Binomial Nomenclature

- Characteristics of living things (MRS GREN):

o Growth
o Movement
o Sensitivity
o Excretion
o Reproduction
o Nutrition
o Respiration
-
- Matters bc science needs to be internationally understood (AVOID CONFUSIONS)
- Taxonomy: Classification of organisms
- Animal names go “Genus species”
- Developed by Carl Linne (Linnaeus)
- Domain, Keep ponds clean or frogs get sick.
o K: The five kingdoms are:
 animals (all multicellular animals, feed on organic substances made by
other organisms)
 plants (feed by photosynthesis & has roots, stems & leave. Ferns(spores)
and Flowering(seeds))
 fungi (moulds, mushrooms, yeast, feed by saprophytic or parasitic
nutrition)
 protists/Protoctista (Amoeba, Chlorella and Plasmodium.
Multicellular/unicellular, some photosynthesise some feed like animals)
 prokaryotes (bacteria, blue-green algae. Usually unicellular, no nucleus, &
no mitochondria)
 VIRUSES (virusi?) ARE NOT ALIVE.
o P: Three examples
 Arthropoda, which have jointed legs and an exoskeleton
 Annelids, which are segmented worms
 Chordata, which have backbones
o C: Chordata Phylum divided into:
 Mammals
 Birds
 Amphibians
 Fish
 Reptiles
o O: Mammal Class divided into orders such as:
 Carnivores
 Primates
o F: Carnivore Order divided into families such as:
 Cannidae - dogs
 Felidae - cats
 o G: Felidae family divided into genera such as:
 Acinonyx - cheetah
 Panthera - lion and tiger
 Neofelis - clouded leopard
 Felis - domestic cats
o S: Panthera genus divided into:
 Panthera leo (lion)
 Panthera tigris (tiger)
- Dichotomous keys help classify organisms, two options from each level.
- Classification system enhanced using microscopes, biochemistry, and DNA evidence.
- Species more related have fewer differences in DNA sequences.
- Classification systems were also being developed by other scientists: Carl Woese
developed the three-domain system, and is based on evidence from chemical analyses.
o The system divides organisms into:
 Archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments)
 Bacteria (true bacteria)
 Eukaryota/Eukarya (including protists, fungi, plants and animals)
- Evolutionary trees are a method used by scientists to represent the relationships
between a set of organisms. They can be created from current data such as DNA
analysis and existing fossil data.
Cells
- All living things are made up of cells.
- Different functions
- Gives us structure
- Unicellular – Multicellular
- Smallest unit of life
- Prokarya (Bacteria): No nucleus, not membrane-bound
- Eukarya: Had nucleus, is membrane-bound
- Membrane-bound organelle include:
o Mitochondria (Performs cellular respiration)
o Nucleus (Contains DNA)
o Nucleolus (Creates Ribosomes)
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum [ER] (Send and change proteins to the golgi, has
ribosomes)
o Smooth ER (Lipids & Detoxification)
o Ribosomes (Produce protein)
o Vesicles (Animal vacuoles)
o Golgi apparatus (Package and deliver proteins out of the cell)
o Lysosomes (Detoxification)
o Cell membrane (What goes in and out)
o Cytoplasm (metabolic reactions happen here)
- Plants have cell walls, chloroplasts, and vacuoles, animals don’t.
- Peptide = protein
 - Cyanobacteria = produce their own food
- Bacteria named according to their shape
o Round=Coconut
o Line=Rod
o Spiral=Espiro
- Cilia are in the lungs & windpipe
- Root hair cells are in plant roots
- Xylem cells are in the stem, leaf & roots of a plant
- Palisade mesophyll is beneath the epidermis of a leaf
- Nerve cells are everywhere in an animal’s body
- Red blood cells are found in the blood of an animal
- Sperm & egg cells are found in testes and ovaries
Diffusion
- Solute: Solid that is dissolved in the solvent
- Solvent: Liquid that dissolves the solute
- Diffusion: Particles move from high->low concentration, affected by
o Temperature
o Ratio
o Solubility
o State of matter
o pH of solvent (depends on solute)
o Size of particle
o Density of solvent
o Mass of solute
- Osmosis: The diffusion of water
- Dialysis: The diffusion of molecules other than water.
- Permeable: Allows particles through
- Cell membranes are semi-permeable (small particles only)
- Hypotonic: the solution with a lower concentration of solutes compared to the other
side of a membrane (High concentration of water – water flows to other side)
o Cells burst in hypotonic solutions (too much water into the cell)
- Isotonic: the solution with the same concentration of solutes compared to the other
side of a membrane (Same concentration of water – water doesn’t move)
o Cells don’t react in isotonic solutions
- Hypertonic: the solution with a higher concentration of solutes compared to the other
side of a membrane (Low concentration of water – water flows to this side)
o Cells shrink in hypertonic solutions (water goes out of the cell)
The chemicals of life
- Passive transport=diffusion from high to low, usually referring to transport of nutrients
- Active transport=diffusion from low to high, usually referring to transport of nutrients
(requires energy)
- Six chemicals of life:
 o Water
 Important solvent 4 metabolic reactions
o Carbohydrates
 Energy (Oxygen+Glucose)
 Mono- and poly-saccharide
 Test by adding Benedict’s solution and heating
o Proteins
 Polymers of amino acids
 Uses include Structure, Transport, Antibodies & Growth
 Different amino acids = different shape
 Test by mixing food with water, dilute copper sulfate, and dilute
potassium hydroxide in that order.
o Lipids
 3 Fatty acid + 1 glycerol
 Stores energy
 Higher number of atoms than carbs
 Test by ethanol emulsion (fat is soluble in ethanol)
o Enzymes
 Proteins that decrease activation energy of reactions/Stabilise reactions
 The substrate (substance which enzyme is acting on) reacts in the active
site (An indentation in the enzyme the shape of the substrate).
 One enzyme only works on one substrate (e.g. carbohydrase breaks
down carbohydrates, lipase breaks down lipids)
 Enzymes can also work together in a process
 They are affected by temperature, pH (denaturing the enzyme) and
amount of substrate (might run out of energy due to amount of work)
o DNA/RNA
 DNA is made up of a sugar-phosphate backbone and a nucleobase (A
pairs with T, C pairs with G). This combination is called a nucleotide.
 RNA is also made up of a sugar-phosphate backbone and a nucleobase,
but A pairs with U instead of T. This combination is called a
ribonucleotide. RNA have three different functions: mRNA, tRNA and
rRNA. If you compare protein synthesis to lego building, the mRNA is the
instruction manual that copies information from the DNA, the tRNA
carries the bricks, and the rRNA puts them together.
- All of these are made up of C, H, O, N, and/or S.
Enzymes
- Proteins that decrease activation energy of reactions/Stabilise reactions
- The substrate (substance which enzyme is acting on) reacts in the active site (An
indentation in the enzyme the shape of the substrate).
- One enzyme only works on one substrate (e.g. carbohydrase breaks down
carbohydrates, lipase breaks down lipids)
- Enzymes can also work together in a process
 - They are affected by temperature, pH (denaturing the enzyme) and amount of substrate
(might run out of energy due to amount of work)
Plant nutrition
- Anything carbon except carbon oxides are organic
- 6O2 + 6H2O --(sunlight+chlorophyll)--> C6H12O6 + 6O2
- Leave stalk=petiole
- Tubes=vascular bundles
- Leaves are made up of 5 layers:
o The cuticle is a wax layer that stops water from evaporating out of the top
o The upper epidermis is to protect the layers underneath
o The palisade layer is for photosynthesising
o The spongy layer is for easy transport of gases (including water vapor) to the leaf
o The lower epidermis is the same as the upper one, but it has openings (stomata)
which let oxygen out and water + carbon dioxide in.
- Vascular bundles divide into xylem and phloem
o Xylem is for carrying water
o Phloem is for other substances
- Large surface area for more CO2
- Spongy mesophyll allows all cells to receive CO2
- Water is absorbed from root hair cells
- Thinness allows all cells to receive sunlight
- Glucose is used for:
o Energy 4 growth
o Stored as starch
o Protein synthesis
- Plants need Nitrates & Mg2+ for proteins and chlorophyll respectively
- Iodine is used to test a leaf for starch, but boil the leaf first
- Photosynthesis is affected by:
o Sunlight
o CO2 concentration
o Temperature (>evaporation, >CO2 intake)
o Too hot/sunny and stomata close
- Photosynthesis feeds the world! (Plants source of all energy in all food chains except
maybe ocean ones)
Animal Nutrition
- Seven nutrients
o Carbs (Bread, potatoes) <-> Proteins (Meats, milk, and beans) <-> Fats (Oils)
o Vitamins (Fruits) <-> Minerals (Veg) [Organic <-> Inorganic]
o Water (Straight Fricking Water)
o Fibre (Veg) [Gives alimentary canal something to squeeze]
- >animal food = >cholesterol = >fat in coronary arteries = coronary heart disease
o Veg oil + White meat is a good way to avoid this
 - Obese = >heart disease, >stroke, >diabetes, >leg joint problemss
- Vitamin C is used for tissue repair, deficiency is scurvy (pain in joints+muscles, bleeding).
- Vitamin D is used bones and teeth, deficiency is rickets (deformed+soft bones).
- Ca is for bones+teeth+blood clotting, deficiency has no name (effects opposite of uses)
- Fe is for haemoglobin, deficiency is anaemia (not enough red blood cells)
- Kwashiorkor (Fun word to type, write, and say!) is lack of protein. Underweight, but
stomach looks bloated.
- Alimentary canal does 4 things:
o Ingestion
o Digestion
o Egestion
o Absorption
o (IDEA)
- Monosaccharides, water, vitamins & minerals don’t need to be digested
- Mechanical Digestion:
o Teeth (Larger surface area to work with 4 chemicals too)
 Crown
 Enamel
 Root
 Dentine
 Pulp cavity
 Cement (No, not actual stone cement)
 Types:
 Incisors (Bite)
 Canines (Tear)
 Premolars (Tear+Chew)
 Molars (Chew)
 Bacteria -Saliva-> Plaque -> Tartar -> Gum infection. PROCESS IS PAINLESS
 Bacteria -Sugar> Plaque -> Acids -> Enamel + Dentine decay -> Pulp cavity
decay -> Pain (Fluoride toothpaste fix)
o Liver (Bile -> Emulsification)
- Chemical Digestion:
o Mouth
o Stomach
o Pancreas (Pancreatic Juice -> Enzymes)
o Small intestine (Villi)
- Diarrhoea can kill you! (What a way to go) It makes you lose too much water.
- Cholera causes diarrhoea: It causes other cells to secrete chloride ions, which decreases
the concentration of water (water potential) in the intestine. The blood therefore gives
the intestines water through osmosis.
- Nutrients taken via the hepatic portal vein to the liver, which processes the nutrients
before sending them off to become parts of new cells. This is assimilation.
Plant Transport
 - Xylem is made of hollow dead cells joined end to end. They contain no organelle, and
are made of cellulose and lignin. Wood is made of lignified xylem vessels.
- Phloem are alive, and have sieve plates to indicate where the cell ends and the next
begins. Phloem have no lignin
- Vascular bundles are made of the xylem, phloem, and cambium (to separate the xylem
& phloem), which combine into the stele, the endodermis (to separate the cortex from
the stele) or epidermis (to cover the outside of the bundle) and the cortex.
- Water moves into a plant via osmosis, and moves up bc of transpiration (reduced
pressure at top of plant, same as in a straw)
- Transpiration is evaporating water from plants, which creates a pull upwards based on
water potential (basically water concentration). This system works because of water’s
cohesion.
- A potometer is used for measuring transpiration rates
- Transpiration is affected by temperature, humidity, wind speed, light intensity, and
water supply.
- Uptake of mineral ions is through active transport
- Food is transported in phloem for translocation (carried to whichever part needs it)
- Source=source of nutrients, sink=not source of nutrients, therefore it is the destination
- Xylem can only go up, phloem can go both.
Animal Transport
- Heart
o Single & Double circulatory systems
 Single = One heart beat per cycle (Pumped once, mostly in fish)
 Much slower for metabolic reactions to occur (Oxygenating blood
slows it down)
 Double = Two heart beats per cycle (Pumped twice, in most mammals)
 Not as slow for metabolic reactions
o Heart Muscles=Cardiac muscles
o 4 Chambers: Upper two chambers are atria, lower two are ventricles. Right
ventricle is on the left, and left atrium is on the right (and vice versa)
o Left and right side separated by septum
o Oxygenated blood comes from pulmonary vein, deoxygenated comes from the
venae cavae (There’s two: upper & lower).
o Blood goes from atria to ventricles to the pulmonary vein on the right side and
the aorta on the left.
o The pulmonary artery and vein go to and from the lungs, and the aorta goes in
two directions: Toward the head & toward everywhere else.
o The ventricles are the ones that pump, the atria merely transport blood to the
ventricles. The ventricles are much thicker because of this.
 The left ventricle is especially thick, since it needs to pump the blood to
everywhere else in the body, while the right ventricle only has to get the
blood to the lungs and back.
o Cardiac arrest (A heart attack) is when a coronary artery gets blocked.
 o Smoking (damage to circulatory system), diets high in salt & cholesterol, obesity
(high blood pressure), stress (high blood pressure), age (>age, >chance), gender
(chance male>female) and genes all contribute to getting coronary heart disease
[CHD].
 Treating CHD means lowering blood pressure, decreasing risk of blood
clots, coronary bypass operation [CBO] (which is taking an artery from
somewhere else to put it in place of your coronary artery), putting a stent
in the artery (a mesh tube), an angioplasty (putting a water balloon into
the artery and then removing it), or a complete heart transplant.
o The pacemaker (a patch of muscle in the right atrium) is where the electrical
current starts in the heart, and triggers all the other muscles to follow.
 It can detect when the heart needs to pump faster (e.g. when there’s too
much carbonic acid in the blood, it speeds up to get rid of all that carbon
dioxide). If it stops, an artificial one can be inserted, and it lasts for 10
years before having to be replaced.
o The heart muscle’s pump is called the systole, and all muscles relaxing is called
the diastole.
o The valves between the atria and ventricles are – surprise – atrioventricular
valves.
 The valve on the left has two parts (the bicuspid/mitral valve) and the
valve on the right has three (the tricuspid valve).
 They stop blood from going back to the pulmonary vein or venae cavae.
- Blood vessels
o Arteries:
 Carry blood away from the heart
 Strong walls bc of pressure from heart
 Arteries stretch and recoil to help blood flow better
o Veins:
 Carry blood toward the heart
 Lower pressure than arteries, so has thinner walls
 The space (lumen) is also wider than arteries
 Have valves to stop backflow
 Move because of the muscles around them
o Capillaries
 No cell is far from a capillary
 Gives all cells nutrients, takes waste
 Made of a single layer of cells
 Transition arteries to veins
 o
- Blood
o Plasma
 Mostly water
 Carries soluble stuff (Food, urea, hormones, heat, proteins)
o Red blood cells
 Made in bone marrow, produced at 9 billion per hour.
 Don’t live long, cuz they have no nucleus (only for about 4 months)
 Red bc haemoglobin (carries oxygen, contains Fe)
 Shaped like donuts but the hole’s not fully cut (high surface area)
 Small (squeeze through capillaries)
o White blood cells
 Have nuclei
 Fight pathogens (phagocytosis, phagocyte white blood cells)
 Clear up dead cells
 Produce antibodies
 What are lymphocyte white blood cells?
o Platelets
 Small fragments of cells
 No nucleus
 Made in bone marrow
  Helps blood clotting
- Lymph
o Plasma and white blood cells are leaking out of the capillaries. This is tissue fluid,
and surrounds all cells
o It’s easier for a cell to carry out its functions properly if its environment stays
constant.
o Homeostasis is the body working to keep blood constant, and therefore tissue
fluid too.
o The tissue fluid must be returned to the blood. This is lymph, and it will return to
the lymphatic capillaries. The lymph travels all the way to the upper vena cava,
where it returns to the blood.
o The lymphatic system has no pump, so the lymph moves much slower than
blood. They rely on muscle movement to force lymph along the vessels, just like
veins.
o White blood cells are made in lymph nodes.