a description of the geography, politics,

society, religion, customs etc. of the then Rajput period.

 Archaeology, inscriptions, currencies, monuments, sculptures, stupas etc.

Characteristics of Indian political thought

2. The king is not supreme

3. Coordination of politics and religion

people, the method of coronation, performing yagya by kings, appointment of priests,

4. Effect of social system

5. State is a necessary and useful institution

– religion, money and work – cannot be achieved without the state.

6. Importance of penal policy

According to Mahabharata and Manu, "Punishment is the ruler." Punishment is called

the people have every right to revolt against him.

8. People have the right to revolt

Q 2. Describe the social laws given by Manu.

Critically Examine social laws as prescribed by manu.

of Manusmriti in the formulation of social laws is a complex and controversial subject

Manu and Manusmriti