HEAT TREATMENT

PROCESSES IN METALS
 HEAT TREATMENT:
Fundamentals
Fe-C equilibrium diagram. Isothermal and
continuous cooling transformation diagrams for
plain carbon and alloy steels. Microstructure
and mechanical properties of pearlite, bainite
and martensite. Austenitic grain size.
Hardenability, its measurement and control.

Processes
Annealing, normalising and hardening of steels,
quenching media, tempering. Homogenisation.
Dimensional and compositional changes during
heat treatment. Residual stresses and
decarburisation.
 HEAT TREATMENT:

 Bulk and Surface

Treatments.
 Annealing, Normalizing,
Hardening, Tempering.
 Hardenability.
 HEAT TREATMENT -
OBJECTIVES:
The major objectives are:
o To increase strength, harness and wear
resistance (bulk hardening, surface hardening)
o To increase ductility and softness (tempering,
recrystallization annealing)
o To increase toughness (tempering,
recrystallization annealing)
o To obtain fine grain size (recrystallization
annealing, full annealing, normalising)
o To remove internal stresses induced by
differential deformation by cold working, non-
uniform cooling from high temperature during
casting and welding (stress relief annealing)
 HEAT TREATMENT -
OBJECTIVES:
o To improve machineability (full annealing and
normalising).
o To improve cutting properties of tool steels
(hardening and tempering).
o To improve surface properties (surface
hardening, corrosion resistance-stabilising
treatment and high temperature resistance-
precipitation hardening, surface treatment).
o To improve electrical properties
(recrystallization, tempering, age hardening)
o To improve magnetic properties (hardening,
phase transformation).
 HEAT TREATMENT:
Surface Hardening
Case carburising, nitriding, carbonitriding, induction and
flame hardening processes.
Special Grade Steels
Stainless steels, high speed tool steels, maraging
steels, high strength low alloy steels.
Cast irons
White, gray and spheroidal graphitic cast irons
Nonferrous Metals
Annealing of cold worked metals. Recovery,
recrystallisation and grain growth. Heat treatment of
aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium and nickel
alloys. Temper designations for aluminum and
magnesium alloys.
Controlled Atmospheres
Oxidizing, reducing and neutral atmospheres.
We had noted the following in our introduction Phase Transformations

to phase transformations. Microstructural Transformations

 When one phase transforms to another phase it is called phase transformation.

 Often the word phase transition is used to describe transformations where there is no
change in composition.
 In a phase transformation we could be concerned about phases defined based on:
 Structure → e.g. cubic to tetragonal phase
 Property → e.g. ferromagnetic to paramagnetic phase Mic
M roststru
icro ctuure
ruct re
rmations
ases
PPhhas es
ral Transfo
Phase transformations could be classified based on: ructu
 ns
Micro st
nsformatio
 Kinetic: Mass transport → Diffusional or Diffusionless Phases Tra
 Thermodynamic: Order (of the transformation) → 1st order, 2nd order, higher order.
 Often subtler aspects are considered under the preview of transformations.
E.g. (i) roughening transition of surfaces, (ii) coherent to semi-coherent transition of
interfaces.

 Phase transformations are associated with change in one or more properties.

 Hence for microstructure dependent properties we would like to additionally ‘worry
about’ ‘subtler’ transformations, which involve defect structure and stress state
(apart from phases).
 Therefore the broader subject of interest is Microstructural Transformations.

We now takeup three microstructural transformations: Recovery,

Recrystallization & Grain Growth.
Cold Work
 We now introduce a ‘technical term’ called Cold Work. We will arrive at a
formal definition of the term at the end of this topic.
 Cold work is an important method to increase the strength of metals (&
alloys), especially for those, wherein other methods like precipitation
hardening are not available.
Notes. Cold work can be used to augment other strengthening mechanisms.
Cold working is not a good strengthening mechanism for materials, wherein
the service temperature is ‘high’. Cold work does not involve change in
composition and hence has its benefits. Strengthening due to cold work
may be a ‘by product’ of shaping of metals by deformation processing (like
extrusion, forging, wire drawing, etc.) at ‘low temperatures’
 For now, we use a ‘working definition’ of cold work as: Plastic deformation
in the temperature range (0.3 – 0.5) Tm → COLD WORK. We will refine this
definition soon.
 During cold work the point defect density (vacancies, self interstitials…)
and dislocation density increase. This leads to an increase in the internal
energy of the material. Typical cold working techniques are rolling, forging,
extrusion etc.
 Cold working is typically done on ductile metals and alloys (e.g. Al, Cu, Ni)
and is a standard method of increasing the strength of soft metals like
Aluminium.
 Point defects and dislocations have strain energy associated
with them.
 (1 -15) % of the energy expended in plastic deformation
typically is stored in the form of strain energy (in these
defects)  The material becomes battery of energy!!!
 The amount of energy stored depends on the material,
temperature, strain rate and type of deformation, grain size,
etc.
 The cold worked material is in a microstructurally
metastable state.
 Depending on the severity of the cold work the dislocation
density can increase 4-6 orders of magnitude or more. The
material becomes stronger, but less ductile.

↑ point defect density

Cold work Annealed material Stronger material

Cold work

↑ dislocation density dislocation ~ (106  109 ) dislocation ~ (1012  1014 )

 Due to cold work, changes occur to almost all physical and mechanical properties.
 The cold worked material is stronger (harder), but is brittle (as noted before).
 The electrical resistance of the material increases due to primarily the increase in point
defect density. (This is mostly reversed during recovery).
 Changes can also be noted in the X-Ray diffraction pattern.
► Laue patterns of single crystals show pronounced asterism → due to lattice curvatures.
► Debye-Scherrer photographs show line broadening → Residual stresses + deformations.

↑ Strength ↑ Hardness
Cold work
↑ Electrical resistance
↓ Ductility

Internal stress
Electical conductivity

Tensile strength

Ductility
Cold work Recovery Recrystallization Grain growth
 Heating the material (typically below 0.5 Tm) is and holding for
sufficient time is a heat treatment process called annealing.
 Depending on the temperature of annealing processes like Recovery
(at lower temperatures) or Recrystallization (at higher temperatures)
may take place. During these processes the material tends to go
from a microstructurally metastable state to a lower energy state
(towards a stable state). Note again: this is not a phase transformation but a
microstructural transformation.
 Further ‘annealing’ of the recrystallized material can lead to grain
growth.

↑ point defect density

Cold work Material tends to lose
↑ dislocation density Anneal the stored strain energy

Increase in strength Softening of the material

of the material

Low T
Recovery

Cold work Anneal

Recrystallization
High T
Overview of processes taking place during annealing of cold worked material and the driving
force for these processes

Driving force is free energy stored in

Cold work Anneal Recovery point defects and dislocations

Driving force is free energy stored in dislocations Recrystallization

Driving force is free energy

stored in grain boundaries
Grain growth
 It should be noted that the driving force cited above is a global (thermodynamic) driving force.
If the process will actually takes place will depend on the ‘local’ conditions. I.e. both global
and local criteria have to be satisfied if these processes have to take place.
 Recovery and recrystallization may occur even during deformation (depending on the
temperature, strain rate, etc.) and in this case they are referred to as dynamic recovery and
dynamic recrystallization.
 Metal working reduces the ‘residual ductility’. Hence, it is preferable to carry out deformation
processing (like forging, rolling, etc.) in temperature and strain rate regime wherein dynamic
recrystallization occurs. This enables us to deform the material to large strains.
 Deformation processing maps can be used to locate such regimes.
Recovery
 Recovery takes place at low temperatures of annealing (after cold work).
 “Apparently there no change in microstructure” (i.e. if seen in an optical microscope, the
microstructure looks similar before and after recovery).
 Two processes which occur during recovery are:
 Reduction in point defect density (+ their reconfiguration),
 Annihilation of dislocations and their arrangement into low energy configurations.
 Note: not all point defects and dislocaitons participate in the above processes.
 It was noted that excess point defects are created during cold work. During recovery these
are absorbed by processes which include (there are other processes which also may be active):
► at surface or grain boundaries
► or by dislocation climb process.
 During recovery, random dislocations (statistically stored dislocations) of opposite sign
come together and annihilate each other. However, the overall reduction in the dislocation
density by this process is small.
 Dislocations of same sign arrange into low energy configurations.
► Edge dislocations ‘rearrange’ to form Tilt boundaries
► Screw dislocations ‘rearrange’ to form Twist boundaries.
 The formation of low angle tilt and twist boundaries is termed as POLYGONIZATION
(figure in next page).
 Hence, the overall reduction in dislocation density is small during recovery.
 POLYGONIZATION
Bent crystal

Statistically stored edge dislocations in a

crystal, which has undergone cold work.
Excess on sign of dislocations leads to a bent
crystal.

 During recovery polygonization takes place.

 In this process, dislocations of the same sign
arrange themselves in a low energy
configuration. Low-angle tilt grain boundaries
 This leads to the formation of sub-grain
boundaries or low-angle grain boundaries.
 In the example considered formation of low
angle tilt grain boundary is shown (staring with
an excess of positive edge dislocations).
 If we start with an excess of screw dislocations,
we will obtain a low-angle twist boundary.
 An interesting point is that during this process,
statistically stored (random) dislocations
‘become’ structural dislocations.
Recrystallization
 During recrystallization, ‘strain free grains’ replace the ‘cold worked grains’.
 For recrystallization we can define a temperature: TRecrystallization (or Trx). Unlike the usual
definitions we encounter in materials science, the definition of Trx is a little ‘convoluted’ (it
involves a percentage and time!).
 TRecrystallization is the temperature at which 50 % of the material recrystallizes in 1 hour.
 The recrystallization temperature typically is in the range of 0.3-0.5 of the melting point.
Trecrystallization  (0.3 – 0.5) Tm
 Two processes contribute to the formation of strain free grains:
(i) “Nucleation” and growth of new strain free grains and (ii) migration of the grain
boundaries to a region of high dislocation density. Process (ii) does not involve the
nucleation of new grains and during the migration of grain boundaries to a region of higher
dislocation density, dislocation density reduces (grain boundaries accommodate the excess
dislocations).

Region of higher
dislocation density Region of lower
dislocation density
Direction of grain
boundary migration
Further points about recrystallization
 The driving force for recrystallization is the free energy difference between the deformed and
undeformed material.
G (recrystallization) = G (deformed material) – G (undeformed material)
 Increased deformation (cold work) leads to a decrease in recrystallization temperature (Trx).
 If the initial grain size is smaller then the recrystallization temperature is lower.
 Higher amount of cold work + low initial grain size leads to finer recrystallized grains.
 Higher temperature of working, lower strain energy stored, which will lead to a higher
recrystallization temperature
 The rate of recrystallization is an exponential function of temperature. But, as the
recrystallization process is a complex one (combination of many processes), the activation
energy for recrystallization cannot be treated as a fundamental constant.
 The Trecrystallization is a strong function of the purity of the material.
 For very pure materials Trecrystallization is about 0.3 Tm
[Trecrystallization (99.999% pure Al) ~ 75oC ]
 For impure materials Trecrystallization ~ (0.5 – 0.6) Tm
[Trecrystallization (commercial purity) ~ 275oC].
 Impurity atoms tend to segregate to the grain boundary and retard their motion → Solute
drag (can be used to retain strength of materials at high temperatures).
 Second phase particles can also be used to pin down the grain boundary and impede its
migration.
Knowing the concept of recrystallization we are in a position to define hot and cold work

Hot Work and Cold Work  Hot Work  Plastic deformation above TRecrystallization
 Cold Work  Plastic deformation below TRecrystallization

Often the range is further subdivided into Hot, Cold and Warm working as in the figure
Hot Work

0.9 Tm  When a metal is hot worked, the conditions of deformation are

such that the sample is soft and ductile. The effects of strain
0.8 Tm
hardening are negated by dynamic and static processes (which keep
0.7 Tm the sample ductile).
0.6 Tm  The lower limit of temperature for hot working is taken as 0.6 Tm.

Warm 0.5 Tm
working 0.4 Tm Recrystallization temperature (~ 0.4 Tm)
0.3 Tm
0.2 Tm
 The effects of strain hardening is not negated. Recovery mechanisms
Cold Work

0.1 Tm involve mainly motion of point defects.

 Upper limit  0.3 Tm.
Grain growth
 The growth of larger grains at the expense of smaller ones, leading to the increase in the
average grain size is termed as grain growth. (Obviously all the grains cannot grow!).
 This is also called ‘grain coarsening’.
 A related term to this is ‘Ostwald ripening’. Similar processes is observed in the case of
precipitation, wherein larger precipitates grow at the expense of smaller ones, leading to an
overall increase in the size of the precipitates (called precipitate coarsening).
 For grain growth to occur, both the global and the local criteria must be satisfied.
 The global criterion is easy to understand. Grain growth is Globally driven by reduction in
grain boundary energy (per unit volume).
 The local condition is explained in the next page. If we make ‘hexagonal grains’ as in the
figure below, the system will not coarsen.
 Grain growth will lead to a further drop in the strength of the material (i.e. after recrystallization has led
to a considerable drop). The strength of a material depends on the grain size via the Hall-Petch
relation (wherein larger grains imply a lower strength).

A conceptual model of hexagonal

grains, which will not coarsen, as the
local criterion will not be satisfied.
 Locally grain growth is driven by bond maximization (coordination number maximization).
This can be visualized as in the schematics as below. The smaller grains have a larger
curvature. Let us assume that a small grain G1 is in contact with a larger grain G2. Due to
higher curvature an atom at the grain boundary (from G1 side) is bonded to less number of
atoms (3 in the schematic), while a similar atom on the G2 side is bonded to more number of
atoms (4 in the schematic). The system can lower its energy by the jump of an atom from G1
to G2. Such jumps lead to the shift (migration) in the GB towards the smaller grain (G1 in
the current example). This leads to a shrinkage of the smaller grain (at the benefit of the
larger grain).

JUMP
Bonded to
4 atoms

Bonded to Direction of grain

3 atoms boundary migration

G1 G2
 We have noted that how TTT and CCT diagrams can help us design heat
treatments to design the microstructure of steels and hence engineer the properties.
In some cases a gradation in properties may be desired (usually from the surface to
the interior- a hard surface with a ductile/tough interior/bulk).
 In general three kinds of treatments are: (i) Thermal (heat treatment), (ii)
Mechanical (working), (iii) Chemical (alteration of composition). A combination
of these treatments are also possible (e.g. thermo-mechanical treatments, thermo-
chemical treatments).
 The treatment may affect the whole sample or only the surface.
 A typical industrial treatment cycle may be complicated with many steps (i.e. a
combination of the simple steps which are outlined in the chapter).

Thermal (heat treatment)

E.g. heat and quench
Or a combination
Treatments Mechanical (Thermo-mechanical,
E.g. shot peening thermo-chemical)
Chemical E.g. case carburizing
Bulk
Surface
 AN OVERVIEW OF IMPORTANT
HEAT TREATMENTS:
 A broad classification of heat treatments possible are given below. Many more specialized
treatments or combinations of these are possible.

HEAT TREATMENT

BULK SURFACE

ANNEALING NORMALIZING HARDENING

THERMAL THERMO-
& CHEMICAL
TEMPERING
Full Annealing Carburizing
MARTEMPERING Flame
Recrystallization Annealing Induction Nitriding

Stress Relief Annealing AUSTEMPERING LASER Carbo-nitriding

Spheroidization Annealing Electron Beam

 HEAT TREATMENT -
DEFINITION:
Heat treatment is an operation or
combination of operations involving
heating at a specific rate, soaking at a
temperature for a period of time and
cooling at some specified rate. The aim
is to obtain a desired microstructure
(morphology) to achieve certain
predetermined properties (physical,
mechanical, magnetic or electrical).
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
 PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
Critical Temperatures:
A = arret means arrest.
A0 = a subcritical temperature (<A1) = Curie
temperature of cementite = 210°C.
A1 = Lower critical temperature = eutectoid
temperature = 727°C.
A2 = Curie temperature of ferrite=768/770°C.
A3 = upper critical temperature=γ+α /γ phase
field boundary = composition dependent = 910-
727°C.

A4 = Eutectic temperature = 1147°C.

A5 = Peritectic temperature = 1495°C.

 PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
Acm = γ/γ+cementite phase field boundary=composition dependent
= 727-1147°C.
In addition the subscripts c or r are used to indicate that the
temperature is measured during heating or cooling respectively.
c = chaffauge means heating, Ac
r = refroidissement means cooling, Ar
Types/morphologies of phases in Fe-Fe3C system:
Cementite = primary (CmI), eutectic (Cmeu), secondary (CmII)(grain
boundary allotriomophs, idiomorphs), eutectoid (Cmed) and
tertiary(CmIII).
Austenite = austenite(γ)(equiaxed), primary (γI), eutectic (γeu),
secondary (γII) (proeutectoid),
α-ferrite = ferrite (α) (equiaxed), proeutectoid or primary (grain
boundary allotriomorphs and idiomorphs)(αI), eutectoid(αeu) and
ferrite (lean in carbon) (α’).
Phase mixtures:
Pearlite (P) and Ledeburite (LB).
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
The process by
which a colony of
pearlite evolves in a
hypoeutectoid
steel.
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
Optical micrograph
showing colonies of
pearlite (Courtesy
of S. S. Babu).
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
The appearance
of a pearlitic
microstructure
under optical
microscope.
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
Transmission electron
micrograph of
extremely fine
pearlite.
 Fe3C – CEMENTITE:
Fe-cementite metastable phase diagram
consists of phases liquid iron(L), δ-
ferrite, γ or austenite, α-ferrite and Fe3C
or cementite and phase mixture of
pearlite (interpenetrating bi-crystals of α
ferrite and cementite)(P) and ledeburite
(mixture of austenite and
cementite)(LB). Solid phases/phase
mixtures are described here.
 PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
δ ferrite:
Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of body
centred cubic crystal structure (δ iron ) of higher lattice
parameter (2.89Å) having solubility limit of 0.09 wt% at
1495°C with respect to austenite. The stability of the
phase ranges between 1394-1539°C.

This is not stable at room temperature in plain carbon steel.

However it can be present at room temperature in alloy
steel specially duplex stainless steel.
 PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
γ phase or austenite:
Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of face centred
cubic crystal structure having solubility limit of 2.11 wt%
at 1147°C with respect to cementite. The stability of the
phase ranges between 727-1495°C and solubility ranges
0-0.77 wt%C with respect to alpha ferrite and 0.77-2.11
wt% C with respect to cementite, at 0 wt%C the stability
ranges from 910-1394°C.

Crystal structure of
austenite is shown at right
side.
 PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
α-ferrite:
Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of body
centred cubic crystal structure (α iron) having solubility
limit of 0.0218 wt % C at 727°C with respect to austenite.
The stability of the phase ranges between low
temperatures to 910°C, and solubility ranges 0.00005 wt %
C at room temperature to 0.0218 wt%C at 727°C with
respect to cementite.
There are two morphologies that can be observed under
equilibrium transformation or in low under undercooling
condition in low carbon plain carbon steels. These are
intergranular allotriomorphs (α) or intragranular
idiomorphs (αI).
 PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:

Polished sample held at austenitisation temperature.

Grooves develop at the prior austenite grain boundaries
due to the balancing of surface tensions at grain
junctions with the free surface. Micrograph courtesy of
Saurabh Chatterjee.
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
Schematic diagram
of grain boundary
allotriomoph ferrite,
and intragranular
idiomorph ferrite.
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
An allotriomorph of
ferrite in a sample
which is partially
transformed into α and
then quenched so that
the remaining γ
undergoes martensitic
transformation. The
allotriomorph grows
rapidly along the
austenite grain
boundary (which is an
easy diffusion path) but
thickens more slowly.
 PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
Allotriomorphic ferrite in a
Fe-0.4C steel which is
slowly cooled; the
remaining dark-etching
microstructure is fine
pearlite. Note that
although some α-particles
might be identified as
idiomorphs, they could
represent sections of
allotriomorphs.
(Micrograph courtesy of
the DOITPOMS project).
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
The allotriomorphs have in
this slowly cooled low-
carbon steel have
consumed most of the
austenite before the
remainder transforms
into a small amount of
pearlite. The shape of
the ferrite is now
determined by the
impingement of particles
which grow from
different nucleation
sites.
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
An idiomorph of ferrite in
a sample which is
partially transformed
into α and then quenched
so that the remaining γ
undergoes martensitic
transformation. The
idiomorph is
crystallographically
facetted.
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
Fe3C or Cementite:
Interstitial intermetallic compound
of C & Fe with a carbon content of
6.67 wt% and orthorhombic structure
consisting of 12 iron atoms and 4
carbon atoms in the unit cell.
Stability of the phase ranges from low
temperatures to 1227°C.

Orthorhombic crystal structure of

cementite. The purple atoms
represent carbon. Each carbon
atom is surrounded by eight iron
atoms. Each iron atom is
connected to three carbon atoms.
PHASES IN AN Fe-C
SYSTEM:
The pearlite is resolved in some
regions where the sectioning plane
makes a glancing angle to the
lamellae. The lediburite eutectic is
highlighted by the arrows. At high
temperatures this is a mixture of
austenite and cementite formed
from liquid. The austenite
subsequently decomposes to
pearlite.
(Courtesy of Ben Dennis-Smither,
Frank Clarke and Mohamed
Sherif).
 FULL ANNEALING:
 The purpose of this heat treatment is to obtain a material
with high ductility. A microstructure with coarse pearlite
(i.e. pearlite having high interlamellar spacing) is endowed
with such properties.
 The range of temperatures used is given in the figure
below.
 The steel is heated above A3 (for hypo-eutectoid steels) &
A1 (for hyper-eutectoid steels) → (hold) → then the steel is
furnace cooled to obtain Coarse Pearlite.
 Coarse Pearlite has low (↓) Hardness but high (↑) Ductility.
 For hyper-eutectoid steels the heating is not done above
Acm to avoid a continuous network of proeutectoid
cementite along prior Austenite grain boundaries (presence
of cementite along grain boundaries provides easy path for
crack propagation).
 FULL ANNEALING:

910C Acm
Ful
lA
A3 nne
alin
g
723C Full Annealing
A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
 RECRYSTALLIZATION
ANNEALING:
 During any cold working operation (say cold
rolling), the material becomes harder (due to
work hardening), but loses its ductility. This
implies that to continue deformation the material
needs to be recrystallized (wherein strain free
grains replace the ‘cold worked grains’).
 Hence, recrystallization annealing is used as an
intermediate step in (cold) deformation
processing.
 To achieve this the sample is heated below A1
and held there for sufficient time for
recrystallization to be completed.
 RECRYSTALLIZATION
ANNEALING:
Heat below A1 → Sufficient time → Recrystallization

910C Acm

A3

723C
Recrystallization Annealing A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
RECRYSTALLIZATION
ANNEALING:
 STRESS RELIEF
ANNEALING:
 Due to various processes like quenching
(differential cooling of surface and interior),
machining, phase transformations (like
martensitic transformation), welding, etc. the
residual stresses develop in the sample.
Residual stress can lead to undesirable effects
like warpage of the component.
 The annealing is carried out just below A1 ,
wherein ‘recovery*’ processes are active
(Annihilation of dislocations, polygonization).
 STRESS RELIEF
ANNEALING:
Residual stresses → Heat below A1 → Recovery Annihilation of dislocations,
polygonization

Differential cooling
910C
Machining and cold working

Martensite formation
723C
Stress Relief Annealing A1
Welding


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
 SPHEROIDIZATION ANNEALING:

 This is a very specific heat

treatment given to high carbon 910C Acm

steel requiring extensive A3

machining prior to final 723C

hardening & tempering. The Spheroidization A1

main purpose of the treatment is

to increase the ductility of the 

sample.
T

 Like stress relief annealing the Wt% C

treatment is done just below A1. 0.8 %

 Long time heating leads

cementite plates to form
cementite spheroids. The driving
force for this (microstructural)
transformation is the reduction
in interfacial energy.
 NORMALIZING:
 The sample is heat above A3 | Acm to complete Austenization. The
sample is then air cooled to obtain Fine pearlite. Fine pearlite has a
reasonably good hardness and ductility.
 In hypo-eutectoid steels normalizing is done 50C above the
annealing temperature.
 In hyper-eutectoid steels normalizing done above Acm → due to
faster cooling cementite not forming a continuous film along GB.
 The list of uses of normalizing are listed below.

910C on
ati Acm
No l iz
rma r ma
A3 liza
tion No

723C
Refine grain structure prior to hardening A1

Purposes To harden the steel slightly


T
To reduce segregation in casting or forgings
Wt% C
0.8 %
 HARDENING:
 The sample is heated above A3 | Acm to cause Austenization. The
Heat above is
sample | Acm →quenched
A3 then Austenizationat
→aQuench (higher
cooling than higher
rate critical cooling
than rate)
the critical
cooling rate (i.e. to avoid the nose of the CCT diagram).
 The quenching process produces residual strains (thermal, phase
transformation).
 The transformation to Martensite is usually not complete and the
sample will have some retained Austenite.
 The Martensite produced is hard and brittle and tempering
operation usually follows hardening. This gives a good combination
of strength and toughness.
910C ning Acm
Har rde
den
ing Ha
A3

723C Full Annealing

A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
Severity of quench values of some typical quenching conditions
 Before we proceed further we note that we have a variety of quenching media at our
disposal, with varying degrees of cooling effect. The severity of quench is indicated by the
‘H’ factor (defined below), with an ideal quench having a H-value of .
Severity of Quench as indicated by the heat transfer equivalent H
f 1 f → heat transfer factor
Note that apart from the nature of the
H [m ]
K K → Thermal conductivity quenching medium, the vigorousness of the
shake determines the severity of the quench.
When a hot solid is put into a liquid
Process Variable H medium, gas bubbles form on the surface of
Air No agitation 0.02 the solid (interface with medium). As gas
Oil quench No agitation 0.2 has a poor conductivity the quenching rate is
" Slight agitation 0.35 reduced. Providing agitation (shaking the
Increasing severity of quench
" Good agitation 0.5 solid in the liquid) helps in bringing the
" Vigorous agitation 0.7 liquid medium in direct contact with the
Water quench No agitation 1.0 solid; thus improving the heat transfer (and
" Vigorous agitation 1.5 the cooling rate). The H value/index
Brine quench compares the relative ability of various
No agitation 2.0
(saturated Salt water) media (gases and liquids) to cool a hot solid.
" Vigorous agitation 5.0 Ideal quench is a conceptual idea with a heat
Ideal quench  transfer factor of  ( H = ).
Through hardening of the sample:
 The surface of is affected by the quenching medium and experiences the best possible
cooling rate. The interior of the sample is cooled by conduction through the (hot) sample and
hence experiences a lower cooling rate. This implies that different parts of the same sample
follow different cooling curves on a CCT diagram and give rise to different microstructures.
 This gives to a varying hardness from centre to circumference. Critical diameter (dc) is that
diameter, which can be through hardened (i.e. we obtain 50% Martensite and 50% pearlite at
the centre of the sample).

Schematic showing variation

in cooling rate from surface
to interior leading to
different microstructures
THROUGH HARDENING:
Typical hardness
test survey made
along a diameter
of a quenched
cylinder.
 THROUGH HARDENING:

Jominy hardenability test Variation of hardness along a Jominy bar

(schematic for eutectoid steel)
 TEMP RANGES FOR DIFFERENT
TREATMENTS:

910C Acm

A3

723C Full Annealing

A1

Spheroidization Stress Relief Annealing


T Recrystallization Annealing

Wt% C
0.8 %
Q&A How to increase hardenability?

 Hardenability should not be confused with the ability to obtain high hardness. A material
with low hardenability may have a higher surface hardness compared to another sample
with higher hardenability.
 A material with a high hardenability can be cooled relatively slowly to produce 50%
martensite (& 50% pearlite). A material with a high hardenability has the ‘nose’ of the CCT
curve ‘far’ to the right (i.e. at higher times). Such a material can be through hardened easily.

 Hardenability of plain carbon steel can increased by

alloying with most elements (it is to be noted that this is
an added advantage as alloying is usually done to
improve other properties).
 However, alloying gives two separate ‘C-curves’ for
Pearlitic and Bainitic transformations (e.g. figure to the
right).
 This implies that the ‘nose’ of the Bainitic
transformation has to be avoided to get complete
TTT diagram of low alloy steel (0.42%
Martensite on quenching. C, 0.78% Mn, 1.79% Ni, 0.80% Cr,
0.33% Mo)
U.S.S. Carilloy Steels, United States
Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, 1948)
 TEMPERING:
 ' ( BCT )  ( BCC ) Fe3C (OR)
Temper
 
Martensite Ferrite Cementite

 A sample with martensitic microstructure is hard but brittle.

Hence after quenching the sample (or component) is tempered.
Maternsite being a metastable phase decomposes to ferrite and
cementite on heating (providing thermal activation).
 Tempering is carried out just below the eutectoid temperature
(heat → wait→ slow cool).
 In reality the microstructural changes which take place during
tempering are very complex.
 The time temperature cycle for tempering is chosen so as to
optimize strength and toughness. E.g. tool steel has a as
quenched hardness of Rc65, which is tempered to get a
hardness of Rc45-55.
 MARTEMPERING &
AUSTEMPERING:
 These processes have been 800
Eutectoid temperature
developed to avoid residual 723 Austenite
stresses generated during
quenching. 600
Pearlite

 In both these processes  + Fe3C

Austenized steel is quenched 500 Pearlite + Bainite

above Ms (say to a temperature

T →
400
T1) for homogenization of Bainite

temperature across the sample. 300 T1

 In Martempering the steel is then Ms
quenched and the entire sample 200 Austempering
transforms simultaneously to Mf
100
martensite. This is followed by Martempering Martensite
tempering. 0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105
 In Austempering instead of t (s) →
quenching the sample, it is held at
T1 for it to transform to bainite.
 DIRECT HARDENING –
AUSTENITIZING & QUENCHING:
• Austenitizing – heating a
steel above its critical
temp; holding for a period of
time long enough for
transformation to occur.
• Rapid quench (cooling) to
trap the carbon in the
crystal structure – allows
for changes in morphology
to martensite (BCT).
• Quench requirements
determined from isothermal
transformation diagram (IT
diagram).
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS -
QUENCHING:
 Depending on how fast steel must be quenched
(from TT diagram), the heat treater will
determine type of quenching required:
o Water (most severe).
o Oil.
o Molten Salt.
o Gas/Air.
o Furnace (least severe).
o Many phases in between!! E.g.: add
water/polymer to water reduces quench time!
Adding 10% sodium hydroxide or salt will have
twice the cooling rate!
 DIRECT HARDENING – SELECTIVE
HARDENING:
 Same requirements as austenitizing:
o Must have sufficient carbon levels (>0.4%).
o Heat to austenite region and quench.
 Why do?
o When only desire a select region to be
hardened: E.g. knives, gears, etc.
o Object too big to heat in furnace!! Large
casting with wear surface.
 Types:
o Flame hardening, induction hardening,
laser beam hardening.
DIRECT HARDENING – SELECTIVE
HARDENING:
Flame Hardening:
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
DIFFUSION HARDENING:
 Why is it done??
o Carbon content may be too low to through
harden with previous processes.
o Desire hardness only in select area.
o More controlled versus flame hardening
and induction hardening.
o Can get VERY hard local areas (i.e. HRC of
60 or greater).
o Interstitial diffusion when tiny solute
atoms diffuse into spaces of host atoms.
o Substitutional diffusion when diffusion
atoms too big to occupy interstitial sites –
then must occupy vacancies.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
DIFFUSION HARDENING:
 Requirements:  Most Common Types:
o High temp (>500oC). o Carburizing.
o Host metal must o Nitriding.
have low o Carbo-nitriding.
concentration of the o Cyaniding.
diffusing species.
o Must be atomic
suitability between
diffusing species
and host metal.
 DIFFUSSION HARDENING -
CARBURIZING:
 Pack carburizing most common:
o Part surrounded by charcoal
treated with activating
chemical – then heated to
austenite temperature.
o Charcoal forms CO2 gas which
reacts with excess carbon in
charcoal to form CO.
o CO reacts with low-carbon
steel surface to form atomic
carbon.
o The atomic carbon diffuses
into the surface
o Must then be quenched to get
hardness!!!
 DIFFUSSION HARDENING -
NITRIDING:
• Nitrogen diffused into
surface being treated.
Nitrogen reacts with steel
to form very hard iron and
alloy nitrogen compounds.
• Process does not require
quenching – big
advantage.
• The case can include a
white layer which can be
brittle – disadvantage.
• More expensive than
carburizing.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
FOR STRENGTH:
 Most Steels = 0.06% to
1.0% carbon content.
 Must have a carbon content
of at least 0.6% (ideally) to
heat treat.
 Must heat to austenitic
temperature range.
 Must rapidly quench to
prevent formation of
equilibrium products.
 Basically crystal structure
changes from BCC to FCC at
high Temp.
 The FCC can hold more
carbon in solution and on
rapid cooling the crystal
structure wants to return
to its BCC structure. It
cannot due to trapped
carbon atoms. The net
result is a distorted
crystal structure called
body centered tetragonal
called martensite.
 Almost always followed
by tempering.
HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
FOR STRENGTH:
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
SOFTENING & CONDITIONING:

Recrystallization.
Annealing:
o Process anneal.
o Stress relief anneal.
o Normalizing.
Tempering.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
RECRYSTALLIZATION:

Done often with cold working

processes.
Limit to how much steel can be cold
worked before it becomes too brittle.
In this process steel is heated up so
grains return to their original size prior
to subsequent cold working processes.
Also done to refine coarse grains.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
ANNEALING:
 Annealing – primary  What does it do?
purpose is to soften 1. Reduces hardness.
the steel and 2. Removes residual
prepare it for stresses (stress
additional relief).
processing such as
cold forming or 3. Improves
machining. toughness.
 If already cold 4. Restores ductility.
worked - allows 5. Refines grain size.
recrystallization.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
ANNEALING:
 Process Steps:
1. Heat material into the austenite region –
rule of thumb: hold steel for one hour for
each 25mm of thickness
(Homogenization).
2. Slowly furnace cool the steel – DO NOT
QUENCH.
3. Key; slow cooling allows the C to
precipitate out so resulting structure is
coarse pearlite with excess ferrite.
4. After annealing steel is quite soft and
ductile.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
NORMALIZING:
• A heat treatment process
consisting of austenitizing at
temperatures of 30–80˚C above the
AC3 transformation temperature
followed by slow cooling (usually in
air).
• The aim of which is to obtain a fine-
grained, uniformly distributed,
ferrite–pearlite structure.
• Normalizing is applied mainly to
unalloyed and low-alloy
hypoeutectoid steels.
• For hypereutectoid steels the
austenitizing temperature is 30–
80˚C above the AC1 or ACm
transformation temperature.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
NORMALIZING:
• Normalizing – use when
max softness not required
and cost savings desired
(faster than annealing).
Air cooled vs. furnace
cooled.
• Process Anneal – not
heated as high as full
anneal.
• Stress Relief Anneal –
lower temp, slow cooled.
Large castings,
weldments, etc.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
NORMALIZING:
• Normalizing refines
the grain of a steel
that has become
coarse-grained as
a result of heating
to a high
temperature, e.g., Carbon steel of 0.5% C. (a) As-rolled or
for forging or forged; (b) normalized. Magnification 500.
welding.
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
TEMPERING:
 Almost always done following heat
treatment as part of the austenitizing
process!!!
 Because of lack of adequate toughness and
ductility after heat treating, high carbon
martensite is not a useful material despite
its great strength (too brittle).
 Tempering imparts a desired amount of
toughness and ductility (at the expense of
strength).
 HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
SUMMARY:
 Typical HT Steps (Summarized Again):
o Austenize: Heat into stable single phase region
and HOLD for uniform chemistry; single phase
austenite.
o Quench: Rapid cool – crystal changes from
Austenite FCC to Martensite BCT which is hard but
brittle.
o Temper: A controlled reheat (BELOW AUSTENITE
REGION). The material moves toward the
formation of a stable two phase structure –
tougher but weaker.
o Quench: The properties are then frozen in by
dropping temperature to stop further diffusion.
HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
SUMMARY:
HEAT TREATMENTS OF STEELS –
SUMMARY: