Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.jmst.org

Invited Review

MXene-based photocatalysts
Panyong Kuang a , Jingxiang Low a,b,∗ , Bei Cheng a , Jiaguo Yu a , Jiajie Fan c
a
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China
b
Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials (iChEM), School of
Chemistry and Materials Science, and National Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Transition metal carbide or nitride (MXene) is regarded as next-generation two-dimensional (2D) mate-
Received 12 February 2020 rials for various applications, such as photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, supercapacitor, lithium-ion battery
Received in revised form 19 February 2020 and biomedicine, because of its unique physicochemical properties. In photocatalysis, MXene could allow
Accepted 19 February 2020
fast photogenerated charge carrier separation and provide abundant surface functional groups for light
Available online 18 March 2020
harvesting materials, rendering feasible the high photoconversion efficiency. Therefore, enormous theo-
retical and experimental studies have been recently made and shown the potential of MXene in various
Keywords:
photocatalytic applications. Here, we provide a brief overview of the MXene-based materials, along with
MXene
Two-dimensional material their functions in photocatalytic applications. Then, we summarize the recent advances and progresses
Photocatalysis of MXene-based photocatalysts, ranging from solar fuel production to pollutant degradation. Finally, we
Ti3 C2 present concluding remarks and the outlooks for achieving highly efficient MXene-based photocatalysts.
Solar fuel production © 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The editorial office of Journal of Materials Science &
Technology.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2. Functions of MXene in enhancing photocatalytic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1. Promoting photogenerated charge carrier separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2. Acting as robust support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3. Limiting photocatalyst size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4. Enhancing reactant adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1. Photocatalytic water splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2. Photocatalytic CO2 reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3. Photocatalytic pollutant degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4. Photocatalytic N2 fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4. Conclusions and outlooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

1. Introduction
enormous potential in addressing the energy shortage and envi-
ronmental crisis. From the reaction mechanism, the photocatalytic
Photocatalysis is an advanced catalysis technology for convert-
process generally involves: i) the generation of charge carriers
ing solar energy into specific chemical energy, which has shown
(electrons and holes) by photocatalyst after absorbing the sufficient
incident light energy, ii) the separation and migration of photo-
∗ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for
generated charge carriers to the photocatalyst surface, and iii) the
Materials Synthesis and Processing, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan,
reduction and oxidation reactions by consuming photogenerated
430070, China. electrons and holes, respectively [1–4]. Among these three steps,
E-mail address: jxlow@ustc.edu.cn (J. Low). the separation and migration of photogenerated charge carriers

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2020.02.037
1005-0302/© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The editorial office of Journal of Materials Science & Technology.
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
are considered to be the rate-determining step for photocatalysis,
since the slow transfer and high recombination rate of electrons and
holes severely restrict the photocatalytic activity and solar conver-
sion efficiency [5–7]. In view of this, various strategies have been
proposed with the eyes to facilitate the photogenerated charge
carrier separation efficiency for achieving efficient photocatalytic
applications [8,9].
Since the first discovery of two-dimensional (2D) graphene in
2004, 2D materials have attracted a gigantic amount of researches
owing to their extraordinary photoelectronic and electrochemical
properties [10–14]. Specifically, graphene has been widely stud-
ied in photocatalysis [15–18], electrocatalysis [19–21], lithium-ion
batteries [22,23], supercapacitors [24,25], electrical devices [26],
etc. More importantly, the pioneering discovery and the successful
application of graphene have led to the bourgeoning development
of various 2D materials, such as transition metal dichalcogenides
(TMDs) [27–30], graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3 N4 ) [31–33] and
black phosphorus (BP) [34–36]. Similar to the graphene, excel-
lent electrical conductivity is their common characteristic because
the electrons are confined in the ultrathin 2D region, endowing
them with enormous potential in photocatalysis for enhancing
photogenerated charge carrier separation efficiency. Besides, 2D
materials usually possess high specific surface area, which can
serve as substrate for the growth of catalysts and prevent the
catalysts from aggregation. For example, molybdenum disulfide
(MoS2 ), which displays graphene-liked 2D layered structure with
abundant catalytic active sites on edges, has proven to be effective
to enhance the photocatalytic hydrogen production efficiency of
TiO2 by providing enormous surface active sites and accelerating
photogenerated charge carrier separation efficiency on TiO2 [37]. In
sight of these intriguing characteristics, rational design and explo-
ration of novel 2D materials with unique structures and properties
hold great promising for the development of photocatalysis.
In 2011, a new class of 2D material, transition metal car-
bide, nitride or carbonitride (MXene), emerged and has gradually
become hot photocatalytic materials [38–41]. Generally, MXene
can be synthesized by selectively etching certain atomic layers (e.g.,
Al, Si and Ge) from their parent MAX phase in the presence of HF or
a mixture of strong acid (HCl) and fluoride salt (NaF, LiF and NH4 F)
[42–44]. MXene has a structural formula of Mn+1 Xn Tx , where M rep-
resents the early transition metal (such as Ti, V, Zr and Nb), X stands
for C and/or N elements, and T symbolizes the surface functional
groups (e.g., –O, −OH and –F) [45,46]. Owing to the different atomic
layer numbers in the unit cell, n would range from 1 to 3, resulting
in the typical structures of M2 XTx , M3 X2 Tx and M4 X3 Tx , respec-
tively (Fig. 1). At the initial stage, MXene was extensively studied for
energy conversion and storage systems (e.g., batteries and electro-
chemical capacitors) due to its high theoretical gravimetric capacity
and excellent electrical conductivity [42,47–49]. Hitherto, MXene
has been widely studied for photocatalysis and there has been an
explosion for the number of published papers on MXene-based
photocatalytic applications since 2014 (Fig. 2(a)). The success-
ful applications of MXene toward photocatalysis can be mainly
attributed to the following reasons: i) The abundant functional
groups resulted from wet chemical etching process are beneficial
for the construction of intimate contact interface between MXene
and other semiconductors. ii) The bandgap alignment of MXene
can be modulated by tuning the surface chemistry. iii) The con-
ductive metal cores in the layered structure endow MXene with
excellent metallic conductivity and electron acceptance ability [47].
Therefore, MXene is regarded as a competitive candidate to other
2D materials and has been widely explored for various photocat-
alytic applications, including water splitting [50–53], CO2 reduction
[54–57], pollutant degradation [58–61] and N2 fixation [62–64]
(Fig. 2(b)). In these applications, MXene could enhance the pho-
tocatalytic activity by playing different roles, such as promoting
19
photogenerated charge carrier separation, acting as robust sup-
port, limiting photocatalyst size and enhancing reactant adsorption
(Fig. 3).
In this review, we first summarized the different functions of
MXene in enhancing the photocatalytic activity. Subsequently, the
recent significant advances of MXene-based photocatalytic appli-
cations were reviewed and discussed, including water splitting
(H2 and O2 production), CO2 reduction, pollutant degradation and
N2 fixation. Finally, the conclusions and outlooks associated with
the MXene-based photocatalyst toward photocatalytic applica-
tions were put forward.
2. Functions of MXene in enhancing photocatalytic activity
Typically, the role of MXene is mainly known as a photo-
generated electron acceptor for light-harvesting materials due to
its lower Fermi level than most of the studied semiconductors
in photocatalysis [65,66]. Considering their appealing properties,
including large specific surface and abundant surface functional
groups, the actual functions of MXene in enhancing the photo-
catalytic activity are not limited to acting as the photogenerated
electron acceptor. In this section, the possible functions of MXene
are discussed (Fig. 4).
2.1. Promoting photogenerated charge carrier separation
Generally, the fast recombination of photogenerated charge car-
riers severely limits the photocatalytic activity. As for a single
semiconductor photocatalyst, the separation efficiency of charge
carriers is restricted to a certain extent due to the inevitable recom-
bination of electrons and holes. In view of this, to modify the
photocatalyst with cocatalyst for separating the photogenerated
charge carrier is one of the most effective approaches for promoting
the photocatalytic activity [67]. Taking Ti3 C2 as example, accord-
ing to the density functional theory (DFT) calculations, it exhibits
metallic conductivity property with a Fermi level value of –0.05
V which is more positive than the conduction band of most n-
type semiconductors, suggesting its potential as a cocatalyst for the
transfer and accumulation of photogenerated electrons [68,69]. For
instance, by using Ti3 C2 as cocatalyst, a Schottky junction could be
formed between Ti3 C2 and CdS for accelerating the photogener-
ated charge carrier separation on CdS [70]. Specifically, electrons
on the conduction band (CB) of CdS could migrate to Ti3 C2 during
the photocatalytic reaction because of the lower Fermi level of the
latter. Furthermore, owing to the excellent electrical conductivity
and moderate H adsorption free energy (GH ) of Ti3 C2 , H+ can be
efficiently reduced to form H2 . For other photocatalytic applica-
tions, these electrons transferred to MXene can also be utilized to
reduce the CO2 into hydrocarbon compounds, reduce the adsorbed
N2 into NH3 , and produce reactive oxygen radicals for the pollutant
degradation.
2.2. Acting as robust support
Given its outstanding mechanical stability and large surface
area, MXene can be used as a robust support for the uniform growth
and fine dispersion of photocatalysts, such as TiO2 [71–73], CdS
[74,75] and MoS2 [76], to expose abundant of surface-active sites
for the photocatalytic reaction. For instance, the MXene (i.e., Ti3 C2 )
has been utilized to support the MoS2 nanosheets (NSs), for opti-
mizing and maximizing its exposed active sites by inhibiting the
agglomeration [77]. In addition, it is worth mentioning here that
the MXene can not only play the role as the robust support but also
serve as the precursor for the in situ growth of related metal oxide
photocatalyst. The in situ growth makes the synthesis process eas-
ier and more efficient. For example, Low et al. [78] reported that the
20 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Fig. 1. Crystal structure of parent M2 AX, M3 AX2 and M4 AX3 phases, and their corresponding crystal structure of M2 XTx , M3 X2 Tx and M4 X3 Tx , respectively.

Fig. 2. Graphical overview for papers published on MXene-based photocatalysts (a) and their utilizations in various photocatalytic applications from 2014 to 2020 (b). (The
data for 2020 only cover the papers published before February 2020.).

TiO2 could directly grow on the Ti3 C2 by utilizing Ti3 C2 as its precur- the improved photocatalytic activity [78,79]. Additionally, these
sor, allowing an intimate contact between them. Such an intimate precursor-induced MXene-based photocatalysts usually display
contact could further accelerate the separation and migration of fluffy structure, which remarkably increases their specific surface
photogenerated charge carriers, thus eventually contributing to area.
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 3. Brief description for functions of 2D MXene in enhancing activity of various photocatalytic applications.
2.3. Limiting photocatalyst size
The size of photocatalyst is essential for photocatalytic activity,
however, the photocatalysts are inclined to aggregate into larger
size due to their high surface energy, which in turn decreases their
contact area with reactant. Considering the MXene-based materi-
als, which are normally prepared via wet chemical etching method,
consists of a large number of surface functional groups, they could
be a superior growing platform for limiting the size of the photo-
catalyst. In detail, the negatively charged surface could adsorb the
metal cations and allow the subsequent uniform growth of photo-
catalysts [80,81]. Therefore, the high specific surface area could be
achieved on the MXene-based photocatalyst for providing tremen-
dous surface-active sites to promote the photocatalytic activity.
For example, Li et al. [80] prepared the Ti3 C2 Tx /CdS composites
through an in situ low-temperature wet chemistry route, where
the CdS NPs were uniformly distributed on the Ti3 C2 Tx . According
to the microstructural characterization, the CdS NPs supported by
Ti3 C2 Tx possess a diameter less than 50 nm, whereas the bare CdS
NPs prepared in the absence of Ti3 C2 Tx present an average size of
60 nm. Such a reduced size of photocatalyst could be beneficial for
providing more surface-active sites for the photocatalytic reaction.
2.4. Enhancing reactant adsorption
The reactant adsorption is another critical step for determining
the photocatalytic activity. Given the enormous surface functional
groups on the MXene, it could also improve the reactant adsorption
21
capability of the photocatalyst for various photocatalytic appli-
cations. For instance, because of the negatively charged surface,
MXene can adsorb the positively charged reactants efficiently.
Besides, the porous structures of MXene-based photocatalysts are
beneficial for the adsorption and storage of CO2 molecule [82].
Moreover, –O termination groups show the best potential for H2
production, due to their low GH and the availability of active
sites for H adsorption [83]. Although at this stage, MXene with spe-
cific functional groups (e.g., full –O groups) has not been precisely
synthesized experimentally, it is possible to partially modulate the
relative concentration of functional groups to enhance the H2 pro-
duction activity intentionally.
3. Applications
3.1. Photocatalytic water splitting
Photocatalytic water splitting for H2 production has been known
as the holy grail for the energy supply [84–87]. Nevertheless,
the current photocatalytic water splitting efficiency is not suffi-
ciently high for achieving its practical applications, mainly due
to the prompt recombination of photogenerated charge carriers
[88–91]. Following this line of thought, the MXene, which could
guide the flow of photogenerated charge carriers on semicon-
ductor, has been recognized as one of the potential solutions to
enhance the photocatalytic water splitting activity. For example,
Qiao et al. [70] systematically investigated the function of Ti3 C2
in enhancing the photocatalytic activity of semiconductors. Using
22 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 4. Several functions for layered MXene structure in enhancing the photocatalytic activity.
the CdS/Ti3 C2 as the proof-of-concept example, the cocatalyst
behavior of MXene was shown. The GH of intermediate state
of Ti3 C2 was first determined through DFT calculations using the
crystal structure shown in Fig. 5(a, b). Generally, the GH values
for Ti3 C2 , O-terminated Ti3 C2 and F-terminated Ti3 C2 were calcu-
lated to be –0.927, –0.00283 and 1.995 eV, respectively. Obviously,
the O-terminated Ti3 C2 shows a near-zero value, which is much
lower than the commonly used H2 production cocatalyst, Pt (–0.09
eV), indicating its superior activity as H2 production cocatalyst.
In addition, the Fermi levels for Ti3 C2 , O-terminated Ti3 C2 and
F-terminated Ti3 C2 were estimated to be –0.05, 1.88 and 0.15 V,
respectively. Apparently, the O-terminated Ti3 C2 shows the most
positive Fermi level, indicating its extraordinary ability for accept-
ing photogenerated electrons from semiconductor. Based on the
DFT calculations, O-terminated Ti3 C2 was prepared and then cou-
pled with CdS. The photocatalytic H2 production activity of the
optimized O-terminated Ti3 C2 /CdS was extremely high (Fig. 5(c)),
achieving 14 342 ␮mol h–1 g–1 , which was higher than that of NiS-
CdS, Ni-CdS, Pt-CdS and MoS2 -CdS. This enhanced photocatalytic
activity of the prepared samples was investigated through the time-
resolved photoluminescence (PL) spectra and the result is shown in
Fig. 5(d). The result indicated that the short ( 1 ), long ( 2 ) and aver-
age () PL lifetimes of the O-terminated Ti3 C2 /CdS were longer than
those of CdS, manifesting the coupling of O-terminated Ti3 C2 on CdS
can significantly enhance the photogenerated charge carrier sep-
aration efficiency on CdS (Fig. 5(e, f)). Although the O-terminated
Ti3 C2 /CdS can greatly improve the photocatalytic activity of the
CdS, it should always be kept in mind that the overloading of
O-terminated Ti3 C2 can lead to a decrease in the photocatalytic
activity. In detail, the black color O-terminated Ti3 C2 can shield the
CdS from incident light, resultant in low generation efficiency for
photogenerated electron–hole pairs.
Furthermore, Wang et al. [69] prepared TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx through a
simple hydrothermal method and studied for photocatalytic water
splitting. According to the XRD characterization (Fig. 6(a)), it was
found that the crystalline size of the pure TiO2 can be significantly
reduced by the loading of Ti3 C2 Tx , indicating that the loading of
Ti3 C2 Tx can suppress the growth of crystalline and avoid the aggre-
gation of TiO2 NPs. The suppressed aggregation of TiO2 NPs on
Ti3 C2 Tx can be further confirmed through the SEM images shown
in Fig. 6(b, c). Obviously, the pure TiO2 NPs were highly agglom-
erated due to their high surface reactivity. In sharp contrast, for
the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx , the TiO2 NPs were uniformly distributed on the
Ti3 C2 Tx . As a result, the specific surface area of the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx
(116 m2 g–1 ) was significantly higher than that of the pure TiO2
(68.2 m2 g–1 ). The photocatalytic activity of the prepared samples
was then investigated through the photocatalytic water splitting
test for H2 production (Fig. 6(d)). The photocatalytic activity of the
TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx was ∼4 times higher than that of the pure TiO2 . This
enhanced photocatalytic activity was mainly attributed to the for-
mation of the Schottky barrier between TiO2 and Ti3 C2 Tx . In detail,
the formation of the Schottky barrier between TiO2 and Ti3 C2 Tx
can guide the transfer of photogenerated electrons from TiO2 to
Ti3 C2 Tx , momentously enhancing the separation of photogenerated
electrons and holes on TiO2 .
In addition, it was discovered that the thickness of the Ti3 C2
could have a great influence on the photocatalytic activity. In the
work by Su et al. [92], they compared the general properties and
H2 production photocatalytic activity of the multilayer Ti3 C2 (MTC)
and single-layer Ti3 C2 (STC) loaded TiO2 . As shown in the SEM
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44 23

Fig. 5. (a) Side view and (b) top view for the O-terminated Ti3 C2 crystal structure. (c) Comparison of the photocatalytic H2 production activity of CdS loaded with 0 (CT0),
0.05 (CT0.05), 0.1 (CT0.1), 2.5 (CT2.5), 5 (CT5) and 7.5 (CT7.5) wt% of Ti3 C2 , pristine Ti3 C2 , CdS loaded with Pt (Pt-CdS), CdS loaded with NiS (NiS-CdS), CdS loaded with Ni
(Ni-CdS) and CdS loaded with MoS2 (MoS2 -CdS). (d) Time-resolved PL spectra for CT0 and CT2.5. (e) Schematic illustration for the photogenerated charge carrier migration
pathway and (f) photocatalytic H2 production enhancement mechanism on CdS/Ti3 C2 under light irradiation [70].

images, the precursor (i.e., bulk Ti3 AlC2 ) could be exfoliated into 2D
multilayer Ti3 C2 using the HF solution (Fig. 7(a)). In contrast, the
bulky Ti3 AlC2 treated with LiF/HCl solution yielded the single-layer
Ti3 C2 (Fig. 7(b)). Then, the physical properties of the various pre-
pared samples were investigated using N2 adsorption/desorption
isotherms. It was discovered that the obtained specific surface area
of both MTC (49.5 m2 g–1 ) and STC (58.3 m2 g–1 ) loaded TiO2 was
higher than that of the TiO2 (48.7 m2 g–1 ), indicating the high spe-
cific surface area endowed by the Ti3 C2 . More interestingly, the
specific surface area of the STC was higher than that of the MTC,
which could be advantageous for providing more surface-active
sites for the photocatalytic reaction. The electronic properties of
the STC and MTC were compared by using the electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement. The result shown in
Fig. 7(c) indicated that the STC is more efficient than MTC in improv-
ing the photogenerated charge carrier separation efficiency on the
TiO2 . This could be attributed to the intimate contact between
TiO2 and STC. As a result, the STC was proven to be more supe-
rior than MTC for boosting the photocatalytic H2 production of the
TiO2 due to its high specific surface area and intimate contact with
STC (Fig. 7(d)). This work suggested that the thickness of MXene
should be carefully tuned during the photocatalyst preparation to
optimize its function to enhance the photocatalytic activity.
The surface functional groups are critical aspect that determines
the surface-active sites on a photocatalytic system for enhanc-
ing its activity [66]. With this in mind, Xiang and co-workers
[75] employed plasma-treatment to enhance the surface functional
groups on Ti3 C2 prior to its utilization as a cocatalyst for enhanc-
ing the photocatalytic activity of the CdS. As shown in Fig. 8(a), the
obtained ultra-thin Ti3 C2 was undergone O2 –N2 plasma treatment,
allowing enormous oxygen surface functional groups on the Ti3 C2
and enhancing its surface roughness. These enhanced surface func-
tional groups could then be utilized as the trapping sites for Cd2+
ions. After adding the thioacetamide solution, these trapped Cd2+
ions could directly react with the S elements, in situ forming CdS
NPs on the Ti3 C2 . As shown in the TEM images of the prepared sam-
ples (Fig. 8(b, c)), the CdS NPs were homogeneously distributed on
the Ti3 C2 , manifesting that the CdS and Ti3 C2 have intimate con-
tact interface. Then, the photogenerated charge carrier separation
efficiency of the prepared samples was investigated through the
electrochemical photocurrent characterization and the results are
shown in Fig. 8(d). Thanks to the electron reservoir behavior of
Ti3 C2 and enormous surface functional groups introduced through
the plasma-treatment, the photocurrent density of the optimized
CdS/Ti3 C2 was higher than that of the pristine CdS. As a result, the
photocatalytic H2 production activity of the CdS/Ti3 C2 reached 825
␮mol h–1 g–1 , exceeding that of the pristine CdS. This work sug-
gested that the enhanced surface functional groups on the MXene
could be beneficial not only for providing enormous surface-active
sites for the photocatalytic reaction, but also creating intimate con-
tact between the MXene and photocatalyst.
Considering the 2D structure of MXenes, their functions in
enhancing the photocatalytic activity could be maximized by con-
structing a 2D/2D photocatalytic system. In light of this, Su et al.
[93] prepared a g-C3 N4 /Ti3 C2 2D/2D composite for photocatalytic
H2 production. In this work, the g-C3 N4 was prepared through a
calcination strategy. Then, the g-C3 N4 /Ti3 C2 2D/2D composite was
constructed by employing an electrostatic self-assembly approach.
24 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 6. (a) XRD patterns for various prepared samples. SEM images for TiO2 (b) and TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx (c). (d) Comparison of photocatalytic H2 production activity for pure Ti3 C2 Tx ,
TiO2 loaded with 50 wt.% (TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx -50 %), 25 wt.% (TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx -25 %), 10 wt.% (TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx -10 %), 5 wt.% (TiO2 /Ti3 C2 Tx -5%) of Ti3 C2 Tx , pure TiO2 and TiO2 physically
mixed with Ti3 C2 Tx (TiO2 mixed Ti3 C2 Tx ) [69].
As shown in the TEM images (Fig. 9(a–f)), the 2D structure of g-
C3 N4 was preserved after the loading of the 2D Ti3 C2 , forming
a 2D/2D structure. Such a unique 2D/2D structure could endow
them with a large contact interface, thus facilitating the photo-
generated charge carrier migration between them. Therefore, with
increasing the loading content of Ti3 C2 from 1 wt.% to 3 wt.%, the
photocatalytic activity of the prepared samples gradually increased
(Fig. 9(g)). It should be taken note that further increasing the load-
ing content of Ti3 C2 from 3 wt.% to 5 wt.% could, in turn, suppress
the photocatalytic activity. This is because the advantages brought
by the Ti3 C2 are outweighed by its shielding effect on g-C3 N4 ,
prohibiting the g-C3 N4 from absorbing incident light. This unique
2D/2D structure of the prepared g-C3 N4 /Ti3 C2 could open up a new
avenue for the preparation of advanced MXene-based photocata-
lyst with enormous contact interface for further maximizing the
unique advantages of the MXene (Fig. 9(h)). A similar conclusion
was also drawn by Shao et al. [94], showing that the 2D/2D struc-
ture of the g-C3 N4 and Ti2 C is beneficial for achieving ultra-fast
photogenerated charge carrier separation. They also stated that this
advantage brought by the Ti2 C is attributed to the Schottky bar-
rier formed between the g-C3 N4 and Ti2 C due to their Fermi level
difference.
In another work on g-C3 N4 /MXene for photocatalytic water
splitting, Li et al. [95] further downsized the Ti3 C2 NSs into quan-
tum dots (QDs) for exposing more surface-active sites for the
photocatalytic reaction. In general, Ti3 C2 QDs were prepared by
treating the obtained Ti3 C2 NSs through a polyethyleneimine-
assisted hydrothermal reaction (Fig. 10(a)). Then, these obtained
Ti3 C2 QDs were loaded onto the g-C3 N4 through the electrostatic
attraction strategy. The successful preparation of the Ti3 C2 QDs/g-
C3 N4 was confirmed by TEM images (Fig. 10(b)). In detail, as shown
in Fig. 10(c), lattice fringes attributed to the Ti3 C2 QDs could be
observed in the HRTEM image. In addition, the C, N and Ti elements
could be mainly mapped on the EDX elemental mapping images
(Fig. 10(d)), further confirming the formation of Ti3 C2 QDs/g-C3 N4
composite. Attributed to the large contact interface between the
g-C3 N4 and Ti3 C2 QDs, the optimized Ti3 C2 QDs/g-C3 N4 exhibited
the highest photocatalytic H2 production activity among all the
prepared samples (Fig. 10(e)).
Besides, Peng et al. [96] prepared a ternary Cu/Ti3 C2 /TiO2 com-
posite and utilized it for photocatalytic H2 production. As shown
in Fig. 11(a), the Ti3 C2 /TiO2 was first prepared by employing
hydrothermal oxidation using Ti3 C2 as TiO2 precursor. Consider-
ing the lower Fermi level of Ti3 C2 in comparison with TiO2 , the Cu
NPs could be then selectively loaded onto the Ti3 C2 through the
photoreduction strategy. More interestingly, based on their study,
they revealed that the presence of the Ti3 C2 could change the chem-
ical status of the Cu element on the prepared samples (Fig. 11(b,
c)). In detail, with the absence of Ti3 C2 , the Cu2 O will be formed
on the TiO2 , forming a TiO2 /Cu2 O p-n junction, which would sup-
press the redox ability of the photocatalyst system. In contrast, with
the presence of the Ti3 C2 , the Cu2 O could be reduced into the Cu
NPs, forming a dual Schottky junction among TiO2 , Ti3 C2 and Cu.
Therefore, the photogenerated electrons could migrate from TiO2
to Ti3 C2 and further to Cu for reducing the adsorbed H2 O into the
H2 . As a result, the optimized Cu/Ti3 C2 /TiO2 composite exhibited
a superior photocatalytic H2 production activity of 764 ␮mol h–1
g–1 . Such a systematic study on the role of Ti3 C2 in a ternary pho-
tocatalyst shed some important information for the understanding
of the actual function of MXene in photocatalytic reaction.
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 7. SEM images for multilayer Ti3 C2 (a) and single-layer Ti3 C2 (b). (c) EIS plots for TiO2 , 5 wt.% multilayer Ti3 C2 loaded TiO2 (5-MTC/TO) and 5 wt.% single-layer Ti3 C2 loaded
TiO2 (5-STC/TO). (d) Photocatalytic H2 production activity for the TiO2 , 2 wt.% single-layer Ti3 C2 loaded TiO2 (2-STC/TO), 4 wt.% single-layer Ti3 C2 loaded TiO2 (4-STC/TO),
5-STC/TO, 6 wt.% single-layer Ti3 C2 loaded TiO2 (6-STC/TO) and 5-MTC/TO [92].
Other than the Ti3 C2 , Su et al. [79] further extended the in situ
hydrothermal growth method to prepare Nb2 O5 /C/Nb2 C ternary
composite. The Nb2 O5 /C/Nb2 C composite was prepared through
hydrothermal method by using the Nb2 CTx as precursor. The Nb2 O5
layers were in situ grown on the surface of the ultrathin Nb2 C layer
after the oxidation of Nb2 CTx (Fig. 12(a–d)). It should be noted
that the specific surface area of the Nb2 O5 /C/Nb2 C was higher
than that of the Nb2 O5 and Nb2 CTx , due to the uniform distri-
bution of the Nb2 O5 on Nb2 C. Based on the EIS plots, it was also
confirmed that the prepared Nb2 O5 /C/Nb2 C showed higher photo-
generated charge carrier separation efficiency in comparison with
the Nb2 O5 and mechanically mixed Nb2 O5 /Nb2 C (Fig. 12(e)). As
a result, the photocatalytic H2 production activity of the opti-
mized Nb2 O5 /C/Nb2 C was ∼7, 4 and 5 times higher than that of the
Nb2 CTx , Nb2 O5 and mechanically mixed Nb2 O5 /Nb2 C, respectively
(Fig. 12(f)).
Apart from the H2 evolution reaction, the O2 evolution reaction,
which consumes the photogenerated holes, is always neglected
during the work on the photocatalytic water splitting. In view
of this, Yang and co-workers studied the role of Ti3 C2 as an
electron extraction cocatalyst to enhance the photocatalytic O2
evolution activity of the Ag3 PO4 [53]. Specifically, the Ag+ was first
adsorbed onto the Ti3 C2 through the electrostatic self-assembly
method. Then, the Ag3 PO4 was in situ formed on the Ti3 C2 by
the ion exchange of Ag+ with PO4 3− , forming the Ag3 PO4 /Ti3 C2
composite (Fig. 13(a)). The photocatalytic activity of the resul-
tant Ag3 PO4 /Ti3 C2 was ∼2.6 times higher than that of the pristine
Ag3 PO4 , for O2 evolution under visible-light irradiation (Fig. 13(b)).
More interestingly, such a superior photocatalytic O2 evolution
activity of the Ag3 PO4 /Ti3 C2 could be achieved without using
any electron sacrificial agent, suggesting the superior electron
extraction behavior of the Ti3 C2 for accepting the photogenerated
25
electrons from Ag3 PO4 . In addition, the self-corrosion problem of
the Ag3 PO4 can be avoided by transferring its surface accumulated
photogenerated electrons to the Ag3 PO4 .
Furthermore, Tian and co-workers [97] investigated the possi-
bility of the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 composite for photocatalytic overall water
splitting. Their strategy is maximizing the contact interface through
constructing TiO2 /Ti3 C2 nanoflower for guaranteeing spatial pho-
togenerated electrons and holes separation between the Ti3 C2 and
TiO2 . As shown in Fig. 14(a), the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 nanoflower was suc-
cessfully prepared; meanwhile, the TEM and HRTEM images of the
prepared samples further confirmed that the obtained nanoflower
structure consists of both TiO2 and Ti3 C2 with defined contact inter-
face (Fig. 14(b, c)). Besides, as revealed by the time-resolved PL
spectra, the photogenerated charge carrier lifetime on the opti-
mized TiO2 /Ti3 C2 nanoflower (5.0 ns) was ∼5 times longer than
that on the prepared TiO2 nanobelts (1.0 ns). Given this relatively
long photogenerated charge carrier lifetime, the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 was
able to simultaneously generate O2 and H2 with a rate of 526 and
315 ␮mol h–1 g–1 , respectively (Fig. 14(d)). More interestingly, the
photocatalytic activity of the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 was higher than that of the
TiO2 nanobelts/Pt and TiO2 NSs/Pt composites, reaching an appar-
ent quantum yield of 5.86 %. This result suggested that the Ti3 C2
could be a very potential candidate for substituting the role of Pt
as cocatalyst in photocatalytic water splitting applications. Cur-
rently, the study on the Ti3 C2 -based photocatalyst in photocatalytic
overall water splitting remains scarce, and therefore requires more
attention in future research.
Furthermore, Yuan et al. utilized Ti3 C2 as precursor for prepar-
ing 2D-layered carbon/TiO2 hybrids [98]. Typically, the Ti3 C2 was
oxidized under the CO2 flowing condition (Fig. 15(a)). The C
and Ti atoms were then transformed into the carbon layer and
TiO2 , respectively. Notably, the 2D layered structure of the Ti3 C2
26 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic illustration for the preparation procedure of the CdS/Ti3 C2 . TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images for CdS/Ti3 C2 . (d) Photocurrent density curves for CdS loaded
with 0 wt.% (CT0), 1 wt.% (CT1), 2.5 wt.% (CT2.5) and 8 wt.% (CT8) of plasma-treated Ti3 C2 and CdS loaded with normal Ti3 C2 (NPCT1) [75].
(Fig. 15(b–g)) was fully inherited by the 2D-layered carbon/TiO2 .
In addition, the thickness of the prepared 2D layered carbon/TiO2
was significantly reduced in comparison with the Ti3 C2 precursor.
Therefore, the 2D layered carbon/TiO2 exhibited high transparency,
resulting in good light penetration for photocatalytic reaction. To
evaluate the transformation of the Ti3 C2 into the C/TiO2 , the ther-
mogravimetric curve and differential scanning calorimetry curve of
Ti3 C2 were performed in CO2 flowing condition. Obviously, the CO2
oxidation started at ∼700 ◦ C. When the calcination temperature
reached at 800 ◦ C, the weight of the prepared samples decreased
due to the diminishing of the carbon element, according to the
following equation:
C + CO2 → 2CO
Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of the optimized C/TiO2
(24.0 ␮mol h–1 ) was significantly higher than that of the carbon
QDs/TiO2 (14.1 ␮mol h–1 ) and graphene/TiO2 (21.7 ␮mol h–1 ) for
H2 production, indicating its superior photocatalytic H2 production
activity. This high photocatalytic activity of the C/TiO2 was mainly
attributed to the high specific surface area and unique porous struc-
ture of the prepared samples endowed by using the Ti3 C2 as their
precursor. Although such a work on C/TiO2 does not fall in the scope
of this review, it could shed some light on the potential of MXene,
further extending its applications in the preparation of advanced
photocatalysts.
3.2. Photocatalytic CO2 reduction
Utilization of the CO2 as the building block for carbon fuels,
including CH4 , CH3 OH, etc, has been the best strategy for reduc-
ing the CO2 levels in atmosphere [99–101]. One of the potential
technologies for achieving this aim is photocatalytic CO2 reduc-
tion, which could convert the unavailing CO2 into precious carbon
fuels and store the intermittent solar energy in their chemical
bond. In the light of its essential potential, various semiconduc-
tors such as TiO2 [102,103], CdS [104,105], ZnIn2 S4 [106,107], etc.
have been studied and applied for such a reaction. Considering the
effectiveness of the MXene in enhancing photogenerated charge
carrier separation, they have also been utilized for enhancing the
photocatalytic activity of these semiconductors for CO2 reduction.
(1) For example, Low et al. [78] reported hierarchical rice crust-like
TiO2 /Ti3 C2 for photocatalytic CO2 reduction. Using Ti3 C2 as pre-
cursor, the TiO2 NPs were uniformly grown on the Ti3 C2 sheets
through simple calcination, forming a fluffy hierarchical rice crust
structure. A lot of air voids were present on the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 com-
posite due to the combustion of the CO2 gas during the calcination
process. Attributing to its fluffy structure, the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 exhibited
higher specific surface area than the Ti3 C2 and the TiO2 , provid-
ing large population of surface-active sites for the photocatalytic
reaction (Fig. 16(a–d)). Furthermore, according to the photocurrent
density characterization, the enhanced charge carrier separation
efficiency on the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 can be confirmed (Fig. 16(e)). In detail,
the optimized TiO2 /Ti3 C2 shows the highest photocurrent density
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44 27

Fig. 9. TEM images for the g-C3 N4 (a-c) and g-C3 N4 /Ti3 C2 (d-f). (g) Comparison of photocatalytic H2 activity for g-C3 N4 , 1 wt.% (1TC/CN), 2 wt.% (2TC/CN), 3 wt.% (3TC/CN), 4
wt.% (4TC/CN) and 5 wt.% (5TC/CN) of Ti3 C2 loaded g-C3 N4 . (h) Schematic illustration for photocatalytic enhancement mechanism for g-C3 N4 /Ti3 C2 [93].

among all the prepared samples. Notably, the Ti3 C2 loaded TiO2
shows different photocurrent curves in comparison with the TiO2 .
For the pure TiO2 , an anodic photocurrent spike can be observed
upon light irradiation due to the rapid electron migration from TiO2
to the cathode of electrochemical system. Then, the photocurrent
density was reduced due to the recombination of the photogener-
ated electron–hole pairs. In contrast, for the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 composite,
the photocurrent density gradually increased after light turning on
because of the migration of photogenerated electrons from TiO2
to the Ti3 C2 before reaching the cathode, achieving spatial sepa-
ration of electron–hole pairs. Afterward, the photocurrent density
gradually decreased after light turning off, indicating the electron
reservoir behavior of the Ti3 C2 . The electron reservoir property of
the Ti3 C2 is beneficial for the multielectron reaction of the CO2
reduction, such as the follows:
CO2 +8H+ +8e− → CH4 +2H2 O (2)
As a result, the photocatalytic CO2 reduction activity of the opti-
mized TiO2 /Ti3 C2 was ∼2.8 and ∼3.7 times higher than that of pure
TiO2 and P25 for CH4 production, respectively (Fig. 16(f)).
Besides, Tang and co-workers reported that the Ti3 C2 could
be utilized for enhancing the photocatalytic CO2 reduction activ-
ity of the CeO2 through the formation of Schottky junction [108].
The CeO2 was prepared through the hydrothermal reaction shown
in Fig. 17(a). The photocurrent density curves and EIS plots were
performed to study the photogenerated charge carrier separation
28 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic illustration for the preparation procedure for the g-C3 N4 @Ti3 C2 QDs. TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images for g-C3 N4 @Ti3 C2 QDs. (d) EDX elemental mapping
images for the C, N and Ti elements. (e) Comparison of photocatalytic H2 production activity for g-C3 N4 NSs, Pt-g-C3 N4 , Ti3 C2 /g-C3 N4 and Ti3 C2 QDs/g-C3 N4 [95].

and utilization efficiency on the prepared samples. As shown in
Fig. 17(b, c), the CeO2 loaded with 5 wt.% of Ti3 C2 (CeO2 /MX-5%)
exhibited the highest photocurrent density and lowest charge car-
rier transfer resistance among all the prepared samples, indicating
that it had the highest charge carrier utilization and separation effi-
ciency, respectively. Accordingly, the CeO2 /MX-5% exhibited the
highest photocatalytic CO2 reduction activity toward CO produc-
tion, further confirming the superiority of the MXene in enhancing
the photocatalytic CO2 reduction activity of the semiconduc-
tor.
Other than simply coupling the MXene with semiconductor, sur-
face modified MXene is obviously more potential to be used for
photocatalytic reaction. For example, Wang and co-workers [55]
reported surface alkalinized Ti3 C2 /P25 (OH-Ti3 C2 /P25) for photo-
catalytic CO2 reduction. Generally, the Ti3 C2 was treated with KOH
after the elimination of Ti3 AlC2 using HF. Attributed to the unsta-
ble Ti–F bonding in the basic solution, the −OH can easily replace
the –F and anchor on the Ti3 C2 . This assumption was then con-
firmed through the energy dispersive spectrometer, showing the
obvious increase in O signal and decrease in F signal after KOH
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 11. (a) Schematic illustration for preparation procedure for various prepared samples and their corresponding SEM and TEM images. (b, c) Schematic illustration for
composite formed without (b) and with (c) MXene [96].
treatment of Ti3 C2 (Fig. 18(a, b)). Considering the acidic nature
of the CO2 molecule, CO2 adsorption ability of the OH-Ti3 C2 (7.01
cm3 g–1 ) was significantly improved in comparison with that of
the Ti3 C2 (0.18 cm3 g–1 ) (Fig. 18(c)). The enhanced CO2 adsorption
on the OH-Ti3 C2 can also be confirmed through the DFT calcula-
tions. Apparently, as shown in Fig. 18(d, e), the adsorption energy
toward CO2 molecule of Ti3 C2 (–0.13 eV) is much lower than that
of OH-Ti3 C2 (–0.44 eV), manifesting the strong adsorption ability
of the OH-Ti3 C2 toward CO2 molecule. Moreover, it should be kept
in mind that the adsorbed CO2 molecules on the OH-Ti3 C2 can be
easily charged under light irradiation, forming the C Oı2– which is
beneficial for the later reduction process due to the loss of linear
symmetry. Attributed to the extraordinary CO2 adsorption ability
and high electrical conductivity of the OH-Ti3 C2 , the photocatalytic
CO2 activity of the prepared OH-Ti3 C2 /P25 was significantly higher
than that of P25, Pt/P25 and Ti3 C2 /P25 for CO and CH4 production.
Considering the 2D layered nature of the Ti3 C2 , it is impera-
tive to couple the Ti3 C2 with 2D photocatalyst, forming a 2D/2D
composite for maximizing their potential. Inspired by this idea,
Cao et al. [82] reported a 2D/2D heterojunction of Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6
NSs. The obtained Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 composite exhibited a unique
layer-by-layer structure, endowing it with a large interfacial con-
tact area. Therefore, the superior bulk-to-surface and interface
29
charge migration can be expected on the obtained Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 .
Moreover, according to the atomic force microscopy (AFM) char-
acterization, a stacking NSs structure can also be found on the
Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 (Fig. 19(a–c)). Generally, the NSs with lower height of
∼1.23 and ∼1.48 nm were Ti3 C2 . Meanwhile, the NSs with higher
height (∼3.65, ∼2.42 and ∼2.93 nm) were Bi2 WO6 . Notably, the
thickness of the Bi2 WO6 in Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 composite was thinner
than that of the pure Bi2 WO6 , indicating that the Ti3 C2 limited the
growth of Bi2 WO6 and reduced the thickness of Bi2 WO6 . Further-
more, the optical property of the Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 was investigated
through the light absorption spectra. As shown in Fig. 19(d), the
absorption edge of the Bi2 WO6 did not change after loading of
the Ti3 C2 , manifesting that the doping effect was not present on
the Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 . In addition, the Ti3 C2 loaded Bi2 WO6 exhib-
ited intense light absorption at 420–800 nm due to the black
color nature of the Ti3 C2 . Although this enhanced optical prop-
erty cannot be forthrightly employed for generating electron–hole
pairs, it can induce a photothermal effect around the photocata-
lyst and accelerate the catalytic reaction. The photocatalytic activity
of the Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 was investigated through photocatalytic CO2
reduction. The photocatalytic CO2 reduction activity of the opti-
mized Ti3 C2 /Bi2 WO6 was ∼4.6 times higher than that of pristine
Bi2 WO6 for CH3 OH production, suggesting its superior photocat-
30 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Fig. 12. TEM (a) and HRTEM (b) images for the Nb2 C. TEM (c) and HRTEM (d) images for the Nb2 O5 /C/Nb2 C. (e) EIS plots for the Nb2 CTx , Nb2 CTx oxidized for 1 h (NCN-1.0),
Nb2 O5 and mechanically mixed Nb2 CTx and Nb2 O5 (MiX-NN). (f) Photocatalytic H2 production activity for the Nb2 CTx , Nb2 O5 , Mix-NN and Nb2 CTx oxidized for different
time, including 0.5 h (NCN-0.5), 1 h and 1.5 h (NCN-1.5) [79].

alytic activity (Fig. 19(e)). The source of the C element for the
CH4 was confirmed to be CO2 via isotope tracer analysis, showing
that the m/z peaks of the CH4 varied with the labeling of the CO2
(Fig. 19(f)). This enhanced photocatalytic activity was attributed to
the enhanced charge carrier separation efficiency, enlarged specific
surface area and induced photothermal effect of the Ti3 C2 .
In materials research, downsizing a material into quantum
size could always reward with various unique properties. Follow-
ing this line of thought, Zeng et al. [54] reported the Ti3 C2 QDs
supported Cu2 O nanowires (NWs) for photocatalytic CO2 reduc-
tion. The detailed preparation procedure of the Cu2 O/Ti3 C2 QDs is
shown in Fig. 20(a). The Cu2 O NWs and Ti3 C2 QDs were prepared
separately, and then coupled together through the self-assembly
strategy by utilizing the surface charge difference between them. As
shown in the TEM images, the Ti3 C2 QDs were uniformly attached
on the surface of the Cu2 O (Fig. 20(b, c)). The EDX elemental
mapping images (Fig. 20(d–h)) further confirm the homogeneous
distribution of the Ti, C, Cu and O elements on the prepared samples.
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44 31

Fig. 13. (a) Preparation procedure for the Ag3 PO4 /Ti3 C2 . (b) Comparison photocatalytic O2 evolution activity for Ag3 PO4 with AgNO3 (Ag3 PO4 ), Ag3 PO4 without AgNO3
(Ag3 PO4 (no AgNO3 )), Ti3 C2 loaded Ag3 PO4 with AgNO3 (AM-20) and Ti3 C2 loaded Ag3 PO4 without AgNO3 (AM-20 (no AgNO3 )) [53].

More significantly, they also investigated the influence of the Ti3 C2
on the photostability of the Cu2 O, showing that, with increasing
the Ti3 C2 loading content, the photostability of the Cu2 O was grad-
ually improved (Fig. 20(i)). This result is because the Ti3 C2 could
cover on the surface of Cu2 O and protect it from photocorrosion.
Then, they further investigated the advantages of the Ti3 C2 QDs
from the viewpoint of electronic structure. Typically, the crystal
structure of the Ti3 C2 QDs was first built according to their TEM
image (Fig. 20(j–l)). Then, the energy level diagram of the Ti3 C2
QDs was simulated. The Fermi level of the Ti3 C2 QDs was calcu-
lated to be –0.523 V, which is more negative than that of the Ti3 C2
NSs (0.71 V) (Fig. 20(m)). Therefore, during the photocatalytic CO2
reduction, the photogenerated electrons accumulated on the Ti3 C2
QDs can reduce CO2 into valuable CH3 OH instead of CO (Fig. 20(n)).
As a result, the Cu2 O/Ti3 C2 QDs exhibited the highest photocat-
alytic CH3 OH production efficiency among all prepared samples
through CO2 reduction. This work demonstrated that cautiously
tuning the size of the MXene is critical to optimize its function in
photocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction.
Recently, the inorganic perovskite nanocrystals have emerged
as a promising photocatalyst for CO2 reduction due to their proper
bandgap, good photostability and relatively long charge carrier life-
time. In the work by Pan et al. [56], they loaded the Ti3 C2 onto
the CsPbBr3 to enhance photocatalytic activity toward CO2 reduc-
tion. As shown in Fig. 21(a–c), the cubic CsPbBr3 were distributed
on the Ti3 C2 . Then, the EDX elemental mapping images shown
in Fig. 21(d–h) further confirmed that the prepared samples con-
sisted of Ti, Pb, Br and Cs elements, suggesting the formation of
CsPbBr3 /Ti3 C2 composite. The successfully coupling of Ti3 C2 could
significantly extend the photogenerated charge carrier lifetime on
the CsPbBr3 . Therefore, the photocatalytic activity of the prepared
CsPbBr3 /Ti3 C2 was higher than that of the pristine CsPbBr3 for both
CO and CH4 production.
3.3. Photocatalytic pollutant degradation
Photocatalysis, as a low-cost and powerful photoredox tech-
nique, has recently shown great potential in purifying water
from various organic pollutants with the CO2 and H2 O as its
end-products [109,110]. Therefore, enormous attempts have been
made to utilize the semiconductor photocatalyst in pollutant
degradation, with the intention to reach its practical applications
[111–115]. In this regard, the MXene-based photocatalyst, with
a large specific surface and high photogenerated charge carrier
32 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 14. SEM (a), TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images for prepared TiO2 /Ti3 C2 nanoflower. (d) Photocatalytic overall water splitting activity for the optimized TiO2 /Ti3 C2 nanoflower
[97].
separation efficiency, has been extensively applied in pollutant
degradation. For example, Gao et al. hydrothermally prepared
TiO2 /Ti3 C2 by using TiSO4 and Ti3 C2 as precursors [116]. It was
found that the TiO2 NPs uniformly attached on the surface of the
TiO2 because the Ti3 C2 can be the growth sites for TiO2 NPs, sup-
pressing the agglomeration of the TiO2 . The uniform growth of
TiO2 NPs was beneficial for providing a large population of surface-
active sites for the photocatalytic reaction. Combining the large
population of surface-active sites and high electrical conductivity
of the Ti3 C2 , the optimized TiO2 /Ti3 C2 exhibited high photocat-
alytic activity for methyl orange (MO) degradation, exceeding the
pure TiO2 and Ti3 C2 . Besides, Yu and co-workers reported (111)
surface dominated TiO2 /Ti3 C2 ((111) TiO2 /Ti3 C2 ) through NH4 F-
assisted hydrothermal oxidation [72] (Fig. 22). The content of the
NH4 F used during hydrothermal reaction was controlled to achieve
maximum (111) surface exposed ratio on the TiO2 . It was found
that the photocatalytic activity of the prepared samples increased
with increasing the exposed ratio of the (111) surface on the
TiO2 for methylene blue (MB). This was because the coupling of
(111) TiO2 with Ti3 C2 can greatly improve its charge carrier effi-
ciency. In addition, the O vacancy produced through hydrazine
hydrate treatment can provide abundant surface-active sites for
the photocatalytic reaction. Apart from the TiO2 , several semi-
conductors have also been coupled with Ti3 C2 for enhancing the
photocatalytic pollutant degradation activity. For instance, Zhou
et al. synthesized the CeO2 /Ti3 C2 through one-step hydrothermal
method [117]. The photocatalytic activity of the prepared sam-
ples was investigated through photocatalytic Rhodamine B (RhB)
degradation. Attributing to the enhanced charge carrier separation
efficiency and improved light utilization ability, the photocatalytic
activity of the prepared CeO2 /Ti3 C2 was momentously higher than
that of the pure Ti3 C2 and CeO2 .
Besides, Cao et al. [118] systematically studied the applica-
tions of CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 for antibiotic sulfamethazine degradation.
According to the TEM images (Fig. 23(a, b)), the prepared sample
was composed of CuFe2 O4 and Ti3 C2 . The prepared CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2
exhibited excellent photogenerated charge carrier separation effi-
ciency, showing that the photocurrent density of CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2
was higher than that of the CuFe2 O4 and Ti3 C2 . Consequently,
the photocatalytic activity of the CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 was more supe-
rior than that of the CuFe2 O4 and Ti3 C2 toward sulfamethazine
degradation. To have an understanding on the photocatalytic
sulfamethazine degradation mechanism using CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 ,
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-MS) was per-
formed during the photocatalytic test (Fig. 23(c)). Generally, the
mass peak at m/z = 277.09, attributed to the deprotonation of
sulfamethazine, can be observed, along with addition 7 peaks at
312.73, 223.80, 187.84, 160.26, 155.46, 146.97 and 134.87. Based
on these mass peaks, the possible photocatalytic sulfamethazine
degradation pathway can be proposed and shown in Fig. 23(d). In
detail, the sulfamethazine molecules could be degraded into lower
molecular weight intermediate products (i.e., methylpyrimidines
and aminobenzenes) after undergoing pyrimidine NS bond cleav-
age, hydroxylation, aniline oxidation, deamination, etc. Finally,
these lower molecular weight intermediate products could be fur-
ther mineralized into CO2 , H2 O and other small molecules by
the hydroxyl radicals. Such a detailed study on the photocatalytic
antibiotic pollutant degradation pathway using MXene-based
materials could provide an important guideline for future research.
In addition, Cao and co-workers [119] reported ˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2
2D/2D composite for photocatalytic degradation of RhB. The for-
mation of the ˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2 composite was verified by using XRD
characterization (Fig. 24(a)), showing both the diffraction peaks of
the ˛-Fe2 O3 and Ti3 C2 . Furthermore, they discovered that the 2D
˛-Fe2 O3 could intercalate into the interlayer of the Ti3 C2 NSs and
avoid them from aggregation (Fig. 24(b)). Attributed to their large
specific surface area and superior photogenerated charge carrier
separation efficiency, the optimized ˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2 exhibited supe-
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 15. (a) Schematic illustration for TiO2 /C using Ti3 C2 as precursor. SEM (b) and TEM (c) images for the Ti3 C2 . Inset of (c) is the SAED pattern of Ti3 C2 . SEM (d), TEM (e) and
(f, g) HRTEM images for TiO2 /C [98].
rior photocatalytic activity, removing 90 % of RhB concentration
(100 mL of 10 mg L–1 RhB aqueous solution) under 60 min of light
irradiation (Fig. 24(c)).
Apart from enhancing the photogenerated charge carrier sep-
aration efficiency, Fang et al. [120] discovered that the presence
of the Ti3 C2 could improve the adsorption capability for Ag2 WO4
toward antibiotic pollutants, including tetracycline hydrochloride
and sulfadimidine. As shown in Fig. 25, the antibiotic pollu-
tant removal tests for various prepared samples were performed
under two conditions, including dark and light-on conditions for
simulating the adsorption and photocatalytic reactions, respec-
tively. Under dark condition, although the Ti3 C2 showed negligible
direct adsorption capability toward pollutants, it could improve
the dispersion and avoid the aggregation of the Ag2 WO4, thereby
enhancing its pollutant capability toward antibiotic pollutants.
Combining such enhanced adsorption capability and accelerated
photogenerated charge carrier separation efficiency, the photo-
catalytic degradation activity of Ag2 WO4 /Ti3 C2 was significantly
higher than that of the pristine Ti3 C2 and Ag2 WO4 toward both
tetracycline hydrochloride and sulfadimidine.
Furthermore, the work by Jiao et al. [77] demonstrated that
the post-treatment of the MXene-based photocatalytic system
33
could be an effective method to enhance its photocatalytic activ-
ity. Generally, the MoS2 /Ti3 C2 composite was first prepared
through a hydrothermal strategy. The morphology of the pre-
pared MoS2 /Ti3 C2 is demonstrated in Fig. 26(a), showing that the
MoS2 was uniformly deposited on the Ti3 C2 . Then, they treated
this obtained MoS2 /Ti3 C2 composite through friction. Thereafter,
the photocatalytic activity of the prepared samples was evalu-
ated through the MO degradation. As shown in Fig. 26(b), the
MoS2 /Ti3 C2 owned a significantly improved photocatalytic activity
in comparison with the pristine Ti3 C2 and MoS2 . More worth-
while, the photocatalytic activity of the MoS2 /Ti3 C2 was improved
after friction treatment of 30 and 60 min (Fig. 26(c)). This result is
because the friction could bring a rough surface to the MoS2 /Ti3 C2
to provide more surface-active sites for the photocatalytic reac-
tion. This work demonstrated that the post-treatment could
always be considered during the preparation of the MXene-based
photocatalyst systems for further enhancing their photocatalytic
activity.
Preparation of the easy-reusable photocatalyst is a goal in
photocatalysis. Thus, Zhang et al. [121] reported an MXene-
based photocatalyst consisting of ˛-Fe2 O3 , ZnFe2 O4 and Ti3 C2 for
photocatalytic RhB degradation. The ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 and Ti3 C2
34 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Fig. 16. SEM images for Ti3 C2 (TT0) (a, b) and optimized TiO2 /Ti3 C2 (TT550) (c, d). Photocurrent density curves (e) and photocatalytic CO2 reduction activity (f) toward CH4
production of TT0, P25 and Ti3 C2 calcination at 350 ◦ C (TT350), 450 ◦ C (TT450), 550 ◦ C (TT550), 650 ◦ C (TT650) [78].

were solitarily prepared and then coupled together through an
ultrasonic-assisted self-assembly strategy (Fig. 27(a)). The mag-
netic separable property of the ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 was preserved
after coupling with Ti3 C2 , indicating that such a photocatalyst
could be easy-reusable after the reaction. As shown in the TEM
and HRTEM images (Fig. 27(b, c)), the presence of ˛-Fe2 O3 ,
ZnFe2 O4 and Ti3 C2 could be confirmed by validating their lattice
fringes on the prepared samples. After confirming the formation
of ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 , it was applied for photocatalytic RhB
degradation and its photocatalytic activity was compared with
other prepared samples. As shown in Fig. 27(d), the degradation
rate constant of the optimized ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 was ∼3
times higher than that of the ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 for RhB degra-
dation, indicating the superiority of the Ti3 C2 in enhancing the
photocatalytic activity of ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 . More importantly,
the photocatalytic activity of ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 could be
retained after 4 cycles of photocatalytic reaction. Taken jointly, the
magnetic recyclability and good photostability of the prepared ˛-
Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 , it could meet the practical requirement for
long-term applications.
Construction of ternary composite can also be a viable way
for further exploring the potential of the Ti3 C2 -based photocat-
alyst in pollutant degradation. For instance, Wang et al. [122]
reported a ternary In2 S3 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 composite for photocatalytic
degradation of MO. Typically, as shown in Fig. 28(a), the In3+
ions were first adsorbed on the Ti3 C2 . Then, the obtained In3+ -
Ti3 C2 was undergone hydrothermal reaction in the presence of
In(NO3 )3 ·xH2 O, forming the In2 S3 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 composite. Based on
the electrochemical photocurrent test (Fig. 28(b)), it was disclosed
that the photogenerated charge carrier separation efficiency on
the In2 S3 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 was better than that of the pristine In2 S3 .
This is because of the formation of the type-II heterojunction
between In2 S3 and TiO2 for spatial separating the photogenerated
electrons and holes to TiO2 and In2 S3 , respectively. In addition,
the photogenerated electrons accumulated on TiO2 could fur-
ther migrate to the Ti3 C2 for generating photocurrent. Finally,
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44 35

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic illustration for the preparation procedure for the CeO2 /Ti3 C2 . Photocurrent density curves (b) and EIS plots (c) for CeO2 , and CeO2 loaded with different
loading content of Ti3 C2 including 3 wt.% (CeO2 /MX-3%), 5 wt.% (CeO2 /MX-5%) and 7 wt.% (CeO2 /MX-7%) [108].

Fig. 18. (a) SEM image for the Ti3 C2 and its corresponding EDX elemental mapping images for Ti, F and O elements. (b) SEM image for the surface alkalinized Ti3 C2 and its
corresponding EDX elemental mapping images for Ti, F and O elements. (c) CO2 adsorption isotherm for the Ti3 C2 (TC) and surface alkalinized Ti3 C2 (TC−OH). Adsorption
models for CO2 on the (d) F-terminated Ti3 C2 and (e) OH-terminated Ti3 C2 [55].

the photocatalytic activity of the In2 S3 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 was studied
through MO degradation and compared with that of the In2 S3 /TiO2 ,
In2 S3 /MoS2 , In2 S3 /carbon nanotube and In2 S3 /reduced graphene
oxide. Attributed to its superior photogenerated charge carrier
separation efficiency, the In2 S3 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 exhibited the highest
photocatalytic MO degradation activity among all the prepared
samples (Fig. 28(c)).
Encouraged by the natural photosynthesis, the all-solid-state Z-
scheme photocatalytic system has received tremendous attention.
Liu et al. [74] studied the possibility of the Ti3 C2 as the electron
mediator between the CdS and TiO2 , creating an all-solid-state Z-
scheme photocatalytic system for pollutant degradation. As shown
in Fig. 29(a, b), the Ti3 C2 acted as a loading platform for both
the CdS and TiO2 . The photogenerated charge carrier separation
efficiency of the prepared samples was investigated through PL
spectroscopy. The results illustrated that the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 exhibited
the highest PL signal, indicating its fast photogenerated charge
carrier recombination (Fig. 29(c)). With increasing the loading con-
36 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Fig. 19. (a-c) AFM characterization for Bi2 WO6 /Ti3 C2 . Light absorption spectra (d) and photocatalytic CO2 reduction activity (e) for Ti3 C2 and Bi2 WO6 loaded with different
Ti3 C2 contents including 0 wt.% (TB0), 0.5 wt.% (TB0.5), 1 wt.% (TB1), 2 wt.% (TB2) and 5 wt.% (TB5). (f) GC–MS analysis of photocatalytic CO2 reduction products for TB2 using
12
C and 13 C as CO2 sources [82].

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic illustration for the preparation of Cu2 O/Ti3 C2 . TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images for the Cu2 O/Ti3 C2 . (d-h) EDX elemental mapping images for Cu2 O/Ti3 C2 .
(i) HRTEM image and corresponding top view (j) and side-view crystal structure (k) for Ti3 C2 QDs. Calculated Fermi level (l) and density of state (m) of O-terminated Ti3 C2
QDs [54].

tents of CdS, the PL intensity was significantly reduced due to the
formation of all-solid-state Z-scheme heterojunction. However, the
overloading of the CdS could cause an increase in PL due to the
shielding effect of CdS on the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 . Eventually, the prepared
samples were utilized for various pollutant degradation includ-
ing sulfachloropyridazine, MB, RhB and phenol. The photocatalytic
activity trend for all the pollutants using all the prepared samples
is similar, showing that the TiO2 /Ti3 C2 /CdS exhibited the high-
est photocatalytic activity. These results suggested that the Ti3 C2
could be an effective electron mediator for guiding the photogener-
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 21. (a-c) TEM images for CsPbBr3 /Ti3 C2 . (d-h) EDX elemental mapping images for CsPbBr3 /Ti3 C2 [56].
Fig. 22. Rate constant (k) for photocatalytic MO degradation using TiO2 /Ti3 C2 pre-
pared with increasing NH4 F concentration during material preparation [72].
ated charge carrier migration across two different semiconductors
(Fig. 29(d)).
Furthermore, as mentioned above, Ti3 C2 can be a perfect precur-
sor for growing Ti-based semiconductors. For example, Peng and
co-workers [123] reported the {001} facets dominated TiO2 /Ti3 C2
composite for photocatalytic MO degradation. The {001} facets
dominated TiO2 was in situ growth on the Ti3 C2 , allowing the inti-
mate contact interface between TiO2 and Ti3 C2 . In detail, the Ti3 C2
was added into the HCl and NaBF4 mixed solution and hydrother-
mally oxidized at 120–220 ◦ C. During the acidic hydrothermal
reaction, the Ti3 C2 was first transformed into the hydrated Ti3+ ions,
and then further oxidized into TiO2 . With the presence of the facet
directing agent (NaBF4 ), the TiO2 crystal tended to expose with the
high-energy {001} facets, which was beneficial for the efficient
photocatalytic reaction. The enhanced charge carrier separation
efficiency on the {001} dominated TiO2 /Ti3 C2 was investigated
37
through the open-circuit voltage (VOC ) decay (OCVD) characteri-
zation. Generally, the lifetime of the charge carriers (an increase of
the quasi-Fermi level of the semiconductor (EFn* ) after photoexcita-
tion (EF0 ) on the semiconductor is proportional to its Voc , according
to the following equation:
* −E
EFn F0 kB T n
VOC = = ln( ) (3)
q q n0
where q, kB , T, n and n0 are unsigned charges of electrons (1.6
× 10–19 ), Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10–23 J K−1 ), temperature
in K of the electrochemical system, photogenerated charged car-
rier density in semiconductor under non-equilibrium state and
photogenerated charged carrier density in semiconductor under
equilibrium state, respectively. As shown in Fig. 30(a), it is obvious
that the {001} dominated TiO2 /Ti3 C2 showed significantly higher
Voc than the P25, indicating that the enhanced charge carrier den-
sity on the {001} dominated TiO2 /Ti3 C2 . This result is attributed to
the coupling of the TiO2 with Ti3 C2 can momentously increase the
charge carrier separation efficiency on the TiO2 . As a result, the pho-
tocatalytic activity of the optimized {001} dominated TiO2 /Ti3 C2
(18.8 min–1 g–1 ) was significantly higher than that of the P25 (15.7
min–1 g–1 ) for MO degradation (Fig. 30(b)).
3.4. Photocatalytic N2 fixation
Industrially, ammonia, a vital fertilizer ingredient, is produced
through the Haber-Bosch process, involving N2 and H2 as its feed-
stock [124–126]. Given the sturdy bonding between the NN bonds
(945 kJ mol–1 ), such a process requires high energy input, igniting
various environmental and energy problems [127,128]. Lately, pho-
tocatalytic N2 fixation, powered by solar energy, has emerged as a
potential technology for producing ammonia under mild condition
[129–132]. This technology, however, is strongly contested by the
N2 activation and rapid photogenerated charge carriers. With the
aims of solving these problems, MXene-based photocatalyst has
recently been utilized in the photocatalytic N2 fixation reaction. For
example, Liu and co-workers [63] reported AgInS2 /Ti3 C2 composite
38 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Fig. 23. TEM (a) and HRTEM (b) images for CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 . (c) HPLC-MS spectrum for the resultant products for photocatalytic sulfamethazine degradation using
CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 . (d) Proposed photocatalytic sulfamethazine degradation pathway using CuFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 [118].

for photocatalytic N2 fixation. Different from other works, they dis-
covered that the coupling of Ti3 C2 with AgInS2 could create a direct
Z-scheme heterojunction, which could maximize the photoreduc-
tion and photooxidation abilities of the photocatalytic system.
In detail, the AgInS2 /Ti3 C2 composite was prepared through a
hydrothermal reaction. As shown in Fig. 31(a), the l-cysteine was
first intercalated into the Ti3 C2 . Then, the Ag+ ions were mixed
with the l-cysteine intercalated Ti3 C2 using AgNO3 as Ag precur-
sor. Finally, the mixed solution of In(OAC)3 and thioacetamide was
added into the above solution and undergone hydrothermal reac-
tion. The In and S elements could in situ react with the adsorbed
Ag+ ions on Ti3 C2 , forming the AgInS2 /Ti3 C2 composite with inti-
mate contact. The TEM images shown in Fig. 31(b, c) revealed that
the AgInS2 NPs were uniformly distributed on the surface of the
Ti3 C2 , allowing them to have a large contact interface. It is com-
monly known that the N2 molecule should be chemisorbed on the
surface of a photocatalyst for initiating the N2 fixation because the
bonding of the N2 molecule could be weakened by chemisorp-
tion. Thus, they investigated the adsorption configurations of N2
molecules on the Ti3 C2 through the materials simulation. Gener-
ally, the N2 molecules could be adsorbed on the Ti3 C2 by three
configurations shown in Fig. 31(d–f). Obviously, the N2 adsorp-
tion configuration shown in Fig. 31(f), with N atoms binding on
Ti–Ti tripolymer and Ti–Ti dimers, exhibited the lowest adsorption
energy among three studied configurations, indicating that the N2
molecules tend to be adsorbed on this configuration. More impor-
tantly, the bond length for the NN is significantly elongated on this
N2 adsorption configuration from 1.098 Å to 1.334 Å, suggesting the
weakening of the triple NN bond, which is beneficial for accel-
erating the N2 molecule reduction reaction. Taken together, the
formation of Z-scheme heterojunction between AgInS2 and Ti3 C2
and superior adsorption ability of the Ti3 C2 toward N2 molecule,
the photocatalytic activity of the optimized AgInS2 /Ti3 C2 compos-
ite (38.8 ␮mol g−1 h−1 ) was far higher than that of the pristine
AgInS2 and Ti3 C2 toward photocatalytic N2 fixation for NH3 pro-
duction.
As mentioned above, the Ti3 C2 could be used as a 2D precursor
for TiO2 . Employing this unique feature of Ti3 C2 , Hao et al. prepared
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44 39

Fig. 24. (a) XRD patterns for ˛-Fe2 O3 , Ti3 C2 and ˛-Fe2 O3 loaded with 2 wt.% Ti3 C2 (˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2 -2). (b) SEM image for the ˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2 -2. (c) Photocatalytic RhB degradation
activity of pristine Ti3 C2 and ˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2 with different Ti3 C2 content, including 1 wt.% (˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2 -1), 2 wt.% and 3 wt.% (˛-Fe2 O3 /Ti3 C2 -3) wt.% [119].

Fig. 25. Photocatalytic tetracycline hydrochloride (a) and sulfadimidine degradation activity (b) for Ti3 C2 , Ag2 WO4 and Ag2 WO4 /Ti3 C2 [120].

a ternary RuO2 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 composite for photocatalytic N2 fixation
[133]. Their idea is utilizing TiO2 , Ti3 C2 and RuO2 as light-harvesting
unit, electron mediator and N2 adsorbent, respectively. As revealed
by TEM image in Fig. 32(a), the prepared samples consist of Ti3 C2 ,
TiO2 and RuO2 . It should be noted here that the RuO2 NPs were
mainly distributed on the Ti3 C2 instead of TiO2 . Therefore, upon
light irradiation, the photogenerated electrons could first transfer
from TiO2 to Ti3 C2 , and then migrate to the RuO2 for reducing the
adsorbed N2 on the RuO2 . Such an intermediate photogenerated
charge carrier transfer on the prepared samples could contribute for
prolonging the photogenerated charge carrier lifetime. As a result,
the photocatalytic N2 fixation activity of the RuO2 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 was
significantly higher than that of the TiO2 , RuO2 , TiO2 /Ti3 C2 and
TiO2 /RuO2 (Fig. 32(b)). This work provides an important guideline
for the preparation of highly efficient photocatalyst for N2 fixa-
tion.
In short, the photocatalytic N2 fixation using Ti3 C2 -based pho-
tocatalyst represents a viable way for achieving the practical
40 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 26. (a) SEM image for MoS2 /Ti3 C2 . (b) Photocatalytic MO degradation activity for MoS2 and MoS2 loaded with different content of Ti3 C2 including 20 wt.% (20 %M/T), 25
wt.% (25 %M/T), 30 wt.% (30 %M/T), 35 wt.% (35 %M/T) and 40 wt.% (40 %M/T). (c) Photocatalytic MO degradation activity of 30 %M/T before, after 30 min and after 60 min
friction treatment [77].
application of photocatalytic N2 fixation for NH3 production. How-
ever, up to today, the photocatalytic N2 fixation mechanism on the
MXene-based photocatalyst remains controversial. The main ques-
tion is how the N2 molecule adsorbs on the Ti3 C2 . Thus, future
research and study on the N2 adsorption model for Ti3 C2 -based
photocatalyst using experimental aids are strongly coveted.
4. Conclusions and outlooks
In short, we have summarized the vigorous development of
MXene-based photocatalyst in the past few years, aiming to provide
a reference for future researchers in this field. Clearly, MXene-based
photocatalyst demonstrated fascinating properties and advantages
for accelerating the expansion of the photocatalysis. It has been
known as one of the most potential candidates to substitute the role
of noble metals as cocatalyst, allowing the cheap and large-scale
production of the highly efficient photocatalytic system. Never-
theless, there are many works to be done to achieve the practical
applications of MXene-based photocatalyst.
First is the construction of the MXene-based photocatalyst using
novel MXene materials. Currently, the construction of MXene-
based photocatalyst is mainly concentrated on the Ti3 C2 . Although
the Ti3 C2 has shown its great merits in photocatalysis, they still
endure some fatal issues. For instance, the Ti3 C2 NSs are normally
unstable and could be easily oxidized and transformed into the TiO2
during the materials preparation, suppressing its role in accelerat-
ing photogenerated charge carrier separation. Recently, V2 C, Zr2 C
and Ti2 C have been successfully prepared and proven to be effective
in various applications such as supercapacitor, lithium-ion battery
and so on. Therefore, it is expected that the applications of these
novel MXene materials could be further extended into photocatal-
ysis.
Second is the establishment of facile methods for preparation
of MXene materials. Up to today, the etching and exfoliation of
the MXene still rely on the harsh chemicals, causing safety and
environmental problems. Taking preparation of Ti3 C2 as an exam-
ple, it is mainly prepared through the etching of the Al element
from the Ti3 AlC2 using hydrofluoric acid, which is extremely cor-
rosive and contaminative. Therefore, it is of significance to search
for facial and novel preparation methods, avoiding the use of
the perilous chemicals, for the preparation of MXene materials.
Obviously, reducing the environmental costs and risks for the
preparation of such materials is crucial endeavors for its wide appli-
cations.
Third is the development of novel strategies for determining the
enhancement mechanism of the MXene materials in photocatal-
ysis. The debate on the enhancement mechanism of the MXene
materials in photocatalysis may seek help from the advanced char-
acterization techniques. For example, the in situ light irradiated
XPS could provide the information on photogenerated charge car-
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44 41

Fig. 27. (a) Schematic illustration for the preparation of ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 and its corresponding magnetic property. TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images for ˛-
Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 . (d) Photocatalytic RhB degradation rate constant for ˛-Fe2 O3 /ZnFe2 O4 /Ti3 C2 with different Ti3 C2 contents [121].

Fig. 28. (a) Schematic illustration for preparation procedure for In2 S3 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 . (b) Photocurrent density curves for In2 S3 and In2 S3 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 (InTi-16). (c) Comparison of
photocatalytic MO degradation activity of InTi-16, In2 S3 /TiO2 , In2 S3 /MoS2 , In2 S3 /carbon nanotube (In2 S3 /CNT) and In2 S3 /reduced graphene oxide (In2 S3 /rGO) [122].
42 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44

Fig. 29. SEM (a) and HRTEM (b) images for TiO2 /Ti3 C2 /CdS. (c) PL spectra for TiO2 /Ti3 C2 and TiO2 /Ti3 C2 with 1 wt.% (1:1CTT), 2 wt.% (2:1CTT), 3 mol% (3:1CTT) and 4 mol%
(4:1CTT) of CdS. (d) Schematic illustration for the photocatalytic dye degradation mechanism on TiO2 /Ti3 C2 /CdS [74].

Fig. 30. (a) OCVD curves and (b) average electron lifetimes for the P25 and TiO2 /Ti3 C2 prepared under 4, 12, and 24 h hydrothermal reactions [123].

rier migration on MXene-based photocatalysts. Certainly, more
advanced characterization techniques could be applied in this
emerging photocatalytic material.
Forth is the extending applications of the MXene-based photo-
catalyst. Attributed to the potential of photocatalysis, it has been
developed beyond the applications mentioned above. Therefore,
the development of the MXene-based photocatalyst could also be
broadened into applications including organic synthesis, bacteria
disinfection, etc. Considering its wide advantages, MXene-based
photocatalyst could also play a revolutionary role in other photo-
catalytic applications.
Generally, MXene-based photocatalyst has proven advanta-
geous in strengthening the development of the photocatalysis, yet
multidiscipline development from far-reaching expertise in sam-
ple synthesis, theoretical calculations, etc., is highly coveted to
boost the understanding and advancement of such unique photo-
catalysts. We expected that this review provides some state-of-art
advancement in this field and could be a guideline for the new-
comer in this research direction.
 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
Fig. 31. (a) Schematic illustration for preparation procedure for AgInS2 /Ti3 C2 . TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) images for the AgInS2 /Ti3 C2 . (d-f) N2 adsorption configuration on
different Ti3 C2 surfaces [63].
Fig. 32. (a) TEM image for RuO2 /TiO2 /Ti3 C2 . (b) Photocatalytic N2 fixation for the various prepared samples for NH3 production with evolution of time [133].
Acknowledgements
This work was finically supported by the National Natu-
ral Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51932007, U1705251,
U1905215, 21950410514, 51961135303 and 21871217), the
National Key Research and Development Program of China (No.
2018YFB1502001), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation
(Nos. 2019TQ0237 and 2019M652190), the Chinese Academy
of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (No.
2019PC0114) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities (No. WUT: 2019IVA109).
References
[1] A. Meng, L. Zhang, B. Cheng, J. Yu,Adv. Mater. 31 (2019), 1807660.
[2] J. Low, J. Yu, M. Jaroniec, S. Wageh, A.A. Al-Ghamdi,Adv. Mater. 29 (2017),
1601694.
[3] Z. Chen, S.B. Yang, Z.F. Tian, B.C. Zhu, Appl. Surf. Sci. 469 (2019) 657–665.
[4] Y.J. Ren, D.Q. Zeng, W.J. Ong, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019) 289–319.
[5] B. Wang, J.T. Zhang, F. Huang, Appl. Surf. Sci. 391 (2017) 449–456.
[6] Y.B. Li, Z.L. Jin, L.J. Zhang, K. Fan, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019) 390–402.
[7] Y.Q. Zhu, T. Wang, T. Xu, Y.X. Li, C.Y. Wang, Appl. Surf. Sci. 464 (2019) 36–42.
[8] Q. Xiang, J. Yu, M. Jaroniec, Chem. Soc. Rev. 41 (2012) 782–796.
[9] M. Hu, Z. Yao, X. Wang, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 56 (2017) 3477–3502.
[10] P. Kuang, M. Sayed, J. Fan, B. Cheng, J. Yu,Adv. Energy Mater. 10 (2020),
1903802.
43
[11] X. Li, J. Yu, S. Wageh, A.A. Al-Ghamdi, J. Xie, Small 12 (2016)
6640–6696.
[12] X. Li, R.C. Shen, S. Ma, X.B. Chen, J. Xie, Appl. Surf. Sci. 430 (2018)
53–107.
[13] M. Fang, X. Xiong, Y. Hao, T. Zhang, H. Wang, H.-M. Cheng, Y. Zeng, J. Mater.
Sci. Technol. 35 (2019) 1989–1995.
[14] R. He, D. Xu, B. Cheng, J. Yu, W. Ho, Nanoscale Horiz. 3 (2018) 464–504.
[15] J. Low, J. Yu, W. Ho, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 6 (2015) 4244–4251.
[16] L. Yang, Y. Liu, R. Zhang, W. Li, P. Li, X. Wang, Y. Zhou, Chin. J. Catal. 39 (2018)
646–653.
[17] K.L. He, J. Xie, M.L. Li, X. Li, Appl. Surf. Sci. 430 (2018) 208–217.
[18] F. He, A. Meng, B. Cheng, W. Ho, J. Yu, Chin. J. Catal. 41 (2020) 9–20.
[19] P. Kuang, M. He, H. Zou, J. Yu, K. Fan, Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 254 (2019)
15–25.
[20] Q. Yan, G.M. Huang, D. Li, M. Zhang, A. Pan, W. Huang, J. Mater. Sci. Technol.
34 (2018) 2515–2520.
[21] L. Huang, Y. Zou, D. Chen, S. Wang, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019) 1822–1840.
[22] Y. Hu, H.Y. Zhao, M. Tan, J.T. Liu, X.H. Shu, M.L. Zhang, S.S. Liu, Q. Ran, H. Li,
X.Q. Liu, J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 55 (2020) 173–181.
[23] P. Zhang, Q. Ru, H. Yan, X. Hou, F. Chen, S. Hu, L. Zhao, J. Mater. Sci. Technol.
35 (2019) 1840–1850.
[24] F. Han, S. Luo, L. Xie, J. Zhu, W. Wei, X. Chen, F. Liu, W. Chen, J. Zhao, L. Dong,
K. Yu, X. Zeng, F. Rao, L. Wang, Y. Huang, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 11 (2019)
8443–8452.
[25] X. Zhang, X. Liu, S. Dong, J. Yang, Y. Liu, Appl. Mater. Today 16 (2019)
315–321.
[26] N. Zhang, X. Jiang, J. Fan, W. Luo, Y. Xiang, W. Wu, M. Ren, X. Zhang, W. Cai, J.
Xu,Nanotechnology 30 (2019), 505201.
[27] Q. Lu, Y. Yu, Q. Ma, B. Chen, H. Zhang, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016) 1917–1933.
[28] P. Kuang, T. Tong, K. Fan, J. Yu, ACS Catal. 7 (2017) 6179–6187.
44 P. Kuang et al. / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 56 (2020) 18–44
[29] Z.-W. Zhang, Q.-H. Li, X.-Q. Qiao, D. Hou, D.-S. Li, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019)
371–379.
[30] N. Li, J. Zhou, Z.Q. Sheng, W. Xiao, Appl. Surf. Sci. 430 (2018) 218–224.
[31] J. Fu, J. Yu, C. Jiang, B. Cheng,Adv. Energy Mater. 8 (2018), 1701503.
[32] Z. Li, Y.N. Ma, X.Y. Hu, E.Z. Liu, J. Fan, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019) 434–445.
[33] B.C. Zhu, P.F. Xia, Y. Li, W.K. Ho, J.G. Yu, Appl. Surf. Sci. 391 (2017) 175–183.
[34] D. He, Z. Zhang, Y. Xing, Y. Zhou, H. Yang, H. Liu, J. Qu, X. Yuan, J. Guan, Y.
Zhang,Chem. Eng. J. 384 (2020), 123258.
[35] Q. Zhang, J. Zhang, L. Zhang, M. Cao, F. Yang, W. Dai,Appl. Surf. Sci. 504
(2020), 144366.
[36] Y. Xue, Q. Zhang, T. Zhang, L. Fu, ChemNanoMat 3 (2017) 352–361.
[37] Y. Liu, Y. Li, F. Peng, Y. Lin, S. Yang, S. Zhang, H. Wang, Y. Cao, H. Yu, Appl.
Catal. B-Environ. 241 (2019) 236–245.
[38] L. Cheng, X. Li, H. Zhang, Q. Xiang, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 10 (2019) 3488–3494.
[39] X. Zhang, Z. Zhang, J. Li, X. Zhao, D. Wu, Z. Zhou, J. Mater. Chem. A 5 (2017)
12899–12903.
[40] H. Fang, Y. Pan, M. Yin, C. Pan,Mater. Res. Bull. 121 (2020), 110618.
[41] F. Xu, D. Zhang, Y. Liao, G. Wang, X. Shi, H. Zhang, Q. Xiang, J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
103 (2019) 849–858.
[42] B. Anasori, M.R. Lukatskaya, Y. Gogotsi, Nat. Rev. Mater. 2 (2017) 16098.
[43] X. Zhan, C. Si, J. Zhou, Z. Sun, Nanoscale Horiz. 5 (2020) 235–258.
[44] Y. Li, L. Ding, Z. Liang, Y. Xue, H. Cui, J. Tian,Chem. Eng. J. 383 (2020), 123178.
[45] H. Zou, B. He, P. Kuang, J. Yu, K. Fan, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (2018)
22311–22319.
[46] J. Peng, X. Chen, W. Ong, X. Zhao, N. Li, Chem 5 (2019) 18–50.
[47] Z. Li, Y. Wu,Small 15 (2019), 1804736.
[48] Z. Guan, X. Wang, T. Li, Q. Zhu, M. Jia, B. Xu, J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 35 (2019)
1977–1981.
[49] J. Pang, R.G. Mendes, A. Bachmatiuk, L. Zhao, H.Q. Ta, T. Gemming, H. Liu, Z.
Liu, M.H. Rummeli, Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 (2019) 72–133.
[50] Y. Zhuang, Y. Liu, X. Meng,Appl. Surf. Sci. 496 (2019), 143647.
[51] H. Wang, Y. Sun, Y. Wu, W. Tu, S. Wu, X. Yuan, G. Zeng, Z.J. Xu, S. Li, J.W.
Chew, Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 245 (2019) 290–301.
[52] G. Jia, Y. Wang, X. Cui, W. Zheng, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 6 (2018)
13480–13486.
[53] C. Zhao, X. Yang, C. Han, J. Xu,Sol. RRL 3 (2019), 1900434.
[54] Z. Zeng, Y. Yan, J. Chen, P. Zan, Q. Tian, P. Chen,Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019),
1806500.
[55] M. Ye, X. Wang, E. Liu, J. Ye, D. Wang, ChenSusChem 11 (2018) 1606–1611.
[56] A. Pan, X. Ma, S. Huang, Y. Wu, M. Jia, Y. Shi, Y. Liu, P. Wangyang, L. He, Y. Liu,
J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 10 (2019) 6590–6597.
[57] Q. Tang, Z. Sun, S. Deng, H. Wang, Z. Wu, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 564 (2020)
406–417.
[58] X. Cheng, L. Zu, Y. Jiang, D. Shi, X. Cai, Y. Ni, S. Lin, Y. Qin, Chem. Commun. 54
(2018) 11622–11625.
[59] H. Huang, Y. Song, N. Li, D. Chen, Q. Xu, H. Li, J. He, J. Lu, Appl. Catal.
B-Environ. 251 (2019) 154–161.
[60] X. Ding, Y. Li, C. Li, W. Wang, L. Wang, L. Feng, D. Han, J. Mater. Sci. 54 (2019)
9385–9396.
[61] T. Wojciechowski, A. Rozmyslowska-Wojciechowska, G. Matyszczak, M.
Wrzecionek, A. Olszyna, A. Peter, A. Mihaly-Cozmuta, C. Nicula, L.
Mihaly-Cozmuta, S. Podsiadlo, D. Basiak, W. Ziemkowska, A. Jastrzebska,
Inorg. Chem. 58 (2019) 7602–7614.
[62] Q. Liu, L. Ai, J. Jiang, J. Mater. Chem. A 6 (2018) 4102–4110.
[63] J. Qin, X. Hu, X. Li, Z. Yin, B. Liu, K.-H. Lam, Nano Energy 61 (2019) 27–35.
[64] H. Wang, R. Zhao, J. Qin, H. Hu, X. Fan, X. Cao, D. Wang, ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 11 (2019) 44249–44262.
[65] X. An, W. Wang, J. Wang, H. Duan, J. Shi, X. Yu, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 20
(2018) 11405–11411.
[66] A.D. Handoko, S.N. Steinmann, Z.W. Seh, Nanoscale Horiz. 4 (2019) 809–827.
[67] P. Kuang, P. Zheng, Z. Liu, J. Lei, H. Wu, N. Li, T. Ma, Small 12 (2016)
6735–6744.
[68] Y. Li, Z. Yin, G. Ji, Z. Liang, Y. Xue, Y. Guo, J. Tian, X. Wang, H. Cui, Appl. Catal.
B-Environ. 246 (2019) 12–20.
[69] H. Wang, R. Peng, Z.D. Hood, M. Naguib, S.P. Adhikari, Z.L. Wu, ChenSusChem
9 (2016) 1490–1497.
[70] J. Ran, G. Gao, F. Li, T. Ma, A. Du, S. Qiao, Nat. Commun. 8 (2017) 13907.
[71] P. Huang, W. Liu, Z. He, C. Xiao, T. Yao, Y. Zou, C. Wang, Z. Qi, W. Tong, B. Pan,
S. Wei, Y. Xie, Sci. China-Chem. 61 (2018) 1187–1196.
[72] C. Peng, H. Wang, H. Yu, F. Peng, Mater. Res. Bull. 89 (2017) 16–25.
[73] W. Yuan, L. Cheng, Y. An, S. Lv, H. Wu, X. Fan, Y. Zhang, X. Guo, J. Tang,Adv.
Sci. 5 (2018), 1700870.
[74] Q. Liu, X. Tan, S. Wang, F. Ma, H. Znad, Z. Shen, L. Liu, S. Liu, Environ. Sci.
Nano 6 (2019) 3158–3169.
[75] Y. Yang, D. Zhang, Q. Xiang, Nanoscale 11 (2019) 18797–18805.
[76] Y. Li, S. Yang, Z. Liang, Y. Xue, H. Cui, J. Tian, Mater. Chem. Front. 3 (2019)
2673–2680.
[77] S. Jiao, L. Liu, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 58 (2019) 18141–18148.
[78] J. Low, L. Zhang, T. Tong, B. Shen, J. Yu, J. Catal. 361 (2018) 255–266.
[79] T. Su, R. Peng, Z.D. Hood, M. Naguib, I.N. Ivanov, J.K. Keum, Z. Qin, Z. Guo, Z.
Wu, ChenSusChem 11 (2018) 688–699.
[80] Y. Li, F. Zhang, Y. Chen, J. Li, Y. Xu, Green Chem. 22 (2020) 163–169.
[81] P. Kuang, M. He, B. Zhu, J. Yu, K. Fan, M. Jaroniec, J. Catal. 375 (2019) 8–20.
[82] S. Cao, B. Shen, T. Tong, J. Fu, J. Yu,Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018), 1800136.
[83] Y. Sun, X. Meng, Y. Dall’Agnese, C. Dall’Agnese, S. Duan, Y. Gao, G. Chen, X.
Wang, Nano-Micro Lett. 11 (2019) 79.
[84] T.M. Di, B. Cheng, W.K. Ho, J.G. Yu, H. Tang, Appl. Surf. Sci. 470 (2019)
196–204.
[85] R.C. Shen, J. Xie, Q.J. Xiang, X.B. Chen, J.Z. Jiang, X. Li, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019)
240–288.
[86] J.-H. Zhao, L.-W. Liu, K. Li, T. Li, F.-T. Liu, CrystEngComm 21 (2019)
2416–2421.
[87] P. Lin, J. Shen, X. Yu, Q. Liu, D. Li, H. Tang, Ceram. Int. 45 (2019) 24656–24663.
[88] P. Wang, S.Q. Xu, F. Chen, H.G. Yu, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019) 343–351.
[89] N. Xiao, S.S. Li, S. Liu, B.R. Xu, Y.D. Li, Y.Q. Gao, L. Ge, G.W. Lu, Chin. J. Catal. 40
(2019) 352–361.
[90] Y. Xia, B. Cheng, J. Fan, J. Yu, G. Liu,Small 15 (2019), 1902459.
[91] J. Fu, Q. Xu, J. Low, C. Jiang, J. Yu, Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 243 (2019) 556–565.
[92] T.M. Su, Z.D. Hood, M. Naguib, L. Bai, S. Luo, C.M. Rouleau, I.N. Ivanoy, H.B. Ji,
Z.Z. Qin, Z.L. Wu, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2 (2019) 4640–4651.
[93] T.M. Su, Z.D. Hood, M. Naguib, L. Bai, S. Luo, C.M. Rouleau, I.N. Ivanov, H.B. Ji,
Z.Z. Qin, Z.L. Wu, Nanoscale 11 (2019) 8138–8149.
[94] M.M. Shao, Y.F. Shao, J.W. Chai, Y.J. Qu, M.Y. Yang, Z.L. Wang, M. Yang, W.F.
Ip, C.T. Kwok, X.Q. Shi, Z.G. Lu, S.J. Wang, X.S. Wang, H. Pan, J. Mater. Chem. A
5 (2017) 16748–16756.
[95] Y.J. Li, L. Ding, Y.C. Guo, Z.Q. Liang, H.Z. Cui, J. Tian, ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 11 (2019) 41440–41447.
[96] C. Peng, P. Wei, X.Y. Li, Y.P. Liu, Y.H. Cao, H.J. Wang, H. Yu, F. Peng, L.Y. Zhang,
B.S. Zhang, K.L. Lv, Nano Energy 53 (2018) 97–107.
[97] Y. Li, X. Deng, J. Tian, Z. Liang, H. Cui, Appl. Mater. Today 13 (2018) 217–227.
[98] W.Y. Yuan, L.F. Cheng, Y.N. Zhang, H. Wu, S.L. Lv, L.Y. Chai, X.H. Guo, L.X.
Zheng,Adv. Mater. Interfaces 4 (2017), 1700577.
[99] D. Xu, B. Cheng, W. Wang, C. Jiang, J. Yu, Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 231 (2018)
368–380.
[100] Q. Huang, J.G. Yu, S.W. Cao, C. Cui, B. Cheng, Appl. Surf. Sci. 358 (2015)
350–355.
[101] A. Meng, L. Zhang, B. Cheng, J. Yu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 (2019)
5581–5589.
[102] R. Shi, Y. Chen, ChemCatChem 11 (2019) 2270–2276.
[103] F. Xu, J. Zhang, B. Zhu, J. Yu, J. Xu, Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 230 (2018) 194–202.
[104] M. Zhou, S. Wang, P. Yang, C. Huang, X. Wang, ACS Catal. 8 (2018)
4928–4936.
[105] C. Bie, B. Zhu, F. Xu, L. Zhang, J. Yu,Adv. Mater. 31 (2019), 1902868.
[106] T. Hou, N. Luo, Y.-T. Cui, J. Lu, L. Li, K.E. MacArthur, M. Heggen, R. Chen, F.
Fan, W. Tian, S. Jin, F. Wang, Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 245 (2019) 262–270.
[107] Y. He, H. Rao, K. Song, J. Li, Y. Yu, Y. Lou, C. Li, Y. Han, Z. Shi, S. Feng,Adv.
Funct. Mater. 29 (2019), 1905153.
[108] J.Y. Shen, J. Shen, W.J. Zhang, X.H. Yu, H. Tang, M.Y. Zhang, Zulfiqar, Q.Q. Liu,
Ceram. Int. 45 (2019) 24146–24153.
[109] R. He, Z. Lou, J. Gui, B. Tang, D. Xu,Appl. Surf. Sci. 504 (2020), 144370.
[110] C. Zhang, P. Zhao, S. Liu, K. Yu, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019) 1324–1338.
[111] B. Tryba, S. Jafari, M. Sillanpaa, A. Nitta, B. Ohtani, A.W. Morawski, Appl. Surf.
Sci. 470 (2019) 376–385.
[112] J. Shen, R. Wang, Q.Q. Liu, X.F. Yang, H. Tang, J. Yang, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019)
380–389.
[113] B.-M. Jun, S. Kim, J. Heo, C.M. Park, N. Her, M. Jang, Y. Huang, J. Han, Y. Yoon,
Nano Res. 12 (2018) 471–487.
[114] Z. Wang, L. Zang, X. Fan, H. Jia, L. Li, W.Y. Deng, C.Y. Wang, Appl. Surf. Sci. 358
(2015) 479–484.
[115] T. Boningari, S.N.R. Inturi, M. Suidan, P.G. Smirniotis, J. Mater. Sci. Technol.
34 (2018) 1494–1502.
[116] Y.P. Gao, L.B. Wang, A.G. Zhou, Z.Y. Li, J.K. Chen, H. Bala, Q.K. Hu, X.X. Cao,
Mater. Lett. 150 (2015) 62–64.
[117] W.J. Zhou, J.F. Zhu, F. Wang, M.J. Cao, T. Zhao, Mater. Lett. 206 (2017)
237–240.
[118] Y. Cao, Y. Fang, X. Lei, B. Tan, X. Hu, B. Liu, Q. Chen,J. Hazard. Mater. 387
(2020), 122021.
[119] H. Zhang, M. Li, J. Cao, Q. Tang, P. Kang, C. Zhu, M. Ma, Ceram. Int. 44 (2018)
19958–19962.
[120] Y. Fang, Y. Cao, Q. Chen, Ceram. Int. 45 (2019) 22298–22307.
[121] H.L. Zhang, M. Li, C.X. Zhu, Q.J. Tang, P. Kang, J.H. Cao, Ceram. Int. 46 (2020)
81–88.
[122] H. Wang, Y. Wu, T. Xiao, X. Yuan, G. Zeng, W. Tu, S. Wu, H.Y. Lee, Y.Z. Tan,
J.W. Chew, Appl. Catal. B-Environ. 233 (2018) 213–225.
[123] C. Peng, X. Yang, Y. Li, H. Yu, H. Wang, F. Peng, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8
(2016) 6051–6060.
[124] M.H. Vu, M. Sakar, S.A. Hassanzadeh-Tabrizi, T.O. Do,Adv. Mater. Interfaces 6
(2019), 1900091.
[125] H. Liu, Chin. J. Catal. 35 (2014) 1619–1640.
[126] X. Chen, N. Li, Z. Kong, W.-J. Ong, X. Zhao, Mater. Horiz. 5 (2018) 9–27.
[127] H. Li, C. Mao, H. Shang, Z. Yang, Z. Ai, L. Zhang, Nanoscale 10 (2018)
15429–15435.
[128] G. Wu, L. Yu, Y. Liu, J. Zhao, Z. Han, G. Geng, Appl. Surf. Sci. 481 (2019)
649–660.
[129] R. Li, Chin. J. Catal. 39 (2018) 1180–1188.
[130] Z. Li, G. Gu, S. Hu, X. Zou, G. Wu, Chin. J. Catal. 40 (2019) 1178–1186.
[131] C. Ling, X. Niu, Q. Li, A. Du, J. Wang, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 140 (2018)
14161–14168.
[132] G. Dong, W. Ho, C. Wang, J. Mater. Chem. A 3 (2015) 23435–23441.
[133] C.Y. Hao, Y. Liao, Y. Wu, Y.J. An, J.N. Lin, Z.F. Gu, M.H. Jiang, S. Hu, X.T. Wang,J.
Phys. Chem. Solids 136 (2020), 109141.