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Research on photovoltaics: Review, trends and perspectives

Conference Paper · September 2011

DOI: 10.1109/COBEP.2011.6085198

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RESEARCH ON PHOTOVOLTAICS: REVIEW, TRENDS AND PERSPECTIVES
Moacyr A. G. de Brito, Leonardo P. Sampaio, Luigi G. Junior, Carlos A. Canesin*
*São Paulo State University – UNESP - Power Electronics Laboratory – Electrical Engineering Department
Av. Prof. José Carlos Rossi, 1370, 15385-000, Ilha Solteira, SP - canesin@dee.feis.unesp.br
Abstract - This paper presents a briefly review, some
trends and perspectives in the field of Photovoltaic
energy conversion, which is considered to be the most
important renewable energy source in few years, in the
coming decades. The power electronics plays a
fundamental role in this process, developing systems each
times more competitive, efficient, reliable, and also
reducing costs and reducing the payback time. Some
trends are visible, which are the use of Silicon Carbide
devices in PV inverters, the use of integrated inverter
structures, the integration of power converters into the
PV module or the use of few PV series connection, the
development of thinner and more efficient solar cells.
Moreover, the discussion about the necessity of MPPT
and anti-island schemes are presented, mainly
considering the expected growth of grid-tied applications.
Keywords – Photovoltaic Energy, Renewable Energy,
Integrated Converters, Solar Inverters, Trends and
Concepts on PV, Power Electronics.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the last decades the widespread use of renewable energy
sources in distribution networks throughout the world is
visible. This scenario is the result of the continuous increase
in energy demand coupled with the possibility of reduced
supply of conventional fuels, evidenced by petroleum crisis,
along with growing concerns about environmental
conservation [1]. Among the alternative energy sources the
electrical energy from photovoltaic panels (PV) is currently
regarded as the natural energy source more useful, since it is
free, abundant, produces no greenhouse gases during power
generation, it is distributed over the earth, and participates as
a primary factor of all other processes of energy production
on Earth [2,3], and many governments and companies
consider PV as the future of energy production. According
to expertise the energy obtained from PVs will become the
most important alternative renewable energy source until
2040 [4].
Nowadays it is mandatory that production, distribution and
use of electrical energy are done as efficient as possible. In
the Distribute Generation systems all the drawbacks of
energy distribution is overcome, and for the end-user the
Power Electronics plays a fundamental role in developing
power converters more efficient and reliable. Thus, the
development of photovoltaic energy conversion system is
notable and progressive. Every year the prices of solar cells
are decreasing and the installed PV systems are increasing at
rates of more than 40% per year [5], although the total
system costs is higher when compared to other conventional
fuels. In this context, in order to reach the grid-connection
978-1-4577-1646-1/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE
market, the first goal for PV systems is to improve the
efficiency and to reduce installation costs. The efficiency of
PV system is improved using maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) algorithms, high efficiency solar cells and high
efficiency power electronic converters. Mechanical solar
trackers are also desirable or mandatory for concentrator
photovoltaic. The installation cost is composed by solar cells
cost and inverter costs. Cheaper and more efficient solar cells
are continuously being developed by respected research
centers worldwide and they are close to reach the market
expectations. Power converters also must reduce their cost,
improve efficiency and increase lifetime. It should be pointed
out that the solar panels are almost reaching the same
cost/watt ratio as the power converters. Therefore, the cost
reduction of power converters is meaningful in PV systems.
Its efficiency has always been far better than the solar cells,
but it cannot be neglected since it is directly related with the
payback time. The lifetime is the drawback of the converters
compared to the solar cells and they need to be improved to
avoid maintenance costs along their lifetime, i.e., the
converters lifetime must increase to 20-25 years [6].
In the field of solar cells, the PV market is dominated by
wafer based Crystalline Silicon Cells with efficiency about
13-17%, but thinner wafers are being developed in order to
reduce costs and increase efficiency and the nanotechnology
will be responsible to overcome the expectations.
Furthermore, there are other proposals as ultra-thin, multi-
junction and cross-fertilization solar cells. Another trend is in
the field of power converters, where the use of Silicon
Carbide semiconductors will permit higher switching
frequencies without significant increase of losses, and
reliable operation with higher junction temperatures. That
means reduction of reactive elements and heatsinks, in order
to manufacture converters with low weight, volume and
costs, increasing structure power density [7, 8]. Furthermore,
the integration of power electronics into the PV module
offers new advances but also represents motivating
challenges. In this new approach it is necessary to develop
converters which will be capable to boost the low voltage of
the PV panel with high currents without significant losses.
Another point will be the series connection of few modules
that can make the system more reliable reducing the payback
time. Finally, the overall grid connected system efficiency
and reliability can be improved with digital control concepts,
which can create even more efficient algorithms.
II. TRENDS IN PV INVERTER CONCEPTS
A. Structures for PV systems
Historically, the first implementations of converters for
PVs were based on large series-parallel associations of
531
photovoltaic modules attached in a single converter (central
inverter), as shown in Fig. 1. This approach has low
efficiency because of the obligatory series diodes inserted in
each parallel branch of the structure in order to avoid power
flow among branches, and also because of the unequal power
distribution. Moreover, due to centralized MPPT algorithm,
each branch might not operate at MPP, presenting loss of
power. There are others limitations such as use of high
voltage DC cables between PV modules and inverter and the
nonflexible design which does not permit mass production.
D1 D2 Dn
PV PV PV
PV PV PV
PV PV PV
DC
AC
Grid
Fig. 1. First PV implementations - The Central Inverter.
The choice for topologies directly related to series
connection, Figs. 2(a) and 2(b), allows increase in efficiency
and better use of PV panels working at optimum power point
of the association. In this approach, there are no power losses
due to the absence of series diodes and dedicated MPPT
algorithms can be applied at each branch. Thus, increasing
the overall efficiency and also enables the cost reduction due
to possible mass production. Increase power capacity is
easily obtained through simple insertion of new PVs
branches in the existing platform.
A current trend nowadays is the use of the so-called
microinverters (AC modules) that are dedicated to a single
panel, and therefore specifically for low power applications,
typically in the range of 200 to 300W, as shown in Fig. 2(c)
[9]. Using a single inverter structure, each PV panel,
regardless of shade, will operate at the maximum power
point whenever possible. In great amount of series
connection shading phenomena is a drawback. Therefore, if
one PV panel suffers from shading the overall MPP
efficiency will be limited by the shaded PV. Microinverters
have the advantage of having low voltage DC link, easy
replacement in case of failure, easy interconnection with the
grid and easy parallelism. The microinverter is attached back
in the panel and because of that, it has to support all weather
conditions. This implies in a non-repairable converter due to
use of resins that only can be removed with chemical
processes. Additionally, for these systems have a long useful
life, its components, semiconductors, filters and mainly the
control and communication systems should be capable to
operate at elevated temperatures, increasing the manufacture
and sale costs. Therefore, it increases the payback time and
maybe difficults its widespread use. Another trend could be
the use of limited and few series-connection of PV panels for
a single inverter. In this context, the high-quality concepts of
micro-inverter could be used with low production costs, on a
novel Mid-solar-inverter technology. Thus, with only few
series PV panels, shading will not a trouble anymore. Of
course, installers have to put panels as close as possible and
with the same sun inclination. In this new scenario, the
system maybe not exposed to weather, increasing life-time,
reliability and reducing maintenance costs and presents less
payback time when compared to micro-inverters or central
inverters for high power.
PV
PV
PV
PV PV
DC DC
DC DC
DC DC
DC
AC AC AC
Grid
( a) (b) (c )
Fig. 2. Tendencies in the use of PV Inverters - Series Association
(a, b) and AC Module (c).
B. Classification of PV Inverters
There are wide varieties of inverter topologies used for PV
systems [10-18], which are usually classified by the
following features: presence of galvanic isolation, number of
stages, stand-alone or grid-connection operation and the
place of the decoupling capacitor.
Galvanic isolation is compulsory in several countries due
to safety reasons. The galvanic isolation allows the system to
be doubly grounded, but there are some topologies which
allow PV panel grounding without galvanic isolation.
Transformers also help to adjust voltage levels according to
the transformer ratio, but switching-mode power electronic
converters are more efficient than transformers.
Low frequency (LF) transformers are heavy and
inefficient. For this reason, several topologies have been
proposed using high frequency (HF) transformers, in order to
overcome transformers drawbacks, but it increases the
complexity of the circuitry. Furthermore, safety is a design
parameter that may be obtained without the use of
transformers. The use of differential breaker and grounded
package are examples of good safety designs without
galvanic isolation. In brief, as described in [10], technically
transformers are not adequate elements in PV systems, unless
it is determined by law. Thus, eliminating transformers is a
good option to develop even more efficient converters.
Usually, the most common topologies have one or two
stages. The number of stages is important to give an idea of
complexity and cost. The two stage topology is based
typically on Boost Converter cascaded with Full Bridge
inverter. This approach presents a DC link power decoupling
that permits to the converters to work in function of voltage
532
DC link fluctuations. So, the DC-DC converter is responsible inverter topologies as a combination of duplicated DC-DC
for boost the voltage and for the MPPT, the inverter is converters, as shown in Fig. 3, one for positive and other for
responsible for grid synchronization, anti-island and injection negative output, and this approach normally leads to complex
of power into the grid. It is clearly noticeable that reducing circuits with hard control [22].
components reduces weight, volume and maybe costs. So, An alternative would be the use of an integrated structure
the one stage approach is the desirable solution, which is which allows boost and inverter principles, besides offering a
performed by integrated structures. However, some higher efficiency, uses fewer components, reducing costs and
drawbacks may appear and there are no more DC links and increasing the structure power density [20, 21], examples are
the power converter itself has to perform all control shown in Fig. 4. In both structures two switches works in AC
functions. Thus, the designer must find the best compromise grid low frequency, one modulates during the positive and
among the control algorithms. other during the negative cycle, while the others modulate at
The mode of operation implies first on the output type high frequency reducing the switching losses. Furthermore,
required: current source (grid-connected) or voltage source these structures present less EMI and more reliability.
Lac Vac
(stand-alone). These differences change basically the output
passive components of the inverter. Voltage Source Inverters
S1 S3
(VSI) are the most common, where a voltage in a DC link is L1 L2 C2
C1
modulated in the output. Current Source Inverter (CSI)
modulates the current, requiring an AC capacitor as the first C pv
PV
passive component after the inverter. S2 S4
The grid-tied mode (grid-connected mode) eliminates the Fig. 3. Duplicated Boost Inverter.
need for storage elements which increases the system
S1 S2 S3
efficiency, life-time and decrease significantly the overal cost D1 D2
[19]. L1 L2
C pv
L1
D1 Lac
Lac
The power decoupling is a requirement to operate PV
C pv L
Vac
PV
S1 Cac
Vac

effectively in the panel maximum power point, once the AC C

Cac
S2

power is naturally pulsed at twice of the grid frequency and S3 S4

L2 D2

PV power must be constant. If pulsed power is supplied by

PV panel, the voltage ripple will be very high, the operating
point will oscillate around the MPP and the MPP tracking
will not be effective. The power decoupling is achieved with
an energy storage element, such the DC link capacitor. For
single stage, the decoupling capacitor must be placed in
parallel with the PV. The energy in DC link capacitor can be
controlled providing a more effective decoupling with a
smaller component, when compared with the second case,
where the capacitance is usually around 0.5 mF/kW [10].
C. New Integrated Inverters Concepts
The main challenge nowadays in relation to PV widespread
is the reduction costs. Moreover, the lifetime is the drawback
of the converters compared to the solar cells and they need to
be improved to avoid maintenance costs along their lifetime.
Thus, the reduction costs can be achieved using integrated
structures, where the number of passive and active
components is reduced. It indirectly means cost, efficiency
and lifetime improvements.
Typically the PV cells do not attend the specificities of the
electrical equipments in alternated current (AC) as they
present low DC voltage. To overcome this problem, the most
used technique is the cascaded association between a boost
DC-DC converter and a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) [14,
15]. The great use of VSI is due to simplicity of design and
implementation, since this converter is inherently stable.
However, the cascaded association presents less efficiency
than each individual structure, due to multiplication of
individual efficiencies, in addition of increasing weight,
volume and cost [20, 21]. Several works have proposed boost
S4
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Examples of Integrated Inverters based on Buck-Boost.
Therefore, the integration shown in Fig. 4 aims to unite the
inverter and the boost stages into a single stage capable to
boost and invert [23].
In this context, Fig. 5(I) shows the integration steps of the
full-bridge and the boost converter, where the red
components are removed. The first simplification (Fig. 5(a))
is to make the input boost current be injected directly in the
output capacitor. Then the DC link capacitor and the inverter
output inductor can be excluded. The next simplification is to
remove the boost diode considering that the switches do not
have anti-parallel diodes. And, finally, the boost switch may
be eliminated once it is in parallel with the full-bridge
switches and they can make the same function in the circuit.
The final topology obtained in Fig. 5(I-c) is the known
boost current source inverter (CSI). The operation of this
inverter is not as usual as the standard voltage source inverter
(VSI). In fact there is a condition where the output voltage is
not controlled and it is when the output voltage is smaller
than the input voltage, because the buck property
disappeared during this integration. It means that this
converter cannot theoretically provide voltage gain smaller
than one. This is an undesired feature for AC output and may
lead to deformations of the waveform close to the zero
crossing.
A possibility to solve this problem is the integration of the
buck-boost with the full-bridge inverter, as shown in Fig.
5(II). The integration also starts making the output DC-DC
converter current be sent directly to the output capacitor. But

533
in this case, only the diode can be removed, because the Lb

switch is not in parallel with the inverter switches. The buck- S1 S3 Lac Vac S1 S3 Lac
Vdc Vdc Sbb Vac
boost inverter is the result of this integration and it can better Ca
Lbb
modulate the sinusoidal output current or voltage waveforms. S2 S4 S2 S4
This integration is valid for stand-alone or grid-connected
operation. In case of grid-connection, a coupling inductor S1 Cz
S3 Lac
needs to be added. Furthermore, this procedure can also be Vdc Sc Vac V
dc
Sz S1
S3 Lac
Vac

easily extended for three-phase inverters, and it is interesting Lz

Cc S 2
to note that this integration procedure may be done for any Lc S4 S2 S4

DC-DC converters. Thus, applying this technique to the Ls Cs S1 S3 Lac

other DC-DC converters, a novel family of grid-tied Vdc Ss
Ls 2
Vac
Cac
integrated inverters is found as shown in Fig. 6.
S2 S4
In this context, Cuk integration is interesting for grid-
connected PV systems, because its input and output have
current source characteristics, correspondent to the DC-DC Fig. 6. Family of grid-tied integrated inverters.
converter. It helps to reduce the decoupling capacitor in
parallel with PV and avoid the use of an extra coupling It is important to remember that CSI needs the use of
inductor to the grid. It is interesting to point out that some special switches with no anti-parallel diodes to permit
integrated inverters like Cuk and Zeta maintain the VSI reverse voltage blocking. Series diodes with the switches are
output characteristic, facilitating the prototyping and the common solutions where the anti-parallel diode is neglected
control of the injected current. The Buck-Boost, Zeta and and the reverse blocking is achieved. However, it increases
Sepic also present the isolation feature in HF, if necessary. the conduction losses. To improve the efficiency of CSI there
are two basic options: the use of series schottky diodes with
Db Dbb S3
Vdc
Lb
S1
S3 La Vdc Sbb S1
La proper reverse voltage capability, or, reversing blocking
Sb
Cb Lbb Cbb
IGBTs (RB-IGBT), which are made to support high reverse
S2 S4 S2 S4 voltages and have lower losses compared with the sum of
IGBT plus Diode [24].
This paper has not the scope to demonstrate experimental
Dbb
Vdc
Lb Db
S1
S3
Vdc
Lb
Sbb S1
S3 results, but it is interesting to show the feasibilty of the
Sb
integration procedure presented in this topic. Thus, some
Lbb
S2 S4 S2 S4 integrate inverters were built and the main experimental
results are shown in Fig. 7, considering the stand-alone
operation.
Lb S1 S3
Sbb
S1 S3 The tri-state modulation can be applied in these integrated
Vdc Vdc
inverters in order to reduce the order of the control system,
S2 S4
Lbb
S2 S4
increasing performance and the static voltage gain [25, 26].
The tri-state converters were useful originally to improve the
dynamic performance reducing the right half-plane zero
(I) (II)
Fig. 5. Boost (I) and Buck-Boost (II) Inverters Integration Steps. effect, typical in conventional boost converters in voltage
mode control [27, 28].

Fig. 7. The Prototypes and the Main Waveforms for the Integrated Inverters.

534
 Considering the results showed in Fig. 7, the output voltage
total harmonic distortion for the Boost integrated inverter
was 6.5%, while the tri-state Boost integrated presented 5%
and the tri-state Buck-Boost integrated presented 4%.
III. CONTROL ALGORITHMS
A. Maximum Power Point Tracking Control
It should be noted that there is only one point of maximum
power (MPP - Maximum Power Point) in photovoltaic
panels, and this varies according to climatic conditions. The
photovoltaic power characteristics is nonlinear, which vary
with the level of solar irradiation and temperature, which
make the extraction of maximum power a complex task,
considering load variations. To overcome this problem, it is
necessary to implement a maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) algorithm. The most common methods are based on
the idea of continuously perturb the PV operation point, like
P&O, Hill Climbing and IC methods [29]. However there are
others with great advantages as Beta, Correlation, and
Temperature [30]. The simulation results of the Tracking
Factor (TF: % of the energy harvested in a period of time) of
the most interesting MPPT algorithms can be observed in
Fig. 8 [31]. Tracking Factor was obtained via
Matlab/Simulink PV and inverter models, applying the same
temperature and irradiation steps for each algorithm. All
algorithms were specified to provide its best results.
Fig. 8. Percent of Energy Extracted from the PV Panel - TF.
Furthermore, the methods can be compared to the accuracy
of tracking the optimal steady state, dynamic response, ease
and cost of implementation. Usually the slowest methods
have tracking speed sufficient for most applications. The cost
is basically related to the number of sensors, but the large
number of sensors tends to improve the algorithm efficiency
and compensate the extra cost. Interesting references about
MPPT comparisons can be found in [29-32].
B. Synchronism and Anti-Island Control
In order to make the connection of the PV system to the
distribution network in AC low voltage it is necessary to take
certain precautions, such as synchronization and prediction/
management of islanding.
In this context, in order to implement the grid connection it
is mandatory that the frequency and phase angle are the
same. These are usually identified by Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL) or zero crossing detection. After synchronization and
the grid attachment, the injection of power is initiated. The
grid frequency varies slightly throughout the day, requesting
that it be monitored constantly by the converter.
Furthermore, small differences in frequency can lead to
phase detachment, varying the power flow to the grid.
The phase angle control between two AC power sources is
the most common method among large generators. But, in
small converters, impedance connection has to be very large
in order to prevent that small angles do not transfer major
powers. Besides this factor, the control becomes more
susceptible to instability decreasing the security and
reliability of the power converter. Another interesting
alternative is to make the connection through a current
source. The injected current can be modulated directly in the
form of grid voltage ensuring only the active power transfer.
Thus, in order to avoid propagation of distortions in voltage
to injected current, the current reference can also be obtained
by means of a PLL. In normal operation, the RMS current is
increased until reach PV maximum power transfer.
The island phenomena for a distributed generation system
is defined when it continues feeding local loads in the
absence of the supply network [33, 34]. That means that the
converter feeds the loads specified to it and others loads
connected to the grid, resulting in operational problems due
to inability of local generation to detection the island mode,
among others even more serious grid problems. Thus,
standards that deals with the interconnection of photovoltaic
systems to the network requires effective methods to detect
island such as IEEE 929-2000, IEEE 1547 and UL1741 [34].
During islanding security, power quality and reliability
problems may occur. The power grid can no longer control
the voltage and frequency during islanding, creating the
possibility of consumers equipment damage in a situation
where the grid has no longer the control. This effect may
create a situation of great danger to workers of the
distribution lines or to ordinary people as a part of the
distribution network remains energized even disconnected
from the main network. Further, the reconnection of the
network during an island can damage equipments and even
the DG system, because of an out of phase connection, and
also, islanding can interfere with the restoration of service
over the network.
The island detection methods are divided into passive,
active and remote [33-37]. The passive ones are based on
detection of abnormalities in amplitude, frequency or phase
voltage in the point of common coupling (PCC) between the
inverter and the grid when in islanding. Passive methods
consists of relays as usual protections, i.e., under/over-
voltage and under/over frequency protections. The active
methods are based on direct converters actuation in the grid
and in the maximum compensation of frequency and voltage.
These methods introduce disturbances and monitor the
response to determine if the grid, with its stable frequency,
voltage and impedance, is still connected. If small
perturbations are able to affect the parameters of the voltage
at PCC, the active circuit turns down the inverter. Several
active methods are presented in literature, but the most usual
are reactive injection, phase-shift and impedance
535
measurements. Among them, the most usual are the ones
based on phase-shift method. Two of these methods must
receive attention, because the others are based on it. They are
Active Frequency Drift (AFD) and Slip Mode Frequency
Shift (SMS). In AFD method the injected current has a
frequency slight higher than the grid voltage, synchronized
with the zero crossing of the sinusoidal network. In case of
failure, the frequency rises continuously. In SMS, the
nominal operating frequency for the inverter is unstable,
which forces the frequency to lead or lag to stabilize at a
frequency higher or lower than line frequency. Therefore, the
frequency remains the same only if the grid is connected.
Figure 9 shows the frequency change when the grid is
disconnected from an inverter feeding power to the grid. The
remote methods have gained attention recently by advances
in communications technology, such as power line carrier
(PLC). These are very effective, but are not yet economically
viable nowadays, mainly for low power DG applications.
Fig. 9. Examples of SMS and AFD anti-island methods.
IV. TRENDS IN SOLAR CELLS
Electrical bypass diodes for PV modules are available as
integrated electronics and ensures that a shaded cell does not
lead to reduce the total power of the PV. The simplest bypass
circuit is the common bypass diode. Since all cell in the same
module are connected in series they presents the same
current. In case of shade, the bypass diode presents a path for
the current and the PV module does not suffer from limiting
the system current, permitting the unshaded cells to conduct
the full current. In theory, one bypass diode per cell would be
the best solution, but it is almost impossible in practice.
Usually, a string composed by 24 cells is bypassed by one
diode and up to three strings are series connected in a PV
module.
The current in a series connection of PV cells is of course
related to the irradiation, but also to the surface area of one
cell. Nowadays, for state-of-the art 6 inch solar cells, the
bypass diodes must conduct currents up to 9A. The next
generation cells will produce currents up to 16A and even
more, as the cells surface are increasing [7]. These higher
currents lead to higher power dissipation in the bypass diodes
and it may become a serious issue in future. So, in order to
overcome this problem it is necessary to adopt Active Bypass
Diodes. These are electronic circuits which act as diodes, but
have a very limited voltage drop, reducing dissipation issues
and preventing hot spots. Indeed, the control of this circuit is
more complex but its performance is far better than of a
simple diode.
Nowadays more than 90% of PV is used as flat panel
modules, designed for 1kW/m2 (1 sun) operation. In some
parts of the world with more than 2500 hours of sunshine per
year there is an increasing interest in using 1-axis or 2-axis
concentrators based on mirrors or lenses onto the cell in
order to maximize solar absorption. The wafer thickness is
typically 0.2mm and the tendency is to produce cells in the
order of 0.08mm thick, increasing efficiency up to 20%.
Another future trend is to produce cells with help of
nanotechnology, which are less than 0.02mm thick. Another
expectation is in the reduction of silicon per watt peak, going
from the actual 10 grams to 2 grams close to 2030. In order
to reinforce the PV growth, it is expected by 2030 that PV
industry will produce 1000 GWp globally [5, 38].
V. GRID PARITY
The recent growth of PV market is dependent of subsidies.
As examples one can verify the greatly growth in residential
PV system installations in Japan during 1994 to 2005
because of govern efforts. More recently, Europe, especially
Germany, has showed their strong in the PV market. The
Germany PV installed capacity has grown up to more than
4GW due to the introduction of a special feed in electrical
tariffs, where the electric power companies were obligated to
buy PV electricity with higher rates than the market rate [38].
One shortcoming of subsidies is the increase for the
consumer electricity payments, but the most modern cities
can afford for this payment until the PV electricity can be
equal the conventional one. This is called grid parity. In
order to reach this stage, it is necessary to achieve cost
reduction of PV power generation to grid electricity rates,
security for the PV resources and ensure infrastructure
maintenance for PV power quality. The stage for grid parity
is coming and must be achieve soon in Europe by the years
of 2015-2020.
In case of Brazil, the high price of PV energy is expected to
decrease and become a competitor of hydroelectric power,
and the grid parity will be reached by the years 2020-2030 in
almost all regions, if incentive programs for the application
of this source can be applied, as was done in Germany [39].
VII. CONCLUSIONS
It is clear that the PV energy will become the most
important alternative renewable energy in the future, but
some important steps must occur before, such as increase
worldwide government subsidies, use of thinner and more
efficient solar cells, development of more reliable, efficient
power electronics converters, based on Silicon Carbide
devices and/or integrated structures, and use of more
efficient digital control algorithms.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank FAPESP, CAPES and
CNPq for supporting this work.
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