1 Human Factors and Pilot Performance

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CHAPTER 1: HUMAN FACTORS &

PILOT PERFORMANCE
PPL
Joseph Okolla
Version 01 Issue Date – 30th July 2019 Revision 00 1

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OBJECTIVE
 Human performance is about understanding
humans our behaviour and performance.
 From an operational perspective
 Human performance knowledge applied to
optimise the fit between people and the
systems in which they work, to improve
safety and performance.
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COURSE OUTLINE
 BASIC PHYSIOLOGY
 HUMAN BASIC FACTORS
 Competence and limitations
 Competent pilot
 Accident statistics
 Flight safety concepts
 BASIC AVIATION
 Composition of the atmosphere
 The gas laws
 Respiration and blood circulation
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COURSE OUTLINE cont…

 BASIC PHYSIOLOGY cont…
 EFFECTS OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
 Hypoxia
 Hyperventilation
 Effects of accelerations
 Motion sickness
 Decompression sickness
 VISION
 Physiology of vision
 Limitations of the visual system
 Spatial disorientation
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 HEARING
 Physiology of hearing
 Effects of altitude change
 Noise and hearing loss
 Spatial disorientation
 CAT 1
 FLYING AND HEALTH
 Nutrition
 Personal fitness
 Health checklist
 TOXIC HAZARDS
 Carbon monoxide
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 BASIC PHSYCHOLOGY
 THE INFORMATION PROCESS
 Concepts of sensation
 Cognitive perception
 THE CENTRAL DECISION CHANNEL
 Mental workloads
 Information source
 Memory and its limitations
 Misinterpretations
 STRESS
 Cause and effects
 Concepts of arousal
 Effects of performance
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 BASIC PHSYCHOLOGY cont…
 JUDGEMENT AND DECISION MAKING
 Concepts of pilots judgments
 Psychological attitudes
 Situational awareness
 Managing errors
 CAT 2
 MAIN EXAM
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REFFERENCES
 The Air Pilot’s Manual HUMAN FACTORS
AND PILOT PERFORMANCE by Trevor
Thom
 “Human Factors and Safety” The Private
Pilot’s Licence Course by Jeremy M Pratt

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INTRODUCTION
 Human factor is the performance and behaviour of the
individual, and of the group.
 Involves internal psychological and physical aspects of the
individual as well as interaction with other people, machine and
equipment in use and operating environment
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HUMAN BASIC FACTORS

 Optimising human performance
 Role of people in aviation involves many aspects of human
performance behavior include
 Personal fitness and well-being
 Operating skills
 Thinking ability (cognitive process i.e. information processing)
 Judgment and decision-making abilities
 Communication skills
 Leadership qualities and crew coordination
 Design and layout of displays and controls on the flight deck
 Design of operating procedures, and their presentation in operating
manuals, checklists and charts
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HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

 Minimising Human Error can be done by
 Good selection of people (in a professional environment)
 Good training
 Good design
 Providing a good working environment
 Good operating procedures
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 A COMPETENT PILOT
 Qualities that go towards making a safe, effective and
competent pilot are:
 A high sense of responsibility
 Ability (academic and flight handling)
 Motivation
 A good communicator
 Flexibility
 Physical fitness
 Reliability
 A balanced personality
 A team player
 Calmness under stress
 An eye for detail
 Competency in Risk Assessment
 Competency in the skills of Stress and Crew Managements
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 ACCIDENTS STATISTICS
 Statistics play a fundamental role in accident analysis. It is
only by the production of comprehensive and wide-ranging
statistics that the root cause of accidents can be established.
The five most common specific causes of pilot-induced

accidents, in order of frequency, are :
 Loss of directional control
 Poor judgement
 Airspeed not maintained
 Poor pre-flight planning and pre-flight decision making
 Not maintaining ground clearance
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 ACCIDENTS STATISTICS
 The phases of flight most prone to accidents are, in order of
precedence :
 Intermediate and Final Approach
 Landing
 Take-off
 Descent
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Accidents and Fatalities by Phase of

Flight
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 Accidents still occur in spite of enormous technical advances in:
 Aircrew training and selection
 Aircraft manufacture and design
 Weather tracking and prediction
 Mechanical reliability
 Systems monitoring equipment
 Communications
 Accuracy and range of navigational equipment
 Cockpit and cabin layout
 Safety equipment
 Air Traffic Control expertise and capabilities
 Control and weather radar equipment
 Airfield lighting and facilities
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 Flight Safety Concept
 Safety is
 The state in which the possibility of harm to persons or of
property damage is reduced to, and maintained at or below, an
acceptable level through a continuing process of hazard
identification and safety risk management.
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 FLIGHT SAFETY CONCEPTS cont..
 SWISS CHEESE MODEL
 An organization’s defences against failure are modelled as a
series of barriers (the Swiss cheese slices).
 The holes in the cheese slices represent individual weaknesses in
each part of the system and are continually varying in position
and size in each slice.
 A hazard passing through all of the holes in all of the defences
lead to a failure.
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 FLIGHT SAFETY CONCEPTS cont..
 WHAT IS A SAFETY CULTURE?
 A safety culture is one where there is a shared value for the
importance of safety.
 Each worker, top to bottom, must be able to articulate their
specific contributions to safety.
 involves the attitudes coworkers hold about the company’s
approach
 to safety,
 their perceptions of the magnitude of the risks,
 and their belief in the necessity, practicality and
effectiveness of measures to control risk.
 In this way, safety culture can be considered an enabler for
safety.

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 The Five Elements of Safety Culture
 An informed culture
 A reporting culture
 A learning culture
 A just culture
 A flexible culture
 Just Culture
 Errors and unsafe acts not punished if the error was unintentional.
Those who act recklessly or take deliberate and unjustifiable risks will
be subject to disciplinary action.
 Non Punitive Culture
 Errors and unsafe acts not punished thus encouraging an atmosphere
where people have the confidence to report safety concerns.
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 Flight Safety/Threat and Error Management
 The three components of threat and error management (TEM) are:
 Threats
 Errors
 Undesired aircraft states
 Threats
 Latent Threats
 Not immediately obvious to, or observable by flight crews, e.g. poor
equipment design, visual illusions or quick turn-around schedules.
 Environmental Threats
 Those occurring during actual operations, e.g. weather, terrain, ATC, airport.
 Organizational Threats
 Operational pressure, aircraft type, cabin design, maintenance, dispatch,
documentation.
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 Errors
 Defined as:
 Actions or lack of actions by the flight crew that lead to
deviations from organisational or flight crew intentions or
expectations.
 Aircraft Handling Errors
 Manual handling, automatic systems, ground navigation.
 Procedural Errors
 SOPs, checklists, briefing documentation.
 Communication Errors
 Crew to external, pilot to pilot.
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SHELL MODEL
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SHELL MODEL cont..

 The SHELL model is
 a conceptual model of
 human factors that clarifies the scope of aviation human factors
and assists in understanding the human factor relationships
between aviation system resources/environment (the flying
subsystem) and the human component in the aviation system
 liveware (human),
 hardware (machine) and software (procedures,
symbology, etc.),
 environment (the situation in which the L-H-S system
must function)
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SHELL MODEL cont..

 Liveware-Hardware (L-H). The interface is speaking of
human-machine systems
 -interface between the human and technology
 -determines how the human interfaces with the physical work
environment
 Example:
 Design of seats to fit the sitting characteristics of the human
body, displays to match the sensory and information processing
characteristics of the user etc
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SHELL MODEL cont..

 Liveware-Software (L-S).
 Encompasses humans and the non-physical aspects of
the system such as procedures, manual and checklist
layout, symbology and computer programmes
 interface between the human and the supporting
systems found in the workplace
 Example:
 Regulations, manuals, checklists, publications,
standard operating procedures (SOPs) and computer
software etc
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SHELL MODEL cont..

 Liveware-Liveware (L-L).
 interface between the human and other persons in the workplace
 include Staff/management relationships, as are corporate culture,
corporate climate and company operating pressures
 Example:
 Flight crews, air traffic controllers, aircraft maintenance engineers
and other operational personnel etc
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SHELL MODEL cont..

 Liveware-Environment (L-E).
 interface between the human and both the internal and external
environments
Internal environment
 workplace temperature, ambient light, noise, vibration and air
quality etc
External environment
 visibility, turbulence and terrain etc
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INCIDENCES
 March 27, 1977
 two Boeing 747 passenger jets, operating KLM Flight 4805 and
Pan Am Flight 1736, collided on the runway at Los Rodeos
Airport on the Spanish island of Tenerife.
 Resulting in 583 fatalities, this accident was the deadliest in
aviation history.
 The Bhopal disaster
 was a gas leak incident on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at
the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal,
Madhya Pradesh, India. It is considered to be the world's worst
industrial disaster.
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COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

 The Standard Atmosphere
 The ICAO Standard atmosphere is defined as
follows:
 Mean Sea Level temperature of +15°C.
 Mean Sea Level pressure of 1013.25 hPa (760 mm Hg).
 Mean Sea Level density of 1225 g/m3
 A lapse rate of 1.98°C/1000 ft (6.5° C/km) up to 36 090

ft (11 km) thereafter the temperature remains
constant at -56.5°C up to 65 617 ft (20 km).
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cont…
 Nitrogen - 78% -
 Not directly used in the respiratory process
 Used in building of cells in both plants and animals & saturates the
body cells and tissues
 Excess nitrogen can cause problems
 Oxygen - 21% - Used by all living things.
 Essential for respiration.
 necessary for combustion or burning.
 Deficiency can have a devastating effect on a person
 Argon - 0.9% - Used in light bulbs.
 Carbon Dioxide - 0.03% - Plants use it to make oxygen.
 Acts as a blanket and prevents the escape of heat into outer space.
 Burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil add more carbon dioxide
 Produced when oxygen is burned in the body tissues and carried to
the lungs in the bloodstream through veins and expelled in breath
 Human body much more sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide than
oxygen levels
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cont…
 Water Vapor - 0.0 to 4.0% -
 Essential for life processes.
 Prevents heat loss from the earth.
 Essential for clouds development
 Ozone –
 molecular oxygen with three atoms
 Prevents a lot of sun’s damaging ultraviolet radiation
 Presence is a consideration when flying at extremely
high altitudes for long periods
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ATMOSPHERE cont..
 At sea level the standard pressure is 760 mm Hg.
 As oxygen is 21% of the total then
 Partial pressure of oxygen is twenty one hundredths of 760 -
160 mm Hg.
 Humans operate best at sea level
 but perfectly capable of operating at higher altitudes where the partial
pressure of oxygen is lower.
 People who live permanently at high altitudes
 adapt to the reduced amount of oxygen by producing extra
red blood cells to enable more oxygen to be carried.
 Healthy people without these extra cells can function normally up
to
 about 10,000 -12,000 ft. provided no strenuous exercise is
undertaken.
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ATMOSPHERE cont..
Pressures according to Standard
Atmosphere
Pressure Altitude (ft)
¼ MSL 36,000
½ MSL 18,000
¾ MSL 8,000
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ATMOSPHERE cont..
 The partial pressure of oxygen in the air is not, however, the
governing factor.
 Body takes its oxygen from the alveoli of the lungs where the partial
pressure is less.
 The body produces carbon dioxide and water vapour which is
passed into the alveoli.
 As the total pressure both inside and outside the lungs remains the
same then
 the partial of oxygen must reduce.
 The table following shows

 the partial pressures of the various gases in the atmosphere and in
the alveoli at various altitudes.
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ATMOSPHERE cont..
Partial Pressures (mm Hg) at Sea Level
constituents Oxygen Nitrogen Water Carbon
Vapour Dioxide
Atmospheric 160 (21%) 600
Air
Alveolar Air 103 (14%) 570 47 40 (5.3%)
At 10,000 feet
Alveolar Air 55 381 47 40
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cont…
 GAS LAWS
 BOYLE’SLAW states that:
 “Providing the temperature is constant the volume of gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure”. (Otic and Gastro-
Intestinal Tract Barotrauma, Aerodontalgia)
 Expressed mathematically: P1/P2 = V2/V1
 where P1 = initial pressure P2 = final pressure
 V1 = initial volume V2 = final volume
 DALTON’S LAW states that:
 “The total pressure of the gas mixture is equal to the sum
of its partial pressure”
 (Hypoxia and night vision)
 Expressed mathematically: Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 ............ Pn
 Where: Pt = total pressure of the mixture
 P1, P2 ............Pn = partial pressure of each of the constituent gases
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cont…
 GAS LAWS
 HENRY’S LAW states that:
 “At equilibrium the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional
to the gas pressure”. (Decompression sickness & “Bends”)
 FICK’S LAW states that:
 “The rate of gas transfer is proportional to the area of the tissue and
the difference between the partial pressures of the gas on the two
sides and inversely proportional to the thickness of the tissue”. (
Diffusion of gas at the lungs and cells)
 CHARLES’S LAW states that:
 “The volume of a fixed mass of gas held at a constant pressure varies
directly with the absolute temperature”.
 Expressed mathematically: V1/V2= T1/T2 = (t1 + 273)/(t2+273)
 Where: V1 = initial volume
 V2 = final volume
 T1 = initial absolute temperature = initial temperature t1°C + 273
 T2 = final absolute temperature = final temperature t2°C + 273
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cont…
 THE COMBINED GAS LAW states that:
 “The product of the pressure and the volume of a
quantity of gas divided by its absolute
 temperature is a constant”.
 Expressed mathematically: PV = KT
 PARTIAL PRESSURE.
 That the total pressure decreases as altitude increases.
As the proportion of oxygen remains constant it
follows that the partial pressure of oxygen must also
reduce.
 The unit of measurement is the millimetre of mercury
(mm Hg).
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 INSPIRATION
 Air is drawn into the lungs,
 the intercostal muscles between the ribs acting in unison with the
diaphragm increasing the volume of the chest cavity thereby
reducing the internal pressure.
 EXPIRATION
 the reverse process,
 achieved in normal breathing by relaxation of the above muscles.
 sometimes referred to as external respiration.
 external respiration is a subconscious process that occurs at a
rate of 12 to 20 breaths/minute, averaging 16 breaths/minute.
 Normal breathing
 a purely automatic process.
 diseases such as poliomyelitis the automatic system fails and an
artificial respirator is required to maintain respiration.
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CARRIAGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON

DIOXIDE
 Haemoglobin is the carrier for oxygen in the blood.
 The haemoglobin bond ensures that the body can receive enough
oxygen for the body’s needs.
 If oxygen diffused directly into the blood solution only, the body
would be starved of sufficient oxygen necessary for the human to
survive.
 Oxygen remains bound to the haemoglobin until it reaches the tissues
of the body, an area of low oxygen tension.
 This oxygen released into the tissues to oxidize food.
 In combination with oxygen, haemoglobin forms oxyhaemoglobin
that releases oxygen to the tissues of the body when required.
 Oxygenated blood is bright red in colour whilst deoxygenated blood
has a blueish tinge
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CARRIAGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON

DIOXIDE cont…
 Carbon dioxide
 Predominantly carried by chemical combination with water in
the blood in the form of carbonic acid.
 Concentration of this acid that results in a change of acidity or
alkalinity of the blood.
 This is the major regulator for respiration.
 The normal rate of breathing is 12 to 20 breaths per minute,
averaging 16 breaths per minute
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM cont…

 Air enters through the nose (where it is warmed,
moistened and filtered) and mouth passes into the
trachea
 The trachea divides into the left and right bronchi which
take the air to the two lungs.
 Within the lungs the airways become progressively smaller
until they end in tiny sacs, the alveoli.
 Alveoli are very small but the normal lung contains
thousands of them giving a total area of some hundreds of
square metres.
 The walls of the alveoli are very thin and are covered by fine
capillaries which themselves have only a thin wall.
 Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the blood and carbon
dioxide and water pass into the lungs to be exhaled in
expiration.
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM cont..

 Pulmonary means “of the lungs”.
 Tidal Volume
 the volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each normal breath. Amounts to about 500
ml. in the normal male adult.
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume
 the extra volume of air that can be inhaled over and beyond the normal tidal volume. It
amounts to about 3,000 ml. in the normal male adult.
 Expiratory Reserve Volume
 the amount of air that can be still exhaled by forceful expiration after the end of the
normal tidal expiration. It amounts to about 1,100 ml. in the normal male adult.
 Residual Volume
 the volume of air remaining in the lungs even after the most forceful expiration. It
amounts to about 1,200 ml. in the normal male adult.
 Note: All pulmonary volumes and capacities are about 20% - 25%
less in the female
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Capillary
Wall of Carbon
the air Dioxide is
sac dropped off
Oxygen is
picked up
Red Blood
Cell
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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 The circulatory system
 Concerned with the transportation of blood throughout the
body.
 Blood carries food, oxygen, and water to the tissues and waste
materials from the tissues.
 Blood has the additional function of maintaining body heat.
 The circulatory system comprises of
 the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries.
 The heart pumps blood through out the body
 The interior of the heart divided into the right and left halves
and each half has two chambers.
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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM cont…

 The circulatory system comprises of (cont…)
 The arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
 The elastic walls of the arteries are muscular and strong, permitting the
arteries to vary its carrying capacity. Small arteries connect larger arteries
to capillaries.
 The capillaries convey blood from the arteries to the veins.
 Very small, thin walled, and forms a network in the tissues in which the
exchange of gases take place.
 The veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Have thinner walls and are less elastic than the corresponding sized
arteries.
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THE HEART
 FUNCTIONS OF VENTRICLES
 The ventricles supply the main force that propels the
blood through the lungs and the circulatory system.
 The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
and
 The left ventricle pumps the oxygenated blood around the
body.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE ATRIA
 The atria acts as entryways to the ventricles but also
pump weakly to help move the blood on through the
atria into the ventricles.
 The heart’s blood supply system provided by the
coronary arteries and veins
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 A narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries or
veins causes one of the major diseases which may affect
the heart.
 Veins carry blood back to the heart.
 Not as muscular as arteries, but they contain valves that
prevent blood from flowing backward.
 The two largest veins are
 the superior and inferior venacavae.
 A network of tiny capillaries

 connects the arteries and veins.
 It is through the capillaries that nutrients and oxygen are
delivered to the cells
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SYSTEMIC AND PULMONARY CIRCULATION

Pulmonary
circulation
The flow of blood
between the heart
and lungs.
Systemic circulation
The flow of blood
between the heart
and the cells of the
body.
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Chapter 18, Cardiovascular System 59
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 The oxygenated blood
 Passes through the aorta into the major arteries which divide into
the smaller arteries before arriving at the capillaries.
 The capillaries allow the passage of oxygen from the blood into
the tissues by diffusion (Fick’s Law) also allow carbon dioxide and
water vapour to diffuse in the reverse direction.
 De-oxygenated blood
 Passes capillaries to veins which progressively increase in size and
returns eventually to the right atrium. It
 Then passes to the right ventricle pumping the blood via the
pulmonary artery to the lungs.
 The carbon dioxide and water in the blood are released to the
lungs and, at the same time, the blood is re-oxygenated.
 Then returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein and left auricle.
It is then pumped back into the aorta by the left ventricle.
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BLOOD CIRCULATION
 The cycle of blood flow through the body is as follows:
 Blood from the right atrium is pumped into the right
ventricle.
 From the right ventricle the blood goes into the
pulmonary artery which carries blood to the lungs.
 In the capillaries of the lungs, gaseous exchange
occurs:
 Oxygen goes into the blood
 Carbon dioxide passes into the lungs
 The freshly oxygenated blood returns to the left
atrium of the heart via the pulmonary veins.
PPL by JOAOK
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64
BLOOD CIRCULATION cont..

 The left atrium empties into the left ventricle.
 Contraction of the left ventricle forces blood into the
aorta, the major artery that connects to the rest of the
body save the lungs.
 The aorta divides into arteries that carry the blood to the
tissues. These arteries divide into capillaries which give off
the oxygen and take up carbon dioxide before the blood
returns to the heart
 All blood returning to the heart collects in the superior or
inferior vena cava, which feed directly into the right
atrium.
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NNFS/PPL/2019
9/6/2023
65
FURTHER USES OF BLOOD

CIRCULATION
 As the blood passes through the body the following organs
carry out the following functions:
 Stomach
 Nutrition from food is picked up and carried along to the tissues
 Spleen
 Old blood cells are taken out of circulation
 Liver
 Removes toxins and adds proteins to the blood
 Kidneys
 Adjust the water content and remove waste products
 Bone Marrow
 Helps renew white blood cells
PPL by JOAOK
66 NNFS/PPL/2019
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BLOOD
 Blood claims approximately 8% of an adult’s body weight
 Females have around 4-5 litres, & males have around 5-6
litres.
 The difference due to the differences in body size between men
and women.
 Mean temperature 38 degrees Celcius.
 Its pH 7.35-7.45, making it slightly basic (less than 7 is
considered acidic).
 Whole blood about 4.5-5.5 times as viscous as water, hence
more resistant to flow than water.
 Blood in the arteries brighter red than blood in the veins
due to higher levels of oxygen found in the arteries.
PPL by JOAOK
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FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
 Blood has three main functions: transport, protection and
regulation.
 Transport
 Blood transports the following substances:
 Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest
of the body
 Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the
body
 Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys
 Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target
cells
 Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature
PPL by JOAOK
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FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD cont…

 Protection
 Blood has several roles in inflammation:
 Leukocytes or white blood cells, destroy invading
microorganisms and cancer cells
 Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances
 Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimise blood
loss
 Regulation
 Blood helps regulate:
 pH by interacting with acids and bases
 Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues
PPL by JOAOK
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COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
 Blood plasma
 The plasma, a pale straw coloured medium, is the liquid part of the
blood.
 Delivers digested food products such as glucose and amino acids,
dissolved proteins, various hormones and enzymes.
 Contains sodium chloride.
 Red blood cells
 Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, have two
main functions:
 Pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues elsewhere
 Pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it in the lungs
PPL by JOAOK
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COMPOSITION OF BLOOD cont…

WHITE BLOOD CELLS
 Resemble amoebae and have large nuclei to engulf and
destroying invading bacteria.
 Their main function the defense against diseases
 Produces antibodies that fight the bacteria and
antitoxins to neutralize the toxins produced by the bacteria.
 PLATELETS
 Smallest of the blood cells and the assist in the blood clotting
process.
PPL by JOAOK
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BLOOD PRESSURE
 Blood pressure reading consists of two numbers or
levels. They are shown as one number on top of the
other.
 FOR A NORMAL PERSON IT RANGES 120 mmHg/80
mmHg
 The top number is your systolic blood pressure.
 Highest level your blood pressure reaches when heart
beats.
 The bottom number is your diastolic blood
pressure.
 Lowest level your blood pressure reaches as heart
relaxes between beats.
PPL by JOAOK
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BLOOD PRESSURE cont…

 Too high a blood pressure can be a factor in cardiovascular
failure.
 High blood pressure (hypertension) is the major factor in
strokes.
 A blood pressure of 160/95 or over is assessed as unfit.
 Hypertension can be caused by:
 Stress.
 Smoking.
 Dietary factors (among which is excessive fat and/or salt intake).
 Age.
 Obesity.
 Lack of exercise.
 Narrowing and/or hardening of the arteries.
PPL by JOAOK
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 High blood pressure may give no symptoms at all
 Needs to be detected by routine flight crew screening.
 The primary symptoms of hypertension are:
 Heart palpitations.
 Shortness of breath.
 Angina (chest pains).
 Headaches.
 Nose bleeds.
 Hypertension can be controlled by drugs, surgery or a change
in life style.
 Note: The average pilot’s blood pressure will rise slightly with
age as the arteries lose their elasticity. This natural change will
be taken into consideration by your aviation medical examiner in
progressive medical tests.
PPL by JOAOK
74 NNFS/PPL/2019
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 Low blood pressure (hypotension)
 Normally does not constitute a danger.
 However if decreases too much, leading to a shortage of oxygen
to the tissues,
 it can lead to:
 Lethargy/tiredness.
 Reduced resistance to the effects of shock (faints or collapse).
 Congestion of the respiratory system.
 Stagnation in the blood supply.
 Reduced capability to withstand positive g-forces.
 The normal range of blood pressure varies with age,
 But a healthy young adult will typically have a systolic pressure of
about 120 mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of about 80 mm Hg
(120/80).
 Both hypertension and hypotension may disqualify a pilot
from obtaining a medical clearance to fly.
PPL by JOAOK
75 NNFS/PPL/2019
9/6/2023
PROBLEMS OF HEART
 Congenital heart defects.
 These abnormalities in the heart's structure are present at birth.
 Approximately 8 out of every 1,000 newborns have congenital heart
defects ranging from mild to severe
 A common sign is a heart murmur — an abnormal sound (like a
blowing or whooshing sound) that's heard when listening to the heart
 Coronary artery disease.
 The most common heart disorder in adults, coronary artery disease is
caused by atherosclerosis.
 Deposits of fat, calcium, and dead cells, called atherosclerotic
plaques, form on the inner walls of the coronary arteries (the blood
vessels that supply the heart) and interfere with the smooth flow of
blood
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PROBLEMS OF HEART cont…

 High blood pressure (hypertension).
 Over time, can damage the heart, arteries, and other body organs.
 Symptoms can include
 headache, nosebleeds, dizziness, and lightheadedness.
 Infants, kids, and teens can have high blood pressure, which may be caused
by
 genetic factors, excess body weight, diet, lack of exercise, and diseases such as heart
disease or kidney disease.
 Stroke Occur when
 the blood supply to the brain is cut off or
 when a blood vessel in the brain bursts and spills blood into an area of the
brain,
 Children or infants who have experienced stroke may
 be suddenly numb or weak, especially on one side of the body, and they may
experience a sudden severe headache, nausea or vomiting, and difficulty seeing,
speaking, walking, or moving. During childhood, strokes are rare.
PPL by JOAOK
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PROBLEMS OF HEART cont…

 Donating Blood and Aircrew
 In order to prevent the very slight risk of post
transfusion faintness (syncope)
 Aircrew should drink plenty of fluids and rest supine
for a short time (15 - 20 minutes).
 Refrain from flying duties for a minimum of 24
hours.
 Seek advice from an aviation specialist prior to
blood donation.
PPL by JOAOK
78 NNFS/PPL/2019
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PPL by JOAOK
79 NNFS/PPL/2019
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HYPOXIA
 Hypoxia
 Lack of oxygen in the body tissues.
 Caused either by
 a shortage of oxygen in the air being breathed or
 by a number of physiological/pathological issues affecting blood circulation or
 the quantity of oxygen carried by haemoglobin in the blood.
 The effects of hypoxia include;
 fatigue,
 confusion,
 euphoria,
 inability to concentrate,
 impaired decision-making,
 impaired psychomotor performance,
 loss of consciousness and, eventually, death.
 Hypoxia does not cause discomfort or pain so its onset can be
insidious and pass un-noticed by crews who are not fully aware of
its dangers.
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPOXIA cont…
 Factors affecting the onset and severity of
hypoxia;
 include an individual’s physical fitness,
 cabin temperature,
 altitude,
 rate of ascent and
 duration at altitude.
 Individuals differ considerably in their ability to
withstand hypoxia
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HYPOXIA cont…
 HYPOXIA
 Classified by stages/zones of performance decrement. The 4 stages are:
 The Indifferent Stage/Zone GL - 10 000 ft (3048 m)
 Dark adaption is adversely affected (can be as low as 5000 ft).
 Performance of new tasks may be impaired.
 Slight increase in heart and breathing rates occurs.
 The Compensatory Stage/Zone 10 000 ft - 15 000 ft (3048 - 4572 m)
 In this stage the physiological automatic responses provide some
protection against hypoxia
 An increase in the respiratory volume.
 An increase in cardiac output and blood pressure.
 However after a short time the effects of hypoxia on the CNS are perceptible
causing:
 drowsiness.
 decreased judgement and memory.
 difficulty in performing tasks requiring mental alertness or very small
movements.
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HYPOXIA cont…
 The Disturbance Stage/Zone 15 000 ft - 20 000 ft (4572 - 6092 m)
 In the Disturbance Stage/Zone, the physiological compensatory mechanisms are no
longer capable of providing for adequate oxygenation of the tissues.
 The symptoms include:
 Euphoria
 Dizziness
 Sleepiness
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Intellectual impairment and slow thought processes
 Memory impairment
 Motor performance is severely impaired
 Loss of judgment
 ‘Grey-out’ and tunnelled vision
 The Critical Stage/Zone 20 000 ft - 23 000 ft (6092 - 7010 m)
 Mental performance deteriorates rapidly.
 Confusion and dizziness occurs within a few minutes.
 Total incapacitation with loss of consciousness follows with little or no warning.
 Note: A healthy person is normally able to compensate for altitudes up to
approximately 10 000 - 12 000 ft.
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPOXIA cont…
 Types of hypoxia:
 Hypoxic Hypoxia,
 sometimes known as Altitude Hypoxia, occurs due to the
reduced partial pressure of Oxygen in inspired air.
 Anaemic Hypoxia
 Occurs when the blood’s oxygen carrying capability is reduced;
 may be due
 to reduced haemoglobin content caused by poor nutrition or
 by carbon monoxide, nitrates or sulfa drugs etc.
 Stagnant or Hypokinetic Hypoxia
 Caused by circulatory system problems such as heart failure or,
 in aviation, by blood pooling in the lower limbs
 Histoxic Hypoxia
 occurs when the ability of body tissue to absorb oxygen from the
blood is impeded by substances such as alcohol, narcotics and
certain poisons.
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HYPOXIA cont…
 Treatment of Hypoxia
 Knowledge of the signs and symptoms and early
identification of the problem
 allow the correct drills to be carried out before anyone is
placed in jeopardy but
 important that these drills are well learnt and easily
accomplished.
 Principally:
 Provide oxygen.
 Descend to
 a level where atmospheric oxygen is present in sufficient
quantities or
 to Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA), whichever is the higher
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPOXIA cont…
 PREVENTION OF HYPOXIA
 Some of the factors predisposing to hypoxia are
unavoidable risks of flying;
 When anticipating flying above 10 000 ft
 ensure that a serviceable supplementary supply of oxygen is
available and that the correct method of use is known.
 Ensure that passengers are correctly briefed.
 If you smoke - stop.
 Fly only if you are 100% fit and you are not taking any
medication or drugs.
 Ensure that cabin heaters are thoroughly checked and
serviceable.
 If used, ensure that fresh air is also brought into the cabin.
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPOXIA cont…
 TIME OF USEFUL CONCIOUSNESS
 Time available for the development of hypoxia and the pilot
to do something about it, i.e.
 Time of useful consciousness.
 It is not the time to unconsciousness but the shorter time from a
reduction in adequate oxygen until a specific degree of
impairment, generally taken to be the point when the individual
can no longer take steps to help him/herself.
 Time depend on the individual, and will be affected by any or
all of the following:
 Individual fitness
 Workload
 Smoking
 Overweight or obesity
 Decompression is progressive or explosive
 The average times of useful consciousness at various altitudes
are set out in the following table.
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HYPOXIA
TIMES OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS AT VARIOUS ALTITUDES
ALTITUDE (ft) PROGRESSIVE DECOMPRESSION RAPID
Sitting Moderate Activity DECOMPRESSION
18,000 About 40 min About 30 min 20 to 25 min

20,000 10 min 5 min 3 min
25,000 5 min 3 min 2 min
30,000 1.5 min 45 sec 30 sec
35,000 45 sec 30 sec 20 sec
40,000 25 sec 18 sec 12 sec
43,000 18 sec 12 sec 12 sec
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPERVENTILATION
 Hyperventilation
 Defined as lung ventilation in excess of the body’s needs and
denotes an overriding of the normal automatic control of
breathing by the brain.
 Simply, hyperventilation is overbreathing.
 That is breathing in excess of the ventilation required to remove carbon
dioxide.
 Overbreathing induces a reduction in the carbon dioxide and thus
decreases the carbonic acid balance of the blood.
 This disturbance of the acid balance has a number of effects, the major
one being that haemoglobin gives up its oxygen readily only in an acid
medium.
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPERVENTILATION cont..
 ROLE OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN HYPERVENTILATION
 The respiratory controls of the body react to the amount of
CO2 in the blood
 During exercise the body uses more oxygen and produces more
CO2 resulting in an excess of CO2 in the blood.
 The respiratory centre in the brain reacts to this surplus
increasing both the depth and rate of breathing hence removing
the excess CO2 from the body
 Once excess removed, the breathing rate returns to normal
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPERVENTILATION cont….
 Causes of hyperventilation
 Hypoxia
 Anxiety,
 motion sickness,
 shock,
 vibration,
 heat,
 high g-forces
PPL by JOAOK
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 Symptoms of Hyperventilation
 Dizziness and a feeling of unreality.
 Tingling. Especially in the extremities and lips.
 Visual disturbances. Blurred, tunnelling and clouding vision.
 Hot or cold sensations. These may alternate in time and vary as to
parts of the body affected.
 Anxiety. Thus establishing a vicious circle.
 Loss of muscular coordination and impaired performance.
 Increased heart rate.
 Spasms. Just prior to unconsciousness, the muscles of the hands,
fingers and feet may go into spasm.
 Loss of consciousness. Hyperventilation can lead to collapse but
thereafter the body’s automatic system will restore the normal
respiration rate and the individual will recover.
PPL by JOAOK
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 Treatment of Hyperventilation
 Make him/her breathe into a paper bag.
 The sufferer is then forced to inhale the carbon
dioxide that has been exhaled.
 The immediate effect is to increase the carbonic
acid level to its norm and the brain
consequently reduces the breathing rate.
 In all cases try to calm the patient and encourage
her/him to slow down the rate of breathing.
PPL by JOAOK
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HYPERVENTILATION OR HYPOXIA?
 The symptoms of hypoxia and hyperventilation
are so similar that to differentiate between them
can be difficult.
 Hypoxia causes cyanosis (blueness of the skin),
visual acuity is diminished, and headaches and
drowsiness may occur.
 With hyperventilation there can be nerve and
muscle irritability, intermittent muscular
contractions and increased respiratory rate.
PPL by JOAOK
94 NNFS/PPL/2019
9/6/2023
HYPERVENTILATION OR HYPOXIA?
 Altitude a useful factor to differentiate between hypoxia and
hyperventilation. Use the following guidelines:
 Above 10 000 ft
 Assume hypoxia and provide oxygen to the sufferer. A descent below 10
000 ft is essential.
 Below 10 000 ft
 Hypoxia should not be a problem except in people who are old or who
have respiratory problems.
 Rate and depth of breathing should be slowed down.
 If hyperventilation is identified as the problem then re-breathing the
expired air can help the recovery.
 Restricting the breathing by use of a sick-bag or oxygen mask are
commonly used methods.
PPL by JOAOK

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NNFS/PPL/2019

CHAPTER 1: HUMAN FACTORS &

Version 01 Issue Date – 30th July 2019 Revision 00 1

COURSE OUTLINE cont…

Version 01 Issue Date – 30th July 2019 Revision 00

Version 01 Issue Date – 30th July 2019 Revision 00

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

Version 01 Issue Date – 30th July 2019 Revision 00

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

The five most common specific causes of pilot-induced

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

Accidents and Fatalities by Phase of

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

Version 01 Issue Date – 30th July 2019 Revision 00

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

HUMAN BASIC FACTORS cont…

SHELL MODEL cont..

SHELL MODEL cont..

SHELL MODEL cont..

SHELL MODEL cont..

SHELL MODEL cont..

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

 Mean Sea Level pressure of 1013.25 hPa (760 mm Hg).

 Mean Sea Level density of 1225 g/m3

 A lapse rate of 1.98°C/1000 ft (6.5° C/km) up to 36 090

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

 The table following shows

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

CARRIAGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON

CARRIAGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM cont…

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM cont..

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM cont…

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM cont…

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM cont…

 A network of tiny capillaries

SYSTEMIC AND PULMONARY CIRCULATION

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM cont…

Version 01 Issue Date – 30th July 2019 Revision 00

BLOOD CIRCULATION cont..

FURTHER USES OF BLOOD

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD cont…

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD cont…

BLOOD PRESSURE cont…

BLOOD PRESSURE cont…

BLOOD PRESSURE cont…

PROBLEMS OF HEART cont…

PROBLEMS OF HEART cont…

18,000 About 40 min About 30 min 20 to 25 min

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