Geometry

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CIE IGCSE Maths: Extended Your notes
Geometry Toolkit
Contents
Symmetry
2D Shapes
3D Shapes
Unit Conversions
Page 1 of 33
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Symmetry
Your notes
What is symmetry?
Symmetry in mathematics can refer to one of two types
Line (or Plane) symmetry which deals with reflections and mirror images of shapes or parts of
shapes in both 2D and 3D
Rotational symmetry which deals with how often a shape looks identical (congruent) when it has
been rotated
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Rotational Symmetry
What is (the order of) rotational symmetry? Your notes
Rotational symmetry refers to the number of times a shape looks the same as it is rotated 360° about
its centre
This number is called the order of rotational symmetry
Tracing paper can help work out the order of rotational symmetry
Draw an arrow on the tracing paper so you can easily tell when you have turned it through 360°
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Your notes
Notice that returning to the original shape contributes 1 to the order

This means a shape can never have order 0
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A shape with rotational symmetry order 1 may be described as not having any rotational symmetry
(The only time it looks the same is when you get back to the start)
Your notes
Exam Tip
Tracing paper may help for rotational symmetry
One trick is to draw an arrow facing upwards so that when you rotate the tracing paper you
know when it is back to its original position
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Worked example
Your notes
For the shape below, shade exactly 4 more squares so that the shape has rotational symmetry order 4.
The shape below appears the same 4 times if rotated through 360 degrees.
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Lines of Symmetry
What is line symmetry? Your notes
Line symmetry refers to shapes that can have mirror lines added to them
Each side of the line of symmetry is a reflection of the other side
Lines of symmetry can be thought of as a folding line too
Folding a shape along a line of symmetry results in the two parts sitting exactly on top of each
other
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Your notes
It can help to look at shapes from different angles – turn the page to do this
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Your notes
Some questions will provide a shape and a line of symmetry

In these cases you need to complete the shape
Be careful with diagonal lines of symmetry
Use tracing paper to trace the shape and the reflection line and then flip on the line to see how the
shape will reflect
“Two-way” reflections occur if the line of symmetry passes through the shape
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Your notes
How do I solve problems involving symmetry?

Symmetry can be used to help solve missing length and angle problems
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Your notes
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Your notes
Exam Tip
It may help to draw a diagram and add lines of symmetry to it or add to a diagram if one is given in a
question
You should be provided with tracing paper in the exam, use this to help you
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Worked example
Your notes
For the shape below,
(a) Write down the number of lines of symmetry.
The only line of symmetry is shown below.
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Your notes
Answer = 1
(b) Shade exactly 4 more squares so that the shape has 4 lines of symmetry.
The shape below has a horizontal, a vertical, and 2 diagonal lines of symmetry.
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Your notes
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Planes of Symmetry
What is a plane of symmetry? Your notes
A plane is a flat surface that can be any 2D shape
A plane of symmetry is a plane that splits a 3D shape into two congruent (identical) halves
If a 3D shape has a plane of symmetry, it has reflection symmetry
The two congruent halves are identical, mirror images of each other
All prisms have at least one plane of symmetry
Cubes have 9 planes of symmetry
Cuboids have 3 planes of symmetry
Cylinders have an infinite number of planes of symmetry
The number of planes of symmetry in other prisms will be equal to the number of lines of symmetry
in its cross-section plus 1
Pyramids can have planes of symmetry too
The number of planes of symmetry in other pyramids will be equal to the number of lines of
symmetry in its 2D base
If the base of the pyramid is a regular polygon of n sides, it will have n planes of symmetry
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Your notes
Exam Tip
If you’re unsure in the exam, consider the properties of the 3D shape.
Is it a prism or a pyramid?
How many lines of symmetry are there in the 2D faces or cross-section?
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Worked example
Your notes
The diagram below shows a cuboid of length 8 cm, width 5 cm and height 11 cm.
Write down the number of planes of symmetry of this cuboid.
A plane of symmetry is where a shape can be "sliced" such that it is symmetrical.

A cuboid with three different pairs of opposite rectangles has 3 planes of symmetry.
3 planes of symmetry
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2D Shapes
Your notes
Properties of 2D Shapes
You will need to remember the names and properties of shapes in 2D, including where they have equal
sides and angles, how their diagonals intersect, which angles are equal and where they have lines of
symmetry.
What 2D shapes should I know?
You should know the general names of all the 2D polygons
A polygon is a flat (plane) shape with n straight sides
A triangle has 3 sides
A quadrilateral has 4 sides
A pentagon has 5 sides
A hexagon has 6 sides
A heptagon has 7 sides
An octagon has 8 sides
A nonagon has 9 sides
A decagon has 10 sides
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You should know the names and properties of the different types of triangles
An equilateral triangle has 3 equal sides and 3 equal angles
An isosceles triangle has 2 equal sides and 2 equal angles Your notes
A right triangle has one 90° angle
You should know the names and properties of the different types of quadrilaterals
These are squares, rectangles, parallelograms, rhombuses, trapeziums and kites
You should know the names and properties of circles and circle parts
What are the properties of rectangles and squares?
Rectangles and squares have four equal right angles (90°)
Rectangles have two pairs of equal, parallel sides
Squares are just regular rectangles, all four of their sides are equal
The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other at the centre of the rectangle
This means that they cut each other in half
There will be two pairs of angles at this point
For a rectangle, one pair of obtuse angles and one pair of acute angles
For a square, all four angles will be equal to 90°
Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to find the length of the diagonal of a square or rectangle
What are the properties of parallelograms and rhombuses?

Parallelograms and rhombuses (rhombi) have two pairs of equal, opposite, angles
Parallelograms and rhombuses have two pairs of opposite, parallel sides
Rhombuses have four sides of the same length
Rhombuses are also parallelograms, but they are not regular as they do not have four equal angles
A square is a regular rhombus
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, forming two pairs of opposite angles
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The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles (90°)

This means that they cut each other in half
The diagonals will not be of equal length Your notes
What are the properties of trapeziums?

Trapeziums have one pair of opposite, parallel sides
These are not of equal length
Trapeziums may not have any equal angles
As with all quadrilaterals, the angles add up to 360°
If a trapezium has a line of symmetry, it is classed as isosceles
Isosceles trapeziums have two pairs of equal angles
The non-parallel sides in an isosceles trapezium will be equal length
An isosceles trapezium has two diagonals of equal length
What are the properties of kites?

Kites have one line of symmetry, known as their main diagonal
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The angles opposite the main diagonal are equal

The diagonals of a kite bisect each other at right angles (90°)
This means that they cut each other in half Your notes
The diagonals will not be of equal length
Kites have no parallel sides
Kites have two pairs of equal, adjacent sides
What are the properties of circles?

Circles are different to other 2D shapes and you must be familiar with their vocabulary
For example, a circle's perimeter is called a circumference and its line of symmetry is called a
diameter
circumference
The ratio is equal to π
diameter
Circles have many angle properties
See section 3.4 Circle theorems!
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Your notes
Exam Tip
Commit the facts and vocabulary in this revision note to memory
You will most likely need to use some of them to work out higher level geometry problems
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3D Shapes
Your notes
Properties of 3D Shapes
You will need to remember the names and properties of many 3D shapes, the number of faces they have,
the shapes of the faces and where they have planes of symmetry.
What 3D shapes should I know?
You should know the general names of prisms
A prism is a 3D shape with the same cross-section throughout
The cross-section of a cube is a square
The cross-section of a cuboid is a rectangle
The cross-section of a cylinder is a circle
You will also have to work with other prisms, such as triangular prisms
In these cases the exam question will make sure the shape of the cross-section is clear
You should know the names and properties of the different types of pyramids
A pyramid has a flat base with sloping sides that meet at a point at the top
The base will be a 2D shape
Most pyramids are named after the shape of their base
e.g. a square–based pyramid
Some pyramids have special names you should know
A cone has a circular base
A tetrahedron’s base is an equilateral triangle
You should know the name and properties of a sphere
What are the properties of 3D shapes?
3D shapes have a number of faces, vertices and edges
A face is an individual surface of the 3D shape
A vertex (plural, vertices) is a corner of the 3D shape
An edge joins one vertex to another
You should know the number and shape of the faces for the common 3D shapes
A cube has 6 equal, square faces
A cuboid has 3 pairs of equal, rectangular faces
A cylinder has two equal circular faces and one rectangular face (its curved surface area)
A triangular prism has two equal triangular faces and three rectangular faces
If the triangular faces are equilateral then all of the rectangles will be equal
If the triangular faces are isosceles then two of the rectangles will be equal
A square-based pyramid has one square face and four equal triangular faces
A tetrahedron has four triangular faces
3D shapes can be unfolded into a net to display their faces in 2D
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A net is just a pattern that could be folded to make the 3D shape
Your notes
Exam Tip
Remembering the properties of 3D shapes will help, particularly with questions involving surface
area
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Unit Conversions
Your notes
Converting Units
How do I convert between units for lengths?
For metric units, conversion can be done by simply multiplying or dividing by powers of 10
You need to know the basic conversions
1 cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm
1 km = 1000 m
To decide whether to multiply or divide you need to ask yourselves does the number of units increase
or decrease
e.g. The number of mm is 10 times bigger than the number of cm so mm = cm × 10
You can do the conversion in stages
First convert kilometres into metres then metres into centimetres
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as miles to kilometres) then you can use ratios to help with
the conversions
There are 5 miles in 8 kilometres so to find how many miles are in 13 kilometres you would solve
5 : 8 = x : 13
How do I convert units for mass?
1 g = 1000 mg
1 kg = 1000 g
1 tonne = 1000 kg
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as pounds to kilograms) then you can use ratios to help
with the conversions
e.g. There are 2.2 pounds in 1 kilogram so to find how many kilograms are in 10 pounds you would
solve 2.2 ∶ 1 = 10∶ x
How do I convert units for volume/capacity?

1 l = 1000 ml
1 cl = 10 ml
1 ml = 1 cm3
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as pints to litres) then you can use ratios to help with the
conversions
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e.g. There are 1.75 pints in 1 litre so to find how many litres are in 5 pints you would solve
1.75∶ 1 = 5 ∶ x
Your notes
Worked example
Convert
a) 54 cm to mm,
1 cm = 10 mm
54 cm = (54 × 10) mm = 540 mm
540 mm
b) 12 300 cm to km,
First convert from cm to m.
100 cm = 1 m
12 300 cm = (12 300 ÷ 100) m = 123 m
Now convert from m to km.
1000 m = 1 km
123 m = (123 ÷ 1000) km = 0.123 km
0.123 km
c) 485 g to kg.
1000 g = 1 kg
485 g = (485 ÷ 1000) kg
0.485 kg
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Squared & Cubic Units

How do I convert between squared units? Your notes
Converting squared units (usually used for areas) is slightly trickier
You need to remember to square the conversion rates
This is because area is 2D
The fact the units have a "squared" on them will help you remember
You need to be able to use the basic conversions
1 cm2 = 102 mm2 = 100 mm2
1 m2 = 1002 cm2 = 10 000 cm2
1 km2 = 10002 m2 = 1 000 000 m2
There are also less common conversions
1 hectare (ha) = 10 000 m2
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as miles to kilometres) for lengths:
Write the conversion as a ratio
e.g. Miles to kilometres is 5 : 8
Square the numbers to get the ratio for the conversion of the units for area
e.g. Miles2 to kilometres2 is 25 : 64
How do I convert between cubed units?
You need to cube the normal conversion rates
This is because volume is 3D
The fact the units have a “cubed” on them will help you remember
You need to be able to use the basic conversions
1 cm3 = 103 mm3 = 1000 mm3
1 m3 = 1003 cm3 = 1 000 000 cm3
1 km3 = 10003 m3 = 1 000 000 000 m3
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as miles to kilometres) for lengths:
Write the conversion as a ratio
e.g. Miles to kilometres is 5 : 8
Cube the numbers to get the ratio for the conversion of the units for volume
e.g. Miles3 to kilometres3 is 125 : 512
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Worked example
Your notes
Convert
a) 8254 mm2 to cm2,
10 mm = 1 cm
100 mm2 = 1 cm2
8254 mm2 = (8254 ÷ 100) cm2 = 82.54 cm2
82.54 cm2
b) 2.54 m3 to cm3.
1 m = 100 cm
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
2.54 m3 = (2.54 × 1 000 000) cm3 = 2 540 000 cm3
2 540 000 cm3
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Angles in Polygons & Parallel Lines

Contents
Basic Angle Properties
Angles in Polygons
Angles in Parallel Lines
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Your notes
What are the basic angle properties?
Angles that meet at a point add up to 360°
Angles that meet at a point on a straight line add up to 180°
Vertically opposite angles are equal
Vertically opposite angles occur when two lines intersect
They are the angles either side of the intersection that are opposite to each other
What are the angle properties with triangles?

The three interior angles inside any triangle add up to 180°
If the triangle is isosceles then two angles will be equal
These will be the two angles opposite the two sides of equal length
If the triangle is equilateral then the three angles will be equal
Each angle will equal 60°
What are the angle properties with quadrilaterals?
The four interior angles inside any quadrilateral add up to 360°
If the quadrilateral is a square or a rectangle then all the angles are equal
Each angle will equal 90°
You can use any symmetries of the quadrilateral to identify other equal angles
For a parallelogram or rhombus opposite angles are equal
For a kite one pair of opposite angles are equal
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Find all the missing angles that you can using the angles that are given to you in a question
They might not seem to help you straight away but having more angles will lead you to find the
angle you need
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Worked example
Your notes
The diagram below is formed by three straight lines. Find the value of x .
Label the other missing angles inside the triangle.
Vertically opposite angles between two intersecting lines are equal.
Angles that meet on a straight line add up to 180°.
Interior angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
Page 4 of 13
Angles in Polygons
Your notes
Angles in Polygons
What is a polygon?
A polygon is a flat (plane) shape with n straight sides
For example:
A triangle is a polygon with 3 sides
A quadrilateral polygon with 4 sides
A pentagon is a polygon with 5 sides
In a regular polygon all the sides are the same length and all the angles are the same
A regular polygon with 3 sides is an equilateral triangle
A regular polygon with 4 sides is a square
What are the sums of angles in polygons?
To be able to work with angles in polygons, you need to be able to find the sums of angles in polygons
To find the sum of the interior angles in a polygon of n sides, use the rule
SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES = 180° × (n – 2)
because the polygon can be split into n -2 triangles
For regular polygons, this can then be divided by n to find each individual angle
The sum of the exterior angles in any polygon always add up to 360°
TOTAL OF EXTERIOR ANGLES = 360°
The exterior angles are the angles extended out from each side on a straight line
It is important to note that the interior and exterior angles for each side lie on a straight line so
they add up to 180°
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Your notes
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Make sure you identify whether you are dealing with a regular or irregular polygon before you start a
question.
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Worked example
Your notes
The diagram below shows an irregular pentagon.
Work out the value of x .
An irregular pentagon has 5 sides and 5 angles that are not all equal (2 or more may still be equal).
Use the formula for the sum of the interior angles in a polygon, with n = 5.
Sum of the interior angles = 180 × (5 - 2) = 540°
The angles must all add up to 540°.
Use this to form an equation in terms of .
Simplify by collecting the like terms.
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Solve the equation.
Your notes
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Your notes
What are parallel lines?
Parallel lines are lines that are always equidistant (ie the same distance apart)
no matter how far the lines are extended in either direction, they will never meet.
What are the rules of angles in parallel lines?
There are 3 main rules:
1. Corresponding angles are equal
A line cutting across two parallel lines creates four pairs of equal corresponding angles, as shown
in the diagram below:
Note: You may also have heard these referred to as ‘F angles’ – do not use that term in an exam or
you will lose marks!
2. Alternate angles are equal

A line cutting across two parallel lines creates two pairs of equal alternate angles, as shown in the
diagram below:
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Your notes
Note: You may also have heard these referred to as ‘Z angles’ – do not use that term on an exam or
you will lose marks!
3. Allied (co-interior) angles add to 180°
A line cutting across two parallel lines creates two pairs of co-interior angles
In the diagram below, the two coloured angles on the left add up to 180°, as do the two coloured
angles on the right:
Note: These are referred to as either allied or co-interior angles, either is fine to use in the exam
You may also have heard these referred to as ‘C angles’ – do not use that term on an exam or you
will lose marks!
How do I use the rules of angles in parallel lines?
Identify any matching angles and any angles that add up to 180°
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STEP 1:
Identify where the parallel lines are on the diagram
They will be marked with arrows or will be in a 2D shape that contains parallel lines Your notes
You may need to identify them from other reasons, such as vectors
STEP 2:
Identify the transverse
This is the straight line that extends across both parallel lines
STEP 3
Use the information given in the question and the rules above to identify any one of the angles created
at the intersection of the transverse and the parallel lines
For each transverse crossing one pair of parallel lines there will be four pairs of equal angles
Each pair will add up to 180°
STEP 4
Fill in all the angles until you find the one you need
Once you have found the first angle, x°, the others will either also be x° or they will be 180° - x°
Exam Tip
Do not forget to give reasons for each step of your working in an angles question
These are often needed to get full marks
You must give the correct name, F-angles, Z-angles and C-angles will NOT be awarded any
marks on the exam
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Worked example
Your notes
Find the size of the angles a and b in the diagram below.
Give a reason for each step in your working.
Vertically opposite angles are equal.

Corresponding angles on parallel lines are equal.
You must write down both of these reasons for full marks.
a = 64° (Vertically opposite angles are equal)
b = 64° (Corresponding angles on parallel lines are equal)
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Bearings, Constructions & Scale Drawings

Contents
Bearings
Scale
Constructing a Triangle
Page 1 of 16
Bearings
Your notes
Bearings
What are bearings?
Bearings are a way of describing and using directions as angles
They are specifically defined for use in navigation because they give a precise location and/or
direction
How are bearings defined?
There are three rules which must be followed every time a bearing is defined
They are measured from the North direction
North is usually straight up in terms of a scale drawing or map drawn on a piece of paper and should
be shown somewhere on the diagram
They are measured clockwise (from North)
If you get muddled up look at a clock on the wall
The angle should always be written (said) with 3 figures
So angles under 100° should have zero to fill in the missing figures, eg 059, 008
Notice also that the degree symbols are not usually included when talking about bearings
What are bearings used for?
Bearings questions will normally involve the use of Pythagoras or trigonometry to find missing
distances (lengths) and directions (angles) within navigation questions
You should always draw a diagram
There may be a scale given or you may need to consider using a scale
Some questions may involve the use of angle facts to find the missing directions
To answer a question involving drawing bearings the following steps may help:
STEP 1: Draw a diagram adding in any points and distances you have been given
STEP 2: Draw a North line (arrow pointing vertically up) at the point you wish to measure the bearing
from
If you are given the bearing from A to B draw the North line at A
STEP 3: Measure the angle of the bearing given from the North line in the clockwise direction
STEP 4: Draw a line and add the point B at the given distance
You will likely then need to use Pythagoras's theorem or trigonometry to calculate another distance
How are bearings used on maps?
If you need to use a map to find a direction, use a protractor to find the angle
Always begin by drawing the North line
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Measure the angle clockwise from North

Write the angle using 3 figures
Knowing the compass directions for the common directions is helpful Your notes
Due east means on a bearing of 090°
Draw the line directly to the right
Due south means on a bearing of 180°
Draw the line vertically downwards
Due west means on a bearing of 270°
Draw the line directly to the left
Due north means on a bearing of 360° (or 000°)
Draw the line vertically upwards
Other directions can be found using these, for example
Due Northeast means on a bearing of 045°
This is halfway between North (000°) and East (090°)
Due Southeast means on a bearing of 135°
Due Southwest means on a bearing of 225°
Due Northwest means on a bearing of 315°
Using the above bearings for compass directions will help you to estimate angles for other bearings on
the map
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Make sure you have all the equipment you need for your maths exams, along with a spare pen
and pencil
A rubber and pencil sharpener can be essential on these questions as they are all about
accuracy
Make sure you have compasses that aren’t loose and wobbly
Make sure you can see and read the markings on your ruler and protractor
Always draw a big, clear diagram and annotate it, be especially careful to label the angles in the
correct places!
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Worked example
Your notes
A ship sets sail from the point P, as shown on the map below.
It sails on a bearing of 105 until it reaches the point Q, 70 km away. The ship then changes path and sails
on a bearing of 065 for a further 35km, where its journey finishes.
Show on the map below the point Q and the final position of the ship.
Draw in a north line at the point P.

Measure an angle of 105° clockwise from the north line.
Make sure you are accurate, carefully make a small but visible mark on the map.
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Your notes
Draw a line from P through the mark you have made. Make this line longer than you expect to need it to
be so that you can easily measure along it accurately.
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Your notes
Use the scale given on the map (1 cm = 10 km) to work out the number of cm that would represent 70
km.
70 km = 70 ÷ 10 = 7 cm
Accurately measure 7 cm from the point P along the line and make a clear mark on the line.
This is the point Q.
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Your notes
A bearing of 065 means 65° clockwise from the North.

First, draw a north line at the point Q, then carefully measure an angle of 65° clockwise from this line.
Make a mark and then draw a line from Q through this mark.
Using the scale, find the distance in cm along the line you will need to measure.
35 km = 35 ÷ 10 = 3.5 cm
Accurately measure 3.5 cm from the point Q along this new line and make a clear mark on the line.
This is the final position of the ship.
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Your notes
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Scale
Your notes
Scale
What is scale?
In mathematics, scale can have many meanings, but in accurate drawings and constructions scale
refers to a ratio
Maps are usually drawn to a scale
The scale chosen will depend on the area being mapped out
A map of a classroom will use a large scale and can show a lot more detail
A map of a country or a world map will use a small scale and can show a much bigger area but in less
detail
How can scale be used to convert lengths?

A ratio given for scale does not include units
The ratio will work for any unit of length applied to both sides
For example, the scale 1: 50000 could mean 1 cm = 50000 cm, 1 km = 50000 km or even 1 yard =
50000 yards
However, if you’re measuring the length from a map it will be easiest to measure in cm
The scale can be used to convert lengths found on a map to lengths in real life
STEP 1
Use a ruler to measure the distance accurately on the map
For example, measuring a length from A to B as 5.8 cm
STEP 2
Use the scale to find the actual distance in the same units (usually cm)
For example, if the scale is 1 : 150000 the actual distance = 5.8 cm × 150000
STEP 3
Convert the actual distance to a more suitable unit
For example, 5.8 × 150000 = 870000 cm = 8.7 km
The scale can also be used to convert lengths found in real life into a length for a map or a scale drawing
STEP 1
Convert the scale into a ratio of 1 cm : the units the actual distance is in
For example, if the distance is in km and the scale is 1 : 500000, convert 500000 cm into km
1 : 500000 = 1cm : 5 km
STEP 2
Use this ratio to convert the actual distance to the scale distance
For example, if the actual distance = 20 km, the scale distance will be 20 ÷ 5 = 4 cm
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Exam Tip
Your notes
If you have many distances to find, or a very small scale, it may help to convert the scale to more
suitable units first, just be careful not to mix them up!
For example, the scale 1 : 500 000 000 can be converted to 1 cm = 5000 km
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Worked example
Your notes
A map is drawn where a length of 5 cm is equal to an actual distance of 0.6 km.
(a) Write the scale on the map.
Convert both parts of the scale to the same units.

The answer needs to be in the form 1 : n so convert 0.6 km into cm using 1 m = 100 cm and 1 km =
1000 m.
0.6 km = 0.6 × 1000 m = 600 m

600 m = 600 × 100 cm = 60 000 cm
Now the ratio has the same units 5 cm : 60 000 cm, you can remove the units.
5 : 60 000
Write in the form 1 : n by dividing both sides by 5.
1 : 12 000
(b) The width of a park on the map is 17 mm.
Find the actual width of the park, giving your answer in metres.
Convert 17 mm into cm.

17 mm = 1.7 cm
Use the scale to find 1.7 cm on the map in real life.
1.7 cm × 1200 = 2040 cm
Convert to metres.
2040 cm ÷ 100
20.4 m
(c) The distance from the mouth of the ocean to the first bridge over a river is 125 metres.
Find this distance on the map.
Convert 125 metres to cm.
125 m = (125 × 100 cm) = 12500 cm
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Use the scale to find 12500 cm in real life on the map.
12500 cm ÷ 1200 = 10.416... cm Your notes

10.4 cm
Page 13 of 16
Constructing a Triangle
Your notes
Constructing SSS Triangles
What are SSS Triangle constructions?
SSS just stands for side, side, side!
In mathematics a construction is an accurate drawing that normally uses equipment such as a ruler,
protractor and/or a set of compasses
An SSS triangle construction is a triangle drawn accurately if you are told the length of its three
sides and no other information
This is harder to do than you might initially think, especially without the correct equipment
How do I construct an SSS triangle?
If you are given all three sides of a triangle, you will need a pencil, a ruler and a pair of compasses
STEP 1
Use a ruler to draw the longest side as the horizontal base near the bottom of the space you have been
given
This needs to be accurate, measure it carefully with your ruler
Write its length (with units) just underneath
STEP 2
Using your ruler to measure, open your compasses so that the length from the compass point to
the tip of your pencil is exactly the length of one of the remaining sides
Being extra careful not to change the length, put the compass point on one end of the horizontal
line you have drawn and draw an arc above the horizontal line
STEP 3
Using your ruler to measure again, open your compasses so that the length from the compass
point to the tip of your pencil is exactly the length of the third side
Being extra careful not to change the length, put the compass point on the other end of the
horizontal line and draw another arc, making sure that it crosses the first arc
STEP 4
Use your ruler to draw straight lines from each end of the horizontal line to the point where the arcs
cross over
STEP 5
Use your ruler to check that the two new lines are exactly equal to the lengths given in the question
When you are confident that they are accurate, label the lines
It is important that you do not rub out your arcs as the examiner will use these to check your work
Sometimes the instructions will include a triangle name such as triangle ABC
Make sure you label each vertex with the correct letters
Page 14 of 16
Your notes
Exam Tip
SSS Triangle construction questions are usually worth 2 marks, one for having the sides accurate
and the other for clearly showing the construction arcs on your diagram
To ensure you get that second mark
Make sure you are fully equipped with a good set of compasses that you are confident using
when you go into the exam room
Do not erase the construction arcs from your diagram
Page 15 of 16
Worked example
Your notes
Using a ruler and pair of compasses only, construct a triangle with sides 6 cm, 7 cm and 10 cm.
Leave in your construction arcs.
Draw the 10 cm line as the horizontal base.

Place the point of the compasses at each end and draw an arc with radius 6 cm from one end and
another with radius 7 cm from the other end.
The third vertex of the triangle is the point at which they intersect.
Use your ruler to measure each side and check for accuracy.
Page 16 of 16
Circle Theorems
Contents
Angles at Centre & Semicircles
Chords & Tangents
Cyclic Quadrilaterals
Segment Theorems
Page 1 of 27
Angles at Centre & Semicircles

Your notes
What are circle theorems?
You will have learned a lot of angle facts for your GCSE, including angles in polygons and angles with
parallel lines
Circle Theorems deal with angle facts that occur when lines are drawn within and connected to a circle
What do I need to know?
You must be familiar with the names of parts of a circle including radius, diameter, arc, sector, chord,
segment and tangent
To solve some problems you may need to use the angle facts you are already familiar with from
triangles, polygons, and parallel lines
You may also have to use the formulae for circumference and area, so ensure you’re familiar with them
Circumference= π×diameter (C = πd)
Area = πr2 (A = πr2)
Page 2 of 27
Angles at Centre & Circumference

Circle Theorem: The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is twice the angle at the Your notes
circumference
This is one of the most useful circle theorems and forms a basis for many other angle facts within circles
In this theorem, the chords (radii) to the centre and the chords to the circumference are both drawn
from (subtended by) the ends of the same arc
It is an easy circle theorem to spot on a diagram
STEP 1
Find any two radii in the circle and follow them to the circumference
STEP 2
See if there are lines from those points going to any other point on the circumference
When using this theorem in an exam you must use the keywords
The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference
This theorem can also happen when the ‘triangle parts’ overlap:
Page 3 of 27
Your notes
Circle theorem: The angle in a semicircle is a right angle

This is a special case of the angle at the centre theorem above
The angle on the diameter = 180°
The angle at the circumference = 90°
It is easy to spot, look for a diameter in the circle and see if it makes the base of a triangle, with its top
vertex at the circumference
Make sure that you are looking at a diameter by checking it goes through the centre
These questions only need half of the circle so they could appear in whole circles or in semicircles
only
Any angle at the circumference that comes from each end of the diameter in this way will be 90°
This is most commonly known as the angle in a semicircle theorem, however if using it in an exam you
must use the keywords
The angle in a semicircle is 90°
Look out for triangles hidden among other lines/shapes within the circle
Page 4 of 27
Your notes
Exam Tip
Add anything you can to a diagram you have been given
Mark any equal radii and write in any angles and lengths you can work out, even if they don’t
seem relevant to the actual question
For each angle you work out, try to assign an angle fact or circle theorem to it
Questions often ask for “reasons” and the names/titles/phrases for each of these is exactly
what they are after
When asked to “give reasons” aim to quote an angle fact or circle theorem for every angle you
find, not just one for the final answer
Page 5 of 27
Worked example
Your notes
Find the value of x in the diagram below.
There are three radii in the diagram, mark these as equal length lines. Notice how they create two
isosceles triangles.
Base angles in isosceles triangles are equal, so this means that the angle next to must be 60°.
Page 6 of 27
Your notes
Using the circle theorem "The angle at the centre subtended by an arc is twice the angle at the
circumference", form an equation for .
Expand the brackets and solve the equation.
Page 7 of 27
Chords & Tangents

Your notes
Circles & Chords
What is a chord?
A chord is any straight line is a circle that joins any two parts of the circumference
Any equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle
This means that if each end of a chord is joined to two radii, they will form an isosceles triangle
This is not technically a circle theorem, but is very useful in answering circle theorem questions
To start any circle theorem questions
first identify any radii and mark them as equal lines
then look to see if the radii are joined to any chords
Circle Theorem: The perpendicular bisector of a chord is a radius
If a radius or diameter intersects a chord in a circle, in will bisect that chord at a right angle
bisect means to cut in half
This circle theorem is seen less often, but can be very useful in finding equal lengths and angles
It is often seen in questions involving congruent triangles
To spot it, look for a radius and see if it intersects any chords
Problems involving this theorem often have the radii being joined to the end of the chords and so
creating two congruent triangles
This is also easier to see than remember from its description
Page 8 of 27
Your notes
What else should I know about chords?

Although it is not strictly a circle theorem the following is a very important fact for solving some
problems
A triangle which is formed from the centre using a chord and two radii is an isosceles triangle
This means at least two of the angles will be equal and there will be at least one line of symmetry
This is very useful in proving circle theorems
Page 9 of 27
Circles & Tangents

What is a tangent? Your notes
A tangent to a circle is a straight line outside of the circle that touches its circumference only once
Tangents are the easiest thing to spot quickly in a circle theorem question as they lie outside of the
circle and stand out clearly
Circle Theorem: A radius and a tangent are perpendicular
Most of the time, if there is a tangent in a circle theorem question it will meet a radius at the point where
it touches the circumference of a circle
Make sure that the line the tangent meets is definitely a radius
This circle theorem states that a radius and a tangent meet at 90°
Perpendicular just means at right angles
When using this theorem in an exam you must use the keywords
A radius and a tangent meet at right angles
Page 10 of 27
What else should I know about tangents?

Although it is not strictly a circle theorem the following is a very important fact for solving some Your notes
problems
Two tangents from a circle to the same point outside of a circle are equal
This means that a kite can be formed by two tangents meeting a circle
Remember that a kite is essentially two congruent triangles about its main diagonal
The kite will have two right angles
In this sense the tangents end at two points – the first point is where the two tangents meet and the
other end is where each one touches the circle
Page 11 of 27
Exam Tip
Your notes
If you spot a tangent on a circle diagram, look to see if it meets a radius and add in the right angle
clearly to the diagram straight away
In some cases just the act of doing this can earn you a mark!
Page 12 of 27
Worked example
Your notes
Find the value of θ in the diagram below.
The lines ST and RT are both tangents to the circle and meet the two radii on the circumference at the
points S and T.
Angle TSO = angle TRO = 90°
A radius and a tangent meet at right angles
Use vertically opposite angles to find the value of the angle at T that is opposite the 25° angle.
Angle RTS = 25°
Vertically opposite angles
Mark these angles clearly on the diagram.
Page 13 of 27
Your notes
Angles in a quadrilateral add up to 360°. Use this to form an equation for θ.
Simplify.
Solve.
Page 14 of 27
Your notes
Circle theorem: Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180°
This theorem states that if any quadrilateral is formed by four points that are on the circumference of a
circle, then the angles opposite each other will add up to 180°
A cyclic quadrilateral must have all four vertices on the circumference
The theorem only works for cyclic quadrilaterals

Do not be fooled by other quadrilaterals in a circle
The diagram below shows a common scenario that is NOT a cyclic quadrilateral
Page 15 of 27
Your notes
If giving the cyclic quadrilateral theorem as a reason in an exam, use the key vocabulary
Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180°
The word supplementary means angles that add up to 180° and could be used here as well but
with specific reference to the angles being in a cyclic quadrilateral
Exam Tip
Identifying cyclic quadrilaterals quickly in a busy circle theorem question can help find angles and
speed up answering these questions in an exam
Just remember to check that all four vertices lie on the circumference
Page 16 of 27
Worked example
Your notes
The circle below has centre, O, find the value of x.
This is a busy diagram with a lot going on.

Identify both the cyclic quadrilateral and the radius that is perpendicular to the chord.
Add to the diagram as you work through the problem.
Page 17 of 27
Your notes
The radius bisects the chord and so creates two congruent triangles.
Use this to work out 72° (equal to the equivalent angle in the other triangle) and 18° (angles in a triangle
add up to 180°).
Then use the cyclic quadrilateral theorem.
2x + 4 + 20 + 18 = 180
2x = 138
x = 69°
Page 18 of 27
Segment Theorems
Your notes
Circles & Segments
Circle Theorem: Angles at the circumference subtended by the same arc are equal
This theorem is also sometimes known as the same segment theorem
It states that any two angles at the circumference of a circle that are formed from the same two points
on the circumference are equal
Subtended means the equal angles are created by drawing chords from the ends of an arc
These chords may or may not pass through the centre
This is one of the more tricky circle theorems to identify
STEP 1
Choose an angle on the circumference and put your index fingers on it
STEP 2
Use your fingers to follow the two lines that form the angle to the point where they each meet the
circumference
STEP 3
See if there are any other lines from these two points that meet at another angle
The two angles are equal
Page 19 of 27
Your notes
If giving the same segment theorem as a reason in an exam, use the key vocabulary
Angles in the same segment are equal
Exam Tip
The same segment theorem is a common circle theorem used in GCSE exam questions
Don't be afraid of it, look for as many equal angles you can find using it and fill them in as they will
help you find other angles
If you use this theorem to help you find other angles, you should still mention the same segment
theorem in your reasons
Page 20 of 27
Worked example
Your notes
Find the value of θ in the diagram below, giving reasons for your answers.
There is a diameter here, splitting the circle into two semicircles.

Identify the two triangles in each semi circle and mark in the right angles using the angle in a semicircle
theorem.
Find the other angles in the triangles using the rule angles in a triangle add up to 180°
Page 21 of 27
Your notes
In the diagram, notice how the angle θ is subtended from the same chord as the angle that is 17°.
Angles A and B are 90° because the angle at the circumference in a semi circle is a right angle
The angles at C are 64° and 17° because the angles in a triangle add up to 180°
θ = 17°
Because angles in the same segment are equal
Page 22 of 27
Alternate Segment Theorem

Circle theorem: Alternate Segment Theorem Your notes
Although one of the least obvious circle theorems to identify, this is very helpful in finding angles
quickly in many questions
The Alternate Segment Theorem states that the angle between a chord and a tangent is equal to the
angle in the alternate segment
You can spot this circle theorem by looking for a “cyclic triangle”
ie. all three vertices of a triangle lie on the circumference
but one vertex meets a tangent – look for where 2 chords meet a tangent
To identify which angles are equal,
Find the point where the 'cyclic triangle' meets the tangent and mark the angle between them
Look for the vertex in the triangle that is opposite the marked angle at the point where the triangle
meets the circumference
Mark this angle as equal to the first angle you marked
Page 23 of 27
Exam Tip
Your notes
Spotting equal angles using the alternate angle theorem can save a lot of time in the exam
Identify if there are any triangles with all three vertices on the circumference early on
Look to see if any of the vertices meet a tangent
Page 24 of 27
Worked example
Your notes
Find the value of x , stating any angle facts and circle theorems you use.
Identify the triangle in the circle with all three vertices at the circumference.
One vertex of this triangle meets a tangent at the bottom, so look for the vertex inside the triangle
opposite this point and mark that angle with 2x + 5.
Page 25 of 27
Your notes
Give reasons for your working as you go.

The top left angle is 2x + 5 because of the alternate segment theorem
This angle is also subtended by the same arc as the angle at the centre.
The angle at the centre = 2(2x + 5) because of the circle theorem
'the angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference'
Form an equation.
Expand the brackets and solve the equation.
Page 26 of 27
Using the "alternate segment theorem" and that "angles at the centre are twice angles at the
circumference" Your notes
Page 27 of 27

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CIE IGCSE Maths: Extended Your notes

Notice that returning to the original shape contributes 1 to the order

Some questions will provide a shape and a line of symmetry

How do I solve problems involving symmetry?

(a) Write down the number of lines of symmetry.

The only line of symmetry is shown below.

A plane of symmetry is where a shape can be "sliced" such that it is symmetrical.

What are the properties of parallelograms and rhombuses?

The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles (90°)

What are the properties of trapeziums?

What are the properties of kites?

The angles opposite the main diagonal are equal

What are the properties of circles?

A net is just a pattern that could be folded to make the 3D shape

How do I convert units for volume/capacity?

Squared & Cubic Units

CIE IGCSE Maths: Extended Your notes

Angles in Polygons & Parallel Lines

Basic Angle Properties

What are the angle properties with triangles?

Label the other missing angles inside the triangle.

Vertically opposite angles between two intersecting lines are equal.

Angles that meet on a straight line add up to 180°.

Interior angles in a triangle add up to 180°.

Work out the value of x .

Simplify by collecting the like terms.

Solve the equation.

Angles in Parallel Lines

2. Alternate angles are equal

Vertically opposite angles are equal.

CIE IGCSE Maths: Extended Your notes

Bearings, Constructions & Scale Drawings

Measure the angle clockwise from North

Draw in a north line at the point P.

A bearing of 065 means 65° clockwise from the North.

How can scale be used to convert lengths?

Convert both parts of the scale to the same units.

0.6 km = 0.6 × 1000 m = 600 m

Convert 17 mm into cm.

Use the scale to find 1.7 cm on the map in real life.

1.7 cm × 1200 = 2040 cm

Convert 125 metres to cm.

125 m = (125 × 100 cm) = 12500 cm

Use the scale to find 12500 cm in real life on the map.

12500 cm ÷ 1200 = 10.416... cm Your notes

Draw the 10 cm line as the horizontal base.

CIE IGCSE Maths: Extended Your notes

Angles at Centre & Semicircles

Angles at Centre & Circumference

Circle theorem: The angle in a semicircle is a right angle

Expand the brackets and solve the equation.

Chords & Tangents

What else should I know about chords?

Circles & Tangents

What else should I know about tangents?

Angles in a quadrilateral add up to 360°. Use this to form an equation for θ.

The theorem only works for cyclic quadrilaterals