36 Plant Intelligent Automation and Digital Transformation

FIGURE I 1.2i Adaptive control scheme.

input. In the diagram, inner loop is conventional control design)dhence, parameter q, is in negative direction
loop and parameter adjustments are carried out by outer to gradient of function J, so that
loop to minimize error. Model output ym is compared
dq dJ
with actual process output y. The difference between ¼ g (I 1.2e)
dt dq
them referred to as error-“e” is processed in a
computing device for adjustments of parameters of the dq de
¼ ge (I 1.2f)
controller to minimize integral square error as per dt dq
MIT rule discussed below.
4. MIT Rule and MRAC for Adaptive control: In 1960 The term partial derivative dq
de
is referred to as Sensitivity
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed derivative. “g” a positive quantity, represents is adap-
a rule for design of the autopilot system for aircrafts tion gain. Considering a linear process transfer function
[15]. MIT rule is used in MRAC discussed above. As as k.G(S) where k is an unknown parameter and G(S) is
per MIT rule, for adjustable parameter q cost J(q) is a second order known transfer function. Now in order to
defined as: develop a controller, which would track reference
model with transfer function Gm(S) [ k0 G(S). Here
JðqÞ ¼ 0:5e2 (I 1.2d) K0 a known constant parameter i.e., ym ¼ k0.Gm(-
Where e is the error, between the outputs of plant and S).uc(S). We know from general control action, for
reference model (y-ym). Adjustable parameter q is input uc to controller with controller parameter q will be
adjusted in such a fashion so that the cost function uðtÞ ¼ quc (I 1.2g)
can be minimized to zero (this philosophy is used in

So, error
eðSÞ ¼ y ym ¼ k.GðSÞ.uðSÞ k0 .Gm ðSÞ.uc ðSÞ (I 1.2h)
Thus, dq
de
, can be derived combing Eqs. I 1.2g and I 1.2h,
and one would get
de k age unit) there will be mixing of steam produced, with
¼ k.GðSÞ.uc ðSÞ ¼ ym (I 1.2i)
dq k0
From Eq. I 1.2f,
dq de k tive tubing and finally into the superheater tubing. Natu-
¼ ge ¼ g.e. y ¼ g0 .e.ym (I 1.2j)
dt dq k0 m
From Eq. I 1.2j one can get the principle of regulating
adjustment parameter in an adaptive controller. This
has been shown in Fig. I 1.2j2. From here it is seen
that choice of adaptation gain is critical and depends
on signal level. Naturally normalization is necessary
for making algorithm independent. Therefore, MIT
rule needs to be modified for application in industrial
control systems.
5. Classification of Adaptive control: There two classes
of Adaptive control system. These are: Direct Adaptive
control and Indirect Adaptive controldsee I 5.1.1 also.
l Direct adaptive control (Ref: Figs. I 1.2j and I
1.2i2): In direct adaptive control, the difference be-
tween plant output and reference model (MRAC)
output is considered as a measure of the difference
(error) between the real and the desired performance
and the same difference is used in adjusting the adap-
tation scheme for adjustment mechanism directly to
adjust control parameter in real time to reduce plant
model error asymptotically the to zero i.e., the
controller parameters are directly adjusted by the
adaption techniques
l Indirect adaptive control: When a controller is
designed with a plant model estimated from the
available input-output measurements. The scheme
is termed indirect as the adaptation of the controller
parameters is done in stages viz. (1) Estimation of
the plant parameters and (2) Computation of control
parameter based on estimated plant model. Indirect
adaptive control scheme has been shown in Fig. I
1.2j.
6. Gain Scheduling: Gain scheduling is a kind of adapta-
tion of control loop. Conceptually, gain scheduling in-
volves an intuitive simplification of the problem into
parallel decompositions of the total system. Gain sched-
uling technique is often used for controlling nonlinear
systems (discussed later), with changing process dy-
namics at different operating conditions. Gain-
scheduled controller with “scheduled” gains are used
for with scheduling variable (s) viz. measured output
or a system state. Gain-scheduling helps to interpolate
General discussions on control systems Chapter | 1 37
a set of linear controls derived for a corresponding set
of plant linearization for different operating points.
Such interpolation is based on external scheduling pa-
rameters with slower variations to capture the plant non-
linearities. Let us take an example from fossil fuel
power plant: in case of drum type boiler, in drum (stor-
feed water. On the contrary in case of once through
(OT) boiler this is not so. In OT boiler feed water enters
the economizer, then passes directly into the evapora-
rally there will be dead time in the control loop and this
will vary with load (i.e., feed flow). At lower load, the
lead time and time constant will be much higher than
those near full load condition on account of lesser
amount of steam available to absorb heat (for same
rate of firing fuel). Thus, for same load change, there
will be much more excursion and oscillations of temper-
ature control loop toward lower load end than that at
higher load end. This indicates that there will be higher
dynamic gain at lower steam flow than that at higher
steam flow [4]. Therefore, it is necessary to include
load factor or fraction of full-scale flow into main
controller (PID) equation to modify the proportional
gain, the reset and derivative time constants. This is a
classical way of achieving the gain scheduling. These
can be switching types also. In switching type, Propor-
tional gain of controller is programmed to be changed at
certain predefined values of the process variable or
controller error. In case of classical gain scheduling sta-
bility check needs to be ensured. Fuzzy gain scheduling
method overcomes these difficulties. Often nonlinear
design issues can be resolved by decomposing the
same into linear or nonlinear subproblems. Based on
realization there can be several classification of gain
scheduling and these are:
l Problem decomposition: Decomposing nonlinear
problems into linear/nonlinear subproblems and
applying gain scheduling method
l Signal processing: Continuous/discrete/Switched
gain scheduling methods
l Approach based Gain scheduling: Classical gain
scheduling/Linear parameter varying method
(LPV)/Linear Fractional transformation method
(LFT)/Fuzzy gain scheduling.
For further details standard book on advanced control
system may be referenced.
1.2.9 Hierarchical control system
Hierarchical structure in digital control system is quite
common in many plants in modern control systems. It is
important to note that here this hierarchy is mainly based on
information presentation and exchange to facilitate plant
38 Plant Intelligent Automation and Digital Transformation
FIGURE I 1.2j Indirect and direct adaptive control system.
operations and approach toward digital transformation.
These hierarchical control systems (basically network hi-
erarchy) should not be confused with centralized control
systems. In modern days most of the networks are based on
Distributed control system (DCS), however hierarchical
control in DCS is more significant and useful to integrate
computer networks and communicating through internet to
achieve IoT/remote control etc. These are the stepping
stone toward Digital Transformation. With introduction of
embedded systems and microcontroller now intelligence
has been distributed and spread at all levels of control.
Distributed control system, coupled with advanced
communication systems and highly developed software
algorithms, greatly simplified the connection of the com-
puter to the process. Also providing redundancies (to fall
back upon) at all levels and incorporate fail safe networks
have become much easier. With introduction of internet, it
is possible to integrate control system of a unit in to a very
large enterprise computer network. In order to handle the
data traffic in such huge network it is convenient to divide
network in hierarchical structure so as to manage the data
traffic as well as to restrict unwarranted data access at
different level. This is especially important when the
network is exposed to public network (say for on line
ordering). In case of integrated network data flow is smooth
seamless but not devoid of vulnerability especially when
cyber-attack is a great threat. So from security reason for
plant control system, it is essential to incorporate suitable
protection such as Firewall at various levels. In this chapter
concentration will be mainly on hierarchical structure for
control with some reference to control network as well. A
typical such integrated control and network has been pre-
sented in Fig. I 1.2k, which shows four levels in hierarchy
encountered in DCS network. In this figure it could be
noticed that first two levels (level 1 and 2) along with field
area has been shaded to signify that these levels are basi-
cally important for plant level control. Let us now discuss
all these levels and their requirements and utilities.
Although field sensor or final control elements in field are
not really part of the control system, yet brief discussion on
 General discussions on control systems Chapter | 1 39

FIGURE I 1.2k Hierarchical control system.

40 Plant Intelligent Automation and Digital Transformation
field devices have been also included to make discussions
complete. However prior to that it is better to look into
description of the hierarchical control elaborated in Fig. I
1.2k.
1. Description: As shown in Fig. I 1.2k (compare with
Fig. I 1.0k), there are four levels excluding field level.
At the lowest level controls basic controls of units
have been shown. At this level, basic control systems
connected to field sensors and field control elements
reside. These are main control systems or control sys-
tems of several (independent) units (viz. several utility
units/an integrated steel plant/chemical plants). These
are connected through redundant bus to form say Ether-
net where operator’s stations as well as engineering sta-
tion of the control could reside. At the next level,
supervision and coordination among the units in a plant
are carried out. Therefore, several units are connected
over redundant bus at this level and for this plant server
has been shown at this level for communication on su-
pervision and coordination to create on integrated plant
network at a plant location. Network are common in
thermal power station with several units/an integrated
steel plant/refinery. When there are several plants
spread over different area locations, area control
network of could be formed to connect plants at several
geographical locations for exchange of data, and for
overall supervision and coordination among various
plant areas. In industry 4.0, this is very important and
helpful for IT (data exchange) and adapt the same in
Operating technology (OT). Such network could be pri-
vate also. Top most level is mainly used for manage-
ment information system (MIS) and enterprise
computer network (say) handling of sales order and
other issues through global network/internet and are
helpful for implementing IoT, Industrie 4.0 and for dig-
ital transformation. However, in order to protect the
network firewall at various levels may be necessary
for cyber security.
2. Field Devices: In field there will be a number of smart
field sensor for measurement of various parameters as
well as a number of smart field control elements to con-
trol/regulate the plant as discussed before. However,
hardwired connections to I/O of control system is also
allowed but rare.
3. Level 1: This is controller level including associated
signal conditioning systems. At this level there will be
direct connections to the process i.e., direct connections
to field sensor and final control elements. As shown in
Fig. I 1.2k, these connections may be simple hardwired
connections or these connections may be soft link such
as HART/BRAIN communication protocol and/or field-
bus systems. These soft links may be through wire/wire-
less/fiber optics. Level 1 controls and system shall
include continuous controllers, sequential interlocks,
alarms, and monitoring devices for the unit. Main func-
tion of this level is acquisition of plant data for moni-
toring, direct control of the plant and the reporting.
Operator station, Engineering stations pertinent to the
unit will also be connected through bus (Redundant).
There could be two divisions:
l Level 1A: Normal monitoring, control and report-
ing types instrumentation and control i.e., standard
DCS controllers, alarm display and monitoring
system, which are hooked up to the bus, which
could be redundant bus also. In order to make
the plant fail safe (especially for plants with haz-
ardous locations, critical plants), it is essential
that there shall be separate and independent instru-
mentation and controls for each of BPCS and SIS
discussed earlier.
l Level 1B: There could be some packaged monitoring
and control packages e.g., vibration monitoring, Gas
chromatograph, Steam water analysis system
(SWAS), which are self-content type and have direct
digital access to level 1 bus system as shown. These
packaged systems will have sensors and have sepa-
rate FCE or interface to FCE. These types of controls
may have separate operator console, and these would
interface directly with the main data bus for data
transfer.
4. Level 2: This level is referred to as Supervisory control
whose major functions are aimed at increased produc-
tion, maximized efficiencies and better availability. At
times these are also used for improved environmental
protection, energy conservation, system optimization,
increase predictive maintenance, plant safety and secu-
rity. This level can force the system to attend the emer-
gency situations, locally optimize the operation of units
under its control within limits of established production
schedule [4]. It is also responsible in maintaining pro-
duction data, inventory for raw material energy usage
etc. for various units. An example will make it clear:
In a power plant area with several BTG units there
could be common auxiliary systems. So, for startup of
one unit, operator needs to know status of (say) auxil-
iary steam header. Control operator of any unit access
the information via supervisory control. In a chemical
plant same raw materials may be used by different units,
through supervisory control, these details are made
available to various units. It is also responsibility of
this level to assure reliability through diagnostic pro-
grams. So, in this level, there will be communication
of various supervisory commands for coordination
among units.
5. Level 3: This level mainly performs of supervision and
coordination functions among various plants may be
located geographically at separate locations. So, it is

similar to level 2 only difference here the coordination
among plants instead of units. An overall production
scheduling and control activities so as to get optimum
solutions for profitability, quality control including
meeting requirements of local standards, savings in
cost (toward inventory, raw material supplies and trans-
portation), energy and time. Such network could be pri-
vate or may use public platform also. It also takes care
of availability, reliability and overall diagnostics. Let us
take an example: there is an order of type 5 cement, the
authority has (say) 3 plants, in one there will be annual
maintenance, other is busy with type 3 production, third
one is available for timely production but has lesser ca-
pacity. Naturally production scheduling of sharing pro-
duction at two plants and make due coordination for
getting it produced at two plants. All such supervision
and coordination activities will be carried out from
this level.
6. Level 4: This is mainly responsible for management in-
formation of the entire set ups of the company and
keeping all information ready as executive summary
to the top management group. It also functions as intra-
company communication for sales order, basic manage-
ment, materials management etc. This also includes
enterprise computer network duly connected through
internet (say) or dedicated company network. Also,
when people going in for Industry 4.0 and digital trans-
formation, there will be immense need for IT data ex-
change to strategize operating technology for better
production efficiencies. Since there will be chances of
external access at some points in the network, cyber se-
curity is very importance. So, Firewall and cyber secu-
rity at various level is essential and symbolically shown
at the top level.
Let us now look into modeling control systems.
General discussions on control systems Chapter | 1 41
1.3 Control system models
1.3.0 Discussions on control system models
For controlling a process it is essential to understand the
process and its dynamics. Process dynamics refers to the
time varying behavior of the process when it is subjected to
various external and internal disturbances. Model based
control is smart system, when compared to typical con-
trollers, to offer better disturbance rejection and uniform
control including set point tracking. However, to imple-
ment the same higher skill and understanding of the process
and operation of the plant is essential. Also, it requires
mathematical modeling and high computing power of the
control systems. Therefore, such models are implemented
in DCS/PLC systems. First let us look into the basic aspects
of process dynamics and terms frequently used in control
system modeling:
1. Parameters: Lumped and distributed parameters are
represented by differential equation and in partial
different equations respectively.
2. Linearity, stability and order of system: Linear sys-
tems have linear functions with homogeneity and super-
position (possible). System stability and order etc. refer
I 1.0.5.
3. Types of transfer function concepts: Model based
control (MBC) or Model based design (MBD) mainly
stands on the pillar of mathematical computations.
Transfer functions and their relations as have been dis-
cussed in I 1.0.5 and detailed out in Fig. I 1.3a play
important role in developing model based control
systems.
4. Process dynamics variations: There could be various
types of dynamics possible in a process such as: Instan-
taneous process: Y(t) ¼ K X(t) where K is the system
static gain or the process could be integral type such
FIGURE I 1.3a Mathematical model of control loop.