Camp Report

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT REPORT |2024 |
GEOLOGICAL REPORT OF STUDY AREA
“Geology differs from physics, chemistry, and biology in that

the possibilities for experiment are limited.”
— Reinout Willem van Bemmelen
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG,

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVES
This extensive survey project is conducted to acquire a practical knowledge and
applications of theory and overcome the difficulties that could arise in field during surveying.
We also learn the use of different survey instrument and to develop the team spirit at work. It
also helps to develop the confidence in handling of survey project. An extensive survey project
camp is usually arranged for civil engineering students.
We conducted survey for a new tank project, water supply scheme, highway project, old
tank project. With this motive survey camp was arranged with the help of our lectures at
Melukote, Pandavapura taluk, Mandya district which is 160km away from Bangalore. We are
able to finish the survey works under the guidance of of our faculties and the knowledge gained
by us in our course of our study.
To impart training in the use of surveying instruments and to acquire a comprehensive

idea of the project, along with designs and drawings, to learn handle real and difficult situation of
project surveying, to develop team spirit in practical situation, to impart and develop the self-
confidence in the management of project survey.
1.2 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF A PROJECT

The design and construction of any project such as dam, road alignment requires a
thorough investigation of the site as regards to its stability and feasibility. The preliminary
investigation starts from the reconnaissance work, study of top sheets, proposal of alternative
sites etc. The second stage work of investigation includes the survey work at the site in order to
collect the data necessary for the design of project elements, preparation of drawings, estimates
etc. The office work is confined to the designs, drawings, and estimates of the project.
1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PLACE

Melukote in Pandavapura taluk, Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one of
the sacred place in Karnataka. The place is also known as thirunarayanapuram. It is built on
rocky hills, known as yadugiri, yadvagiri and yadushailadweepa, overlooking the Kaveri valley.
Melukote is about 51km (32miles) from Mysore and 133km (83 miles) from Bengaluru.
DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

Melukote is the location of the cheluvanarayanaswamy temple, with a collection of crowns and
jewels which are brought to the temple for the annual celebration. On the top of the hill is the
temple of yoganarasimha. Many more shrines and ponds are located in the town. Melukote is the
home to the academy of Sanskrit research, which has collected thousands of manuscripts.
Early in the 12th century, the famous srivaishnava saint RAMANUJACHARYA,who

hailed from tamilnadu, stayed in melukote for about 2years. It as thus become a prominent centre
of the Srivaishnava sect. Melukote is a municipal town and holy centre of the same name,
situated at a distance of 36km(22miles) north-west of Mandya, and 51km(32 miles) north of
mysore. According to mythological account,this place was known as Narayanadri, Vedadri,
Yadavadri, Yathishaila and Tirunarayanapura. The name of the place is derived from the temple
of Narayanaswamy which is built on the hillock, surrounded by a fort. It is built on a granite
rocky hill-range named Yadugiri which is 3589 feet (1094 m) high above sea level.
View of lord Narasimha Swamy temple

Early in the 12th century, the great Srivaishnava saint Sri Ramanuja took up his residence
and lived in this location for about 14 years. It thus became a prominent centre of the
Srivaishnava sect of Brahmins, who obtained from the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana, who had
become a follower of the Acharya, an assignment of the fertile tracts of land in the
neighbourhood, especially of the Ashtagramas, on either bank of the Cauvery.
In the 14th century, the place suffered at the hands of the Muslim invaders, and it was at
Tondanur (Tonnur) at the southern foot of the hills, where the Hoysala king retaired. It was
subsequently restored, in about 1460, by ThimmannaDannayaka, a chief of Nagamangala, who
was an army commander of the vijaynagar king Mallikarjuna or ImmadiPraudadevaraya.

1.4 STAGES OF SURVEY WORK

The various survey works carried out are as follows:
1.4.1 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

It means the process of visiting the site and surrounding area for knowing nature of the
soil, rocks and groundwater table which are likely to be encountered during construction. The
information obtained during site reconnaissance may sometimes it is sufficient for judging the
general suitability of site or for making of helps in deciding about the exploration techniques
which may be necessary for further investigation. Reconnaissance survey should include an
inspection of the following things; Local topography, excavation, quarries, evidence of
landslides, behaviour of existing structures at or near the site, water levels in the streams, flood
marks, nature of vegetation etc.
1.4.2 PRELIMINARY SURVEY

It consists of general information and examining the already existing data about the soil
and geological conditions of the site. Valuable information of any site may be obtained if the
already existing reports and maps or other previous relevant soil survey and investigation records
are available. From investigation it has been observed that the terrain type, type of rock (both
Igneous and metamorphic deposits) etc.,
This sheet gives the topographical features of the locality like alignment of a railway line,
roadway, streams and its distributaries and permanent structures located in that locality. This
may help in selecting the site for a new tank and gives clear picture of transportation to the
proposed area in the proposed site for the transportation of men and material for their
construction. From this we can know the approximate catchment area of the site. This map must
be study before reconnaissance survey.
1.4.3 FLY LEVELLING

The main objective of the fly levelling is to be established temporary benchmark (TBM)
near the site which is accurate, from MSL (mean sea level). In Melukote, we have conducted fly
levelling from polytechnic college it is nearly 1km away from the Melukote and the MSL of
988.715 (RL of the Gl near polytechnic college) to our project by using Dumpy level with
Tripod and levelling staff.

1.5 GEOLOGICAL STUDY
1.5.1 GEOLOGY
The science that deals with the dynamics and physics history of the earth, the rocks of
which it is composed, and the physical, chemical and biological changes that the earth has
undergone or undergoing.
We need to know where to find these resources so that society can continue the function.
But, we must also recognize that many of earth’s resources are finite and could eventually run
out. So we must also know how to manage our resources and recognize how our use of the
resources may ultimately by impacting on the planet.
We also need to know about geology for practical reasons, like choosing a safe place to
construct buildings where they will be safe from river flooding, landslides, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and other natural disasters. We also need to be able to pick safe sites for building dams
and bridges, nuclear power stations and for disposing of society’s waste products so as not to
create environmental disasters.
1.5.2 STUDY AREA

Melukote in Pandavapura taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one
of the sacred places in Karnataka. The place is also known as Thirunarayanapuram. It is built on
rocky hills, known as Yadugiri, Yaadavagiri and Yadhushailadeepa, overlooking Cauvery valley.
Mellukote is about 51 km (32 miles) from Mysore and 133 km (83 miles) from Banglore.
Fig 1.1: Study area map

1.5.3 TOPOGRAPHY
Topography is the study of the shape and features of the surface of the earth and other
observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. The topography of an
area could refer to the surface shapes and features themselves, or a description (especially their
depiction in maps).
In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of map characterized by large scale

detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines, but historically using
a variety of methods. Traditional definition requires a topographic map to show both natural and
manmade features. A topographic map typically published as map series, made up of two or
more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places
of equal elevation. The Survey of India is responsible for all top topographic control, surveys and
mapping of India.
1.5.4 CONTOUR
A line on a map joining points of equal elevation above a given level, usually mean sea
level. The change in elevation between one contour line and the next is contour interval.
Fig 1.2: Highway alignment, NTP and OTP sites map
1.5.5 FAULTS
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which
there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement. Large faults within
the Earth’s crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the largest forming the
boundaries between the plates, such as seduction zones or transform faults. Energy release
associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.

1.5.6 STRIKE AND DIP

Strike is defined as the direction of the line formed by the intersection of a fault, bed or
other planar feature and a horizontal plane. Dip is the angle at which a planar feature is inclined
to the horizontal plane; it is measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike of the feature.
Fig 1.3: Geological structure map.
1.5.7 TOPOSHEET MAP OF STUDY AREA
Fig 1.4: Toposheet

1.5.8 TRANSPORTATION NETWORK MAP OF PANDAVAPURA TALUK
Fig 1.5: Road and Rail map
1.6 NEW TANK PROJECT
1.6.1 STUDY AREA
Fig 1.6: Study area of NTP site

1.6.2 CATCHMENT AREA

A catchment area is a hydrological unit. Each drop of precipitation that falls into a
catchment area eventually ends up in same river going to see if it doesn’t evaporate. However, it
can take long time. Catchment area is separated from each other watersheds.
Fig 1.7: Drainage Map of the Proposed NTP catchment
1.6.3 MINI WATERSHED MAP
Fig 1.8: Mini watershed Map of the proposed NT catchment

Table 1.1: Mini watershed with unit wise area with percentage of NTP
SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA
1. Sindhughatta 6.1877 14.51
2. Singapura 11.1870 26.25
3. Melukote 13.2604 31.141
4. Horalahalli 11.9659 28.08
1.6.4 GEOMORPHOLOGY MAP
Fig 1.9: Geomorphology map of the proposed NT catchment Map
Table 1.2 Geomorphology description with unit wise area with percentage of NTP
SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA
1. Pediment – Inseberg Complex 69.32205563 21.89711

Shallow weathered/shallow buried 6.972651272 2.202487

2.
Pediplain
240.176681 75.86583
3. Vally Fill/ Filled-in vally
1.6.5 LITHOLOGY MAP
Fig 1.10: Lithology Map of NTP
Table 1.3: Lithology description with unit wise area with percentage of NTP
SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA
1 Migmatite And Granddiorite Tonalitic Gness 5.25 100
1.7 WEATHEARING
Weathering causes the disintegration of rock near the surface of the earth. Plant and
animal life, atmosphere and water are major causes for weathering. Weathering breaks down and
loosens the surface minerals of rock so they can be transported away by agents of erosion such as
water, wind and ice. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical.

1.7.1 Mechanical weathering

Mechanical weathering is the disintegration of rock into small and small fragments.
Frost action is an effective form of mechanical weathering. When tricle down into fractures and
pores of rock, then freezes, its volume increases by 10 percent. This causes outward pressure of
about 30000 pounds per square inch at – 7.6 Fahrenheit. Frost action causes rocks to be broken
apart into angular fragments. Idaho’s extreme temperature range in the high country causes frost
action to be very important form of weathering.
Exfoliation is a form of mechanical weathering in which plates of rock are stripped

from the rock below. This results in exfoliation domes or domes like hills and rounded boulders.
Exfoliation domes accur along planes pf parting called joints, which are curved parallel to
surface. These joints are several feet apart with depth. One after another these layers are spalled
off resulting in rounded or dome-shaped rock form. Most people believe exfoliation is caused by
instability as a result of drastically reduced pressure at earth’s surface allowing the rocks to
expand.
Exfoliation are best developed in granite rock. Yosemite National park has exceptional
examples of exfoliation domes. Idaho has good examples in Quiet city of rocks near Oakley as
well as in many parts of granitic Idaho Batholith. In fact, these characteristic rounded forms
make rock exposure of the granitic Idaho Batholith easy to identify.
Another type of exfoliation occurs where boulders are spheroid ally weathered. These
boulders are rounded by concentric shells of rock spalling off, similar to the wat shekels may be
removed from an onion. The outer shells are formed by chemical weathering of certain minerals
toa product with a greater volume than the original material. For example, feldspar in granite is
converted to clay which occupies a large volume. Igneous rocks are very easy susceptible to
mechanical weathering.
1.7.2 Chemical weathering

Chemical weathering transforms the original material into a substance with a different
composition and different composition and different physical characteristics. The new substance
is typically much softer and more susceptible to agents of erosion than the original material. The
rate of chemical weathering is greatly accelerated by the presence of warm temperature and

moisture. Also, some minerals are more vulnerable to chemical weathering than others. For
example, feldspar is far more reactive than quartz.
The soil harvesting structure be construct in the site because the sediment accumulation
takes place in proposed site
Fig 1.11: Physical Disintegrated rock pieces

Fig 1.12: Briefing about Geological condition of proposed NT area
1.7.3 SLOPE MAP
Fig 1.14: Slope Map of proposed NT catchment

Table 1.4: Slope Map unit wise area with percentage of NTP
SI.NO % OF SLOPE AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA
1. 10-15 0.298258176 1.49383
2. 15-35 1.314390477 6.58314
3. 3-5 15.11036777 75.68045
4. 5-10% 3.242994615 16.24258
Fig 1.15 : Soil texture map of NTP
Table 1.5 : Soil texture with unit wise area with percentage of NTP

SI.NO SOIL TEXTURE AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA
1. LOAMY SAND 51.08257807 63.00869
2. SANDY LOAM 23.99831989 29.60115
3. ROCK OUTCROPS 1.961342103 2.419252
4. SANDY CLAY LOAM 0.786274164 0.969844
5. WATER BODY MASK 0.109444208 0.134996
6. GRAVELLY LOAMY SAND 1.508901405 1.861181
7. HABITATION MASK 0.026652222 0.032875
8. GRAVELLY SAND 1.598756534 1.972014
1.7.4 LAND USE/LAND COVER MAP:
Fig 1.16 : Land use / Land cover map

Table 1.6 : Land use/ Land cover with unit wise area with percentage of NTP
SL.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA
1. Fallow Land 0.219175948 0.919767
2. Crop land 12.78558643 53.65445
3. Lake / Tank 0.109444208 0.45928
4. Land with scrub 10.68863784 44.85465
5. Village 0.026652222 0.111846
Fig 1.17 : Profile of NTP bund using GPS data

Fig 1.18 : Length of bund using GPS data
1.8 OLD TANK PROJECT
1.8.1 STUDY AREA

Fig 1.19: Study area map
1.8.2 CATCHMENT AREA MAP

Fig 1.20: Catchment area of OTP
1.8.3 LITHOLOGY MAP
Fig 1.21: Lithology Map of OTP
The entire OTP area lies in Migmatites and Garandiorite – Tonaltic Gneiss.

Fig 1.22: Strike and Dip of Rock in Old Tank area Fig 1.23: Weathering of Rock In Old Tank Area
1.8.4 SLOPEMAP
Fig 1.24: Slope Map of OTP
Table 1.8: Slope Map unit wise area with percentage of OTP
SI.NO DESCRIPTION(%) AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA
1. 0-1 0.599342734 3.164017
2. 3-5 15.11036777 79.76983
3. 35-50 3.232749237 17.06615
1.8.5 LAND USE/LAND COVER MAP

Fig 1.25: Land use/Land cover Map of OTP
Table 1.9: Land use/Land cover with unit wise area with percentage of OTP
SI. NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA
1. Kharif + Rabi (Double Crop) 2.386021693 34.10871
2. Kharif crop 0.832557991 11.9016
Barren Rocky / Stony Waste /

3.
Sheet Rock Area 3.087712296 44.13953
4. Village 0.651038095 9.306733
5. Lake / Tanks 0.038014826 0.54343
1.8.6 SOIL TEXTURE MAP

Fig 1.26: Soil texture Map of OTP
Table 1.11: Soil texture with unit wise area with percentage of OTP
SL.NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA
1. SANDY LOAM 22.5029 94.15045
2. LOAMY SAND 0.70905 2.966612
3. HABITATION MASK 0.651038 2.723894
4. WATER BODY MASK 0.038014 0.159048

1.9 HIGHWAY
1.9.1 STUDY AREA
Fig 1.27: Study area of Highway using google earth
1.9.2 LITHOLOGY MAP
Fig 1.28: Lithology Map of Highway

The area consists of a Migmatites and Granodiorite – Tonalitic Gneiss and Pink & grey Granite
therefore this area is suitable for construction of State highway.
1.9.3 LAND USE MAP
Fig 1.29: Land use Map of Highway

Fig 1.30: Soil texture Map of Highway
The soil texture consists of fine, fine loamy and loamy soil.

1.10 WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
1.10.1 STUDY AREA
Fig 1.31: Study area of PHE

NEW TANK PROJECT
“Coming together is the Beginning. Keeping

together is progress. Working together is
success”
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG,

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the land, in accordance with
the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full-fledged nourishment of the crops.
When sufficient and timely water does not become available to famines and diseases and the
function of the irrigation is to supplement the supplies of the water falling in the form of rain on
the area to be cultivated at the season and to the extend required for successful cultivation of the
crop. India is basically an agriculture, and the remaining indirectly dependent on the agriculture.
When the natural rainfall on the area cultivated, in regard to quantity and seasonal incidence of
fall, is suitable for cultivation, irrigation is not required.
Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life. Water is supplied to the plants
by nature through the rains. However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be insufficient or
ill timed. In order to obtain the maximum yield, it is necessary to supply optimum quantity of
water and to maintain correct timing of watering. this is possible only through a systematic
irrigation system. For proper planning of irrigation project, future needs should be foreseen,
which is termed as penetrated vision. This should be based on comprehensive general scheme for
the optimum use of water, on the best land capable of production of most suitable crops.
When the total rainfall is less than the necessary for development of crops, artificial
supply is necessary. In such case irrigation work may be constructed at a place where water is
more available and it has to be conveyed to the area where there is deficiency. The rainfall in a
particular area may not be uniform during the crop period. Also, during the early crop period,
crops may even die due to deficiency of water. Hence by the collection of water and these
problems can overcome by supplying this water to the cops in times of deficiency. Most of the
irrigation projects in India are based on this criterion.
2.1 Objective
Preparing a feasible report of this project by tentatively estimating the cost-benefit ratio.
2.2 Reasons for the proposal

A tank project area to be utilized is isolated and also has good catchment area rainfall is
excellent throughout the basin and well distributed throughout the season.

2.3 Existing methods of irrigation

The people of this area depend upon the rainfall which varies annually. A portion of area
on the way to Melukote is irrigated by this tank.
● Crops grown
Ragi, paddy, groundnut, maize, sugarcane is the chief crops grown in this region. Cultivation is
done only once a year. As they fully depend on the rainfall, hence importance is to be given to
proper irrigation ways.
● Effect of submergence
Due to the construction of dam, large area on the upstream will be drowned. However, area
under submergence is small and not fertile.
2.4 Benefits
This area is drought area that is yearly rainfall is less than 30cm. Thus, after the
completion of the tank, people in locality may utilize the water that would flow through the
channel. Irrigation is practiced and hence yield will be more. The water that will be stored in the
tank can also be used for drinking and the other domestic purposes.
2.5 Selection of a Suitable Section for an Earthen Bund
2.5.1 Free Board

It is the vertical distance between maximum reservoir level and the top of the dam. Free
board must be sufficiently enough so as to avoid any possibility of overlapping. USBR
recommends a free board of 2m to 3m for an uncontrolled spillway.
2.5.2 Top Width

The top width of the large earthen dam should be sufficient to keep the seepage line well
within the dam. When the reservoir is full it should be also sufficient to with stand earthquake
shocks and wave actions. For small dams, this top width is generally governed by minimum road
way width requirements.

2.5.3 The Design of Slopes on Upstream and Downstream Sides

The design of the slopes on the upstream and downstream embankment may vary widely,
depending on the character of the materials available, foundation conditions and height if the
dam.
The waste weir is constructed to dispose off the excess water during the flood seasons.
Length of the weir should be such that the quantity of the water estimated as the maximum water
discharge likely to enter from the catchments into the tanks can be disposed off with a depth of
water over the weir equally to the difference between them. W.L and T.T.L. Waste weir acts as a
safety valve. Waste weir should be properly designed and must have adequate capacity to
dispose off the entire surplus water at the time of worst design period.
2.6 SURVEY WORKS

We need to carry out various types of surveys in order to know the current profile of the
terrain where we are going to construct the earthen dam, the natural flow of the existing stream,
the area that will be submerged underwater when dam is being constructed, the total volume of
water that can be stored in the reservoir, the bund line where the dam will be constructed.
Hence study the feasibility of the new tank project the following extensive survey have
been carried out:
a) Reconnaissance survey and preliminary investigation

b) Longitudinal and cross sections along the center line of the bund
c) Block levels at the waste weir and sluice sites
d) Capacity contours
e) Canal alignment
2.6.1 Reconnaissance survey

Geological Survey of India (GSI) is an official agency to survey the entire country. GIS
has prepared the toposheets by dividing the entire land into no. of square segment. Generally, the
sheets are used to identify proper locations for constructing dams for irrigation/power generation
purposes. As the proposed new tank is of smaller capacity, toposheets are not being used, instead
a reconnaissance survey has been conducted to locate the site for the tank and then to fix up the

bund line. The following points have been observed while selecting the site and for fixing up the
bund line.
a) The length of the bund line should be minimum.

b) Water shed area shall be broad-leaf shape.
c) Storage shall be maximum and the submersion is minimum.
Keeping the above points in mind a tentative center line of l-shape was fixed, first stretch
being 0-141m and the second stretch being 141-221.88m. the reference benchmark was chosen
as 100 on the parapet of nearby culvert. All the survey works have been carried out with
reference to this bm.
Selection of the site for the reservoir: while selecting the site for the reservoir following
characteristic points should be taken into account.
2.6.2 Geological features

Geology of the catchment areas: losses in the Catchment area should be minimum, silt
and sand load must not be excessive.
Geology of the dam site: it should be ideal one, entire length of the dam must be around
watertight rock foundation. Percolation below the structure must be minimum.
Geology of the reservoir basin: there should not be serious leakages from the reservoir to
any outlet. Soil should not contain any objectionable soluble materials and soft. General direction
of the dip of the rock bed should be in the upstream direction.
2.6.3 Topographical features

The reservoir should have narrow opening in the valley. It will reduce the length of the
bund to be constructed and consequently the cost of the project will be reduced.
Though the narrow opening is best suited, the valley should be wide above the site of the
bund to store more water per meter height of the basis of the bund. The side slope should be step
throughout the basis. It will reduce the surface area per unit volume, so that the undesirable
shallow water depths and surface evaporations may be reduced.

2.6.4 Cultural factors

The reservoir basis covers large area. It is very essential to see that the land going to be
submerged is not valuable. There should not be real estate. (Ex: railways, towns and villages).
2.6.5 Economic considerations

The bund to be constructed should be close to the area to be irrigated. It reduces the cost
of the conveyance system. the bund to be constructed should not be of greater height. If the
height is more, cost of the project will increase.
2.7 Preliminary investigations for reservoir and bund site

A site of the new project will be fixed after preliminary investigations and the study of
the following points.
⮚ Catchment area of the place.
⮚ Average rainfall for the year.
⮚ Yield from the catchment.
⮚ Suitable site for the land, which should be of least length with good foundation.
⮚ A good subsidiary valley for the waste weir draft channel with assured good foundations for
the weir.
⮚ Position of the sluices and favorable alignment for the irrigation channel from there on.
⮚ Extent of land proposed for irrigation channel from there on.
⮚ Extent of land proposed for irrigation with nature of crop.
⮚ Proximity of construction materials.
⮚ Financial feasibility of the project, including avoiding submission of the valuable lands
inhabited area.

2.8 Longitudinal and Cross-Sections

This survey is conducted to obtain the profile of the valley across a proposed center line.
When the top level of the bund is fixed, then it is possible to determine exact height of the dam at
any given chainage. When the height of the dam is known, it is possible to determine the
dimension of the dam at any chainage. Also, the quantity of the earthwork for construction of
dam can be estimated.
The reduced levels are taken along the center line of the path along which the bund has to
be constructed. This gives the fair idea about the ground and variation along the in levels which
helps to identify and choose the alignment for the earthen bund.
The equipment used are:
⮚ Level with stand
⮚ Leveling staff
⮚ Chain 30m
⮚ Arrows
⮚ Tape 30m
⮚ Ranging Rods
⮚ Compass with stand
⮚ Total station
⮚ Prism rod
PROCEDURE:
● We need to select the center line where the bund has to be constructed.

● Stretch the chain along the center line.
● Considering the sill of the waste weir as benchmark or any other given benchmark
leveling work is carried out to determine the RL of the top of the abutment of waste weir.
● A point along the center line of existing bund is located whose RL is one meter greater
than the RL of the top abutment.
● This point is taken as point of zero chainage. The location of this point should be fixed
with respect to three permanent objects.
● Mark the points at an interval of 5m along the centre line for the longitudinal section by
making use of arrows.
● At every 10m chainage mark points for 5m, 10m, and 15m in both the directions.
● Set up the total station at position from where maximum points are visible.
● Enter the initial values in the total station for that point for example: RL of that point,
northing and easting.
● RLs along the center line are taken at every 10m intervals and cross sections are taken at
every 30m interval. Salient features such as sluice gate and waste weir positions are
located while traversing along the center line.
● Keep on placing the prism rod at each point which are marked by arrows and the
corresponding reading for RL at that point.
● While taking cross sections RLs and chainages of the following points should be noted
a) The two top edges of the bund

b) At least one point on upstream side
c) The junction points of the downstream side of earthen bund and ground
d) At least on intermediate point between the top edge and toe of bund.

e) Points beyond the toe of the bund are also taken. The number of such points to be
taken depends upon the height of the bund. The minimum number of such points
shall be one and maximum of three.
f) The last point of the traverse shall have the same RL as the zero-chainage point.
The location of the end point also should be fixed with respect to three permanent
objects.
2.9 Storage Zones of Reservoir
● Dead Storage
It is the volume of the water stored below the minimum pool level. It is not used for
Reservoir operations.
● Valley Storage
It is the amount stored in the stream channel before the construction of dam.
● Useful Storage
It is the volume of the water between the minimum and normal pool level. It may be
divided into conservation and mitigation storage in multipurpose storage reservoir.
● Surcharge Storage
This is uncontrolled storage, which is given by volume of water stored between normal
and maximum pool level.
● Tank Storage
It is the volume of the water collected only in the permeable reservoir bank. This can be
used when the reservoir is depleted. The amount of the water depends on the type of
geological formation.

● Minimum Pool Level
It is the lowest water surface for irrigation that has to be kept under normal operation. It
is kept equal to elevation of the lowest outlet sluice of dam or at minimum head of
turbine.
● Normal Pool Level
It is the maximum elevation to which water surface will rise during normal water
operations. It is kept at elevation of spillway crest.
● Normal Pool Level
It is the maximum level to which water rises during the worst design flood.
● Free board
Free board or minimum free board is the vertical distance between the MAXIMUM
RESERVOIR LEVEL and the TOP BUND LEVEL. The dam vertical distance between normal
pool level or spillway crest and top of the dam is termed as normal free board. The minimum
height of the free board for wave action is generally taken to be equal to 1.5Hw.
Most of the hydraulic failures of the earthen dam have occurred due to over stopping of
dams. Hence, the free board must be sufficient as to avoid any such over stopping. Values of free
board, for various heights, recommended by U.S.B.R are given in the following table.
Spillway type Height of the dam Minimum free board over MWL
Uncontrolled spillway Any height Between 2 to 3m
Controlled spillway Height less than 60m 2.5m above top of gates
Controlled spillway Height more than 60m 3m above top of gates

(Table-1 is taken Irrigation Engineering, Santosh Kumar Garg-24 th revised edition. An

additional free board up to 1.5m should be provided for the dams suited in areas of low
temperature for frost action.)
2.10 Top Width of Bund

The top width of large earthen dams should be sufficient to keep the seepage line well
within the dam, when the reservoir is full. It should also be sufficient to withstand earthquake
shocks and wave actions. For the small dams, this top width is generally governed by minimum
roadway width requirements.
The top width A of the earth dam can be selected as per following recommendations:
H
A= +3 for very low dams.
5
A = .55 H.5 + .2H for dams lower than 30 meters.
A = 1.65(H +1.5)1/3 for dams higher than 30 meters.
Where, H is the height of the dam.
2.11 Upstream and Downstream Slopes

The side slopes depend upon various factors such as type and nature of dam and
foundation materials, height of the dam etc., the recommended value of the side slopes given by
TERZAGHI’S are tabulated in following table.

TYPE OF MATERIAL UPSTREAM SLOPE DOWNSTREAM

(H:V) SLOPE (H:V)
Homogenous well graded 2.5:1 2:1
Homogenous coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1
Homogenous silt clay
Height less than 15 meter 2.5:1 2:1
Height more than 15 meter 3:1 2.5:1
Sand or sand gravel with a 3:1 2.5:1

central clay core
Sand or sand and gravel 2.5:1 2:1

with R.C diaphragm
(Table-2 is taken Irrigation Engineering, Santosh Kumar Garg-24th revised edition.)
The various dimensions of low earth dams for their preliminary section may sometimes be
selected from the recommendation of strange, as given in following table:
Stranger’s Recommendations
Height of dam (in Maximum Free Top width (A) (in Upstream slope Downstream
meters) board (in meters) meters) (H: V) slope (H: V)
Up to 4.5 1.2 to 1.5 1.85 2:1 1.5:1
4.5 to 7.5 1.5 to 1.8 1.85 1.5:1 1.75:1
1.5 to 22.5 2.1 3.0 3:1 2:1

2.12 Block Levels at Waste Weir Site

Waste weir is that component of the Dam from where the extra volume of water of flows out
from the reservoir. It is generally constructed at one of the extreme corners of the Bund.
A rectangular box is marked of dimension 40*30 m with an interval of 5m. The R.L
of various points are found out by placing the prism rod at the various points of the box. This
helps us to identify the variation in the levels where the waste weir is to be constructed. It will
give us the volume of the earthwork that will be required for the waste weir to be constructed .
Instrument required
Total station, Prism rod, Chain - 30m, Tape – 30m, Arrows
Procedure
● Mark a rectangular box of size 20*30m.
● Starting the leveling work from the nearest BM, establish two points P and Q along
the approximate center line of the waste weir both having RL equal to that of TBL.
● The bearings of the proposed center line of waste weir and earthen bund are taken
using a prismatic compass.
● The distance between P and Q is taken as the length of block leveling surveying work
● Take 10m on either side of the center line of the bund line.
● Marks all the points with arrows at an interval of 5m.
● Blocks are constructed of size 5 m x 5m. The extent of survey work shall be 60 m on
u/s side and 30 m on d/s side.
● Using a dumpy level, IS are taken at the nodes of each block and then RLs are
calculated.

2.13 Block Levels at Sluice site

It is an opening in the form of a culvert or a pipe running through or under the tank
bund and supplying water from the tank to the distributor channel below to meet the irrigation
or other water requirements, as and when needed. Suitable wing walls and other bank
connections are also provided as required at the head and tail end of the culvert. The vent way
of sluice depends upon the type of irrigation proposed.
It is normally located at the point from where maximum water can be extracted and
can be distributed to the command area. The sluice level is generally above the dead storage
level.
Instrument required
Dumpy Level, Level Staff, and Chain - 30m, Tape – 30m, Arrows
Procedure
● Mark a rectangular box of size 10*40m.
● Take 5m on either side of the center line of the bund line.
● Marks all the points with arrows at an interval of 5m.
● Place the total station at a place from where all the points are clearly visible.
● Place the prism rod at each point and take the readings of reduced level.
2.14 Storage Zones of Reservoir

Objective
1) Determination of the storage capacity of the reservoir.
2) Determination of nature and extent of area submerged after construction of Dam.
The capacity contours are found out by surveying around the area of the Bund and finding
the points of the same R.L and with the help of compass tracing the path i.e., the alignment
that the contour is following. This gives an indication of the area that will be submerged under
the water at different levels of the water.

Instrument required
Dumpy level, leveling staff, Compass, Tripod stand, Ranging rods, Chain - 30m, Tape - 30m,
Arrows
Procedure
● Select the contour to be found in this case it is the top bund level and Full tank Level
● Note down the R.L of the top bund level.
● Take the back sight reading from the dumpy level.
● Move the leveling staff at a different position to find the same reading.
● Take the intermediate readings till wherever possible.
● At last point take a fore sight reading.
● Now, keeping the leveling staff at the same position move the dumpy level.
● Position the dumpy level at a place from where a larger area can be covered.
● Take the back sight reading and note it down.
● Continue the same procedure and go around the bund line in the upstream side till we
reach the opposite side the bund line.

This survey is necessary to draw the capacity contours by the help of which the storage
levels of the tank are fixed. This can also be carried out by the following methods.
⮚ One set of levels is taken along the course of the river on the upstream and another
set at right angle to it at the widest region and counters are interpolated.
⮚ The F T L counter is traced directly and cross section at suitable intervals are taken
across this until F T L on the other side is reached. The lowest point of main valley is
met and the contours are interpolated

⮚ The entire water spread is covered by block leveling and any number of contours is
interpolated.
(Of the above three methods the third method is most accurate but it is tedious. Any of the
above methods may be adopted depending upon the degree of the accuracy required and the
size of the project.)
Procedure for the compass surveying for the alignment
● Keep the ranging road at the starting point from where the dumpy level reading
started.
● Position the compass at the other point and center the compass along the North
direction.
● Take the fore bearing of that point.
● Now move the ranging rod and place at the point where compass was earlier.
● Centre the compass at the first point along the north direction
● Take the back bearing.
● Perform a check the difference should be 1800.
● Measure the distance between the two points. Follow the same points that are taken
by dumpy level and note down the fore bearing and back bearing.
2.15 Canal Alignment

The purpose of the canal is to irrigate the cultivated land to fulfil the other
requirements. The dimension of all the canal work and proposed band is designed keeping in
view the water requirements on the other side. To regulate the water and to get smooth flow
of water, sharp curves in the canal alignment is avoided. Fields are utilized for cultivation,
transportation of small water carriers and also for irrigation purposes. Cross section of canal is
trapezoidal. The slope is so maintained so as to have a smooth flow and to avoid scouring and
silting of the canal bed.

Canal alignment is to run through shortest possible route but irrigate most of the areas.
The length of canal is such case is very short but a revenue land available is much more for
irrigation. Accordingly, the losses due to percolation, infiltration, evaporation and other
wastages are abnormally reduced.
A section of canal is said to be most economical when the canal is minimum. But the
cost of construction of canal depends upon the lining. To keep the cost down or minimum the
wetted perimeter for a given discharge should be minimum.
Alignment
After construction of tank the water stored in the tank has to flow through the canal
for irrigating the command area. The slope of the is an important factor. The slope to be
provided should be such that the water shall flow with non-scouring and non-silting velocity.
The nature of soil is to be taken into account to fix the gradient of the canal with physical
verification of the type of soil in the command area gradient of 1 in 2000 has been fixed.
Specifications
● Canal is aligned in a falling contour
● Depth of cut should be minimum
● There should be few cross drainage works
● Straight canal is preferred and curves are avoided as for as possible.
Procedure
● A reconnaissance survey of the canal alignment and its adjoining catchment area is
made.
● The R.L. of the starting point is determined.
● The longitudinal section and cross section are taken at every 20m intervals and the
cross sections are at intervals of 2m and 4m on either side.

● Block leveling is carried out at the places where the canal crosses the stream or any other
water bodies.
● A canal drop is provided when there is a sudden large drop in the bed level of the canal
section occurs. Water cushioning should be provided for the dissipation of the extra energy.
● After canal drop the next alignment begins with the R.L. of the center line point of the last
peg and the next points on the center line are thus located.
● Care should be taken to change the points such that the sharp curves in the alignment
are completely avoided. As for as possible, a smooth canal alignment should be

adopted.
Procedure for Alignment of Canal
● Keep the ranging road at the starting point from where the dumpy level reading
started.
● Position the compass at the other point and center the compass along the North
direction.
● Take the fore bearing of that point.
● Now move the ranging rod and place at the point where compass was earlier.
● Centre the compass at the first point along the north direction
● Take the back bearing.
● Perform a check the difference should be 1800.
● Measure the distance between the two points
● Follow the same points that are taken by dumpy level and note down the fore bearing
and back bearing.

2.16 Mother Valley

While constructing the Bund we are diverting the natural flow of the river and making
it to flow the way where the reservoir is being constructed. Once, the reservoir is completely
filled then the excess water starts to spills over the Bund making the downstream side flooded
with water. If this water is not channelized properly, it will be a wastage of the natural
resource. So, we need to allow that water to again join the mother valley. In order to trace the
path that the water will flow mother valley project is done By making use of the data collected
from the
2.17 Design details of NTP
2.17.1 Details of Storage Reservoir

Catchment Area of Tank 2000 hectares (20 km2)
Area Irrigated 272.844 hectares
Proposed crop pattern Wet crops and vegetables
Average annual rainfall 80 mm (assumed)
2.17.2 Details of Bund:
Type of Bund Homogenous type earthen dam
Length of bund 104.50 m
Maximum height of bund 14.285 m
Top bund Level (TBL) 940.000 m
Maximum Water Level(MWL) 938.000 m
Full tank Level (FTL) 934.000 m

Lowest Bed Level (LBL) 925.715 m
Top width of bund 6m
Upstream slope 2.5:1
Downstream slope 2:1
Rock Toe provided
Upstream pitching 50 cm thick stone revetment over
10 cm thick gravel backing
2.17.3 Details of Waste Weir:
Type Board Crested Surplus

Crest Level 918 m
Waste Weir Length 43.92m
Top width of Weir 2.000m
Bottom width of Weir 1.100m
2.17.4 Design of main channel
Channel of taking RL 925.715 m
Longitudinal Gradient provided 1:1000
Bottom width of Channel 3.580 m
Depth of Water 0.520 m
Side slope 1.0 H:1.0 V
Free Board 0.200 m
Canal Length Surveyed 50 m

2.18
Design of Bund
The available volume of water by Rain in the catchment area is to be stored on the
river basin in the upstream side. The volume of water that can be stored at different level is
determined only after tracing the capacity contour keep in view of yearly yield of water and
the freeboard for the required height of dam is fixed. T.B.L 940.00 m.
Height of Bund
H = Highest RL – Lowest RL
H = 940.00 – 925.715
H = 14.285m
Maximum depth of water stored (H) = 14.285m
Height of freeboard required = 0.25 x (H+0.58)
= 0.983 m
Provide a free board of height of 1.5m
Top Width
As the height of the dam (H=10.730 m) is less than 15 m, the bound has to be designed as
a small dam.
T = (0.2 x H) + 3
T = (0.2 x 14.285) + 3
6m
Side slope

Sl. Type of material U/S D/S

No. slop slop
e e
1 Homogeneous well graded 2.5:1 2:1
2 Homogeneous coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1
3 Homogeneous silt clay
2.5:1 2:1
● Ht. less than 15 m
3:1 2.5:1
● Ht. more than 15 m
4 Sand/Gravel with central 3:1 2.5:1

clay core
Adjusting side slopes for homogeneous well graded material from the above table U/S = 2.5 and
D/S = 2:1
Free Board
Adopt 2 m because our bund height lies between 7.5 m to 15 m
Bottom width of bund (L) = 6.0 + (14.285 x 2.5) + (14.285 x 2) = 70.28 m 70 m
TABLE AS PER STORAGE RECOMMENDATIONS
Sl. No. Height of the dam (m) Maximum free board (m)
1 Up to 4.5 1.2-1.5
2 4.5 to 7.5 15-1.8
3 7.5 to 15 1.85
4 15 to 22.5 2.1
Channel Design
From Top sheet

Assuming, CCA = 40 hectares
PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN:
Crops Base
Area Delta() Discharge Volume
cultivate period Duty(D)
(A) 8.64*(B/ Q=A/D V=A*
d (B) (hec/cumec)
(hec) D) (cumec) (hec-m)
(days)
86
Rice 1.2 120 120 0.00138 1.44
5
0.00055
Maize 1 135 1794 65 0.5
7
Vegetable 0.00034 0.270
0.6 90 1728 45
s 7 0
0.00025
Wheat 1.4 180 1851 84 1.17
6
Total discharge for Kharif crops = 0.00138+0.000557 = 0.001937 cumecs
Total discharge for Rabi crops = 0.000347+0.000756= 0.001103 cumecs
Total discharge = 0.00304cumecs
Reservoir Capacity (at MWL) = 61085.212 + 35004.96 m3/yr
= 11522.88 m3/yr
Evaporation loss = 10% of Reservoir capacity= 0.1 x 11522.88 = 1152.3 m3/yr
Total Discharge through CANAL = 11522.88 - 1152.28=10,370.6 m^3
= 10.370 x 103 m =0.00036TMC
Design of Canal:-
Design Discharge = 10.370*103 m3
Canal bed slope = 1:1000
Manning's Roughness co-efficient n = 0.0225
{m = 1.1 to 1.2 for coarse material
= 0.8 to 0.9 for fine materials}
Assuming D = 1.00m
V0 = 0.55*m*D0.64

V0 = 0.55*1*10.64
Assuming Side slope of canal as 1H:1V
To find the area of channel
Q=AV
Assuming Q = 1m3/sec
A=Q/0.55 = 1/0.55
A= 1.81m2
=2m2
A = BD + D2/2 = 2m2
= B*1 + 12/2 = 2m2
B = 2 – 7/4
B = 1.31m
Actual Discharge = Q = A*V
= 1.81*0.55
Q = 1m3/sec
● Wetted perimeter
P= 4.75Q
= 4.741
P= 4.75m
● Depth of channel
D= (P- (P²-6.944*A))/3.472
= (4.75- (4.75²-6.944*2))/3.472 = 0. 52 m
● Base width of channel
B= P-2.236*D
= 4.74-2.236*0.522
B= 3.58m
2.19.1 Design of waste weir

Using Ryve’s equation,

Q = C x A (2/3) (Take catchment area = 20.0 km2)

Q = 9.0 x (20) (2/3) (c = 9.0)
Q = 86.93 cumecs
2.19.2 Length of waste weir

We have discharge equation over a rectangular weir
(3/2)
Q = 2/3 x 0.67 x L x 2gH
L = 43.92 m
2.19.3 Body wall of waste weir (Concrete)

Top width = 2.0 m
Sloping towards Downstream side (i.e., 1H:1V)
2.19.4 Top width of bund

A = 0.55H1/3+0.2H for dams lower than 30o (where, H is the height of dam)
= 0.55 x 14.285/2 + 0.2*14.285
Thus, top width of abutment is 6.8 m
2.20 Phreatic Line

Phreatic line is defined as the lines within a dam section below which there all
hydrostatic pressure in the dam. The hydraulic pressure line is atmospheric. Determine
the position of phreatic line as its position will enable us to determine the followings:
● It gives us a divide line belt. The dry and submerged soil, the soil above the seepage
line will be taken as dry and the soil below the seepage line shall be taken as submerged
for compulsion of shear strength of soil.
● It represents the top stream line and hence helps us in drawing the flow net.
● The seepage line determination helps us to ensure that it does not down face of the dam.
There are two conditions for the phreatic line in the dam:

● Full flow
● Sudden draw down
Full flow
When the reservoir is full and there is steady seepage at its maximum rate. This
type of situation occurs in the rainy season then the phreatic line of earth dam is
maximum and calculated.
Sudden draw down

The most critical condition at which reservoir is suddenly emptied without
allowing appreciable drainage from the saturated soil mass. This condition is known as
sudden draw down at this time due to decrease in the water at the upstream side the
preparation of the earth dam also decrease the height of the phreatic line which is cellular.
2.20.1 LENGTH OF FILTER

We have to provide a downstream drainage system for our bund to drain out the seepage water.
They are constructed of material appreciably more pervious than the embankment soil.
Providing filter zones at D/S Sides have two purposes:
● It reduces pore water pressure in the D/S portion of the dam and hence increases stability
● It checks piping by checking migration of particles

Figure 1. Phreatic line with horizontal drainage filter
2.20.2 Calculation for the Length of Filter

It may be kept horizontal drainage filter. (25 to 100 % of the distance from toe to the
center line of the dam or the bund).
Adopt 40%
● Length of filter
40% x distance from toe to center line

40% x 70.2/2
Lf = 14.04m
● Determination of seepage line
Coefficient of permeability of dam material (k) = 1.4 X 10-6m/sec

Top bund level 940.000 m
Deepest point of bund 925.715 m
Maximum water level 938.000 m
Top width of bund 6m
Side slope
2.5:1
● Upstream Slope

2:1
● Downstream Slope
(Length of horizontal filter from d/s Toe of dam = 14.04m)
The following are the steps in the graphical determination of the top flow line for a
homogeneous dam with a toe filter:
● Draw the earth dam section and upstream water level (H) to some convenient
scale.
● Locate Point-B, the point on the upstream slope coinciding with water level. Let Δ be the
horizontal distance between point- B and upstream heel of the dam. Locate Point-A at a
distance of 0.3 times Δ from Point-B on the water surface. That is distance AB is 0.3Δ
[Refer to Figure 2]
● Select F as the focus of the parabolic phreatic line, Point-F is located at the intersection of
the bottom flow line and the downstream toe filter. Let horizontal distance between
points A & F bed i.e., AF = d
Figure 2
● Locate Point-G on the directrix of the parabola, located a distance 2P from the
focal point, Point F, that is FG = 2P where, [Refer to Figure 3]

1
p= × √ d + H −d
2 2
2

Figure 3
● Select base of the dam and directrix as X & Z axes.
● By choosing suitable values of z-ordinates (for example; 0.2H, 0.4H … & H)
compute the ordinates of the base parabola using the relation,

2
z−4 p
x=
4p
Thus, z1, z2, z3, z4, …. are computed for the ordinates x1, x2, x3, x4 … respectively. (Refer
Figure 4)
Figure 4

● Join all such located points to get basic parabola. This parabola meets toe filter
(equipotential line) orthogonally at midpoint of FG that is at a distance p from F

(vertex K of the parabola).
● Joint points K-0-1-2-3-4-A to get parabola ABK [Refer to Figure 5]
Figure 5
● Apply modification to phreatic line at the entry Point-B on the upstream slope which is
an equipotential line. Draw line perpendicular to upstream slope starting from B and
meets the base parabola smoothly and tangentially at a convenient point say, C. Complete
the phreatic line BCK (top flow line) by joining BC erase remaining portion of the base
parabola [Refer to Figure 6]
DSCE
Figure 6

Finally, the quantity of seepage flow through may be compute from the following equations, Let
the distance between F and G is S. i.e., the distance between focus and directrix, S=2× p
Then the quantity of seepage through unit length of dam is, Q = KS = k × (2× p) =2kp
Where, k is the coefficient of permeability of the dam material.

Δ = (H/ Tan α) = (14/tan 40) = 16.68 m
AB = 0.3 m
Δ = 0.3 x 30.7125 = 9.213m
d = 72.2-14.04-9.213+(0.3 x 9.213)
d = 49.71 m
X (m) Z (m)
0 2.8
5 5.98
10 7.98
15 9.58
20 10.94
25 12.16
30 13.26
33.5 14.00
● Quantity of seepage through unit length of dam is,
P=0.5√ d 2+ h2 -d
=0.747m
q = KS = k × (2 × p) k=1.2 x 10-6
q = 2kp
q = 1.2 x 10-6 x 2 x 0.747

q = 1.79x 10-6 m2/sec
● Quantity of seepage through dam
Q=qxL
Q = 1.79 x 10-6 x 1.135
Q = 2.03 x 10-6 m3/sec
Sl Depth Depth Mean Slope Volume of Volume

Rectangular Total Area Length
N Chainage GL TBL of of Dept Area cutting of filling
Area BD A=(BD+SD2) (L)
O Cutting Filling h SD2 (M3) (M3)
1 0 940 940 - 0 - - - - - - -
2 10 936.685 940 - 3.315 1.658 9.95 6.18 16.13 10.00 - 161.26
3 20 929.655 940 - 10.345 6.83 40.98 104.96 145.94 10.00 - 1459.40
4 30 930.555 940 - 9.445 9.895 59.37 220.30 279.67 10.00 - 2796.70
5 40 925.715 940 - 14.285 11.87 71.19 316.75 387.94 10.00 - 3879.41
6 50 926.98 940 - 13.02 13.65 81.91 419.38 501.29 10.00 - 5012.94
7 60 928.915 940 - 11.085 12.05 72.32 326.84 399.16 10.00 - 3991.56
8 70 930.03 940 - 9.97 10.53 63.17 249.36 312.53 10.00 - 3125.29
9 80 931.8 940 - 8.2 9.085 54.51 185.71 240.22 10.00 - 2402.19
10 90 935.9 940 - 4.1 6.15 36.90 85.10 122.00 10.00 - 1220.01
11 100 939.865 940 - 0.135 2.118 12.71 10.09 22.79 10.00 - 227.94
12 104.5 940 940 - 0 0.067 0.40 0.01 0.42 4.50 - 1.87
TOTAL VOLUME 24278.56
=
Total work in filling 24278.56 m3
2.21 Conclusion
● The survey carried out at Sri Melkote village is found to be ideal for the
construction of a new tank at SR valley site.
● The earthen embankment with U/S 2:1 and D/S 2.5:1 is safe, with total earthwork
infilling of Bund is 24278.56 m3.
● Quantity of seepage through dam is Q = 2.03 x 10-6 m3/sec












OLD TANK PROJECT
“Underlying many aspects of water development is a myth:

the myth that we must have more.”
― Tim Palmer, Endangered Rivers and the Conservation Movement

3.0 INTRODUCTION
3.1 Restoration Project

In the restoration project as the name itself suggests the basic aim is to restore the basic
capacity of tank to its original decreased capacity due to silting and other weathering actions. All
rivers may carry certain quantity of sediments (sediment load), which is produced due to erosion
in the catchment area. The amount of sediment in a reservoir depends on the extent of erosion in
its catchment area, which depends on the following factors:
● Nature of soil in the catchment area
● Topography in the catchment area
● Vegetable cover
● Intensity of rainfall
The nature of soil in the catchment area is an important factor affecting silting. If the soil is in the
catchment area of river is loose and easily erodible, the rivers will begin to carry larger amount
of sediment. On the other hand, catchments which is hard will not erode easily. Further steep
slope of the catchments gives rise to high flow velocities causing more erosion of the soil as such
catchments having steep slope will bring more sediment. Similarly, the catchment area will carry
more sediment and the catchment area having thick vegetable cover will produce less sediment.
Furthermore, higher the intensity of rainfall in the catchment area, greater the velocity and hence,
more will be the erosion which results in more collection of sediments.
3.2 Sediment Load

The sediment load carried is divided into following types:
● Bed Load
● Suspended Load

Hence, A restoration project includes a detailed report of existing features and includes a
reconnaissance of the area that are there to be irrigated after restoring and area possible area of
submergence. Though, there are various alternatives for restoring the tank capacity to its original
but the simplest method which is approved by all is the method of dredging. The method of
dredging involves the removal of sediment either by excavation (or) its range usage that if other
reason it becomes necessary to construct a new tank.
At Dhalavayi kere, the old existing tank is in Melukote. The tank is incapable of
supplying water for efficient irrigation and hence, it is proposed to enhance its efficient capacity.
Thus, the project also involves the estimation of earth work required.
The method selected for computation of the area depends upon the shape of the tract and
accuracy required. The areas of figure like triangles, rectangles etc. can be determined from the
dimensions in the plan. If the boundaries are irregular, these are replaced by short straight
boundaries and the area is determined using appropriate methods. These areas of irregular shapes
can be determined by the means of a planimeter. The planimeter is also commonly used to check
the areas computed by other methods.
3.3 Units
In S.I. unit system, area is measured in square meters, hectares, or square kilometers.
1 hectare = 104 m2
1 km2 = 106 m2 = 100 hectares
3.4 Methods used for Computation of Areas
● Triangle Method
● Mid-ordinate rule
● Average-ordinate rule
● Trapezoidal rule
● Simpson’s rule

● Meridian distance method
● Double parallel distance method
● Coordinates method
● Approximate method
3.4.1 Trapezoidal Rule

In this method, the tract is divided into several trapezoids and the area of each trapezoid
is determined separately.
The area is calculated as follows:
O 1+O 2 O2+O 3 O 3+O 4

A= + + +…
2d 2d 2d
In general,
O 1+On+1
A= +O 2+O3+ …+On
2
L
Where, d = common distance =
n
L = length of the base
n = number of segments
Therefore, in trapezoidal rule, the area is equal to the product of the common distance ‘d’ with the
sum of the intermediate ordinates and the average of two end ordinates.
Alternatively,
2A = d [ O1+On+1+2(O1+O2+… .+On)]
Thus, twice the area is equal to the product of the common distance ‘d’ with the sum of the end
ordinates and twice the intermediate ordinates. While using the trapezoidal rule, the end ordinates
must be considered even if they happen to zero. The trapezoidal rule is more accurate than mid-
ordinate rule and the average-ordinate rule.

● Trapezoidal rule
● Simpson’s rule
● Meridian distance method
● Double parallel distance method
● Coordinates method
● Approximate methods
3.4.2 Simpson’s Rule

Simpson’s rule may be stated as follows:
The sum of the first and last ordinates add four times the sum of even ordinates and twice the
sum of odd the ordinates and multiply the total sum by one-third the common distance d to get the
total area’’. It may be noted that the rule is applicable only when there are odd number of offsets. If
the offsets are even in number, the Simpson rule can be applied to determine the area up to the last
but one segment. The area of the last segment is determined separately and added to the area
obtained by the Simpson’s rule to calculate the total area.
3.5 Computation of Volumes

The computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurement done in the field is
required in the design and planning of many engineering works. The volume of earthwork is required
for the selection of a suitable alignment for a road, a canal, or a sewer. The volume of earthwork is
also required for the preparation of the estimates and for the payment of materials the computation of
volume of water stored in a reservoir is required for its design, planning and management. It is also
required for estimation of the capacity of the tanks, bins etc. The direct computation of the volume
from the measurement of length, width and depth is not feasible for large engineering works. The
computation of the volume of the earthwork is generally done after computing the areas of various
cross-sections. Sometimes, spot levels of the ground are taken to estimate the volume of earthwork.
For the estimation of the volume of water in a reservoir, the contour map is generally used.

3.6 Computation of Area of Cross-section

For estimation of the volume of earthwork, cross-sections are taken at right angles to a center
line, which runs longitudinally through the earthwork. The volume of earthwork between successive
sections is determined from the areas of various cross-sections. The basic problem in the computation
of the volume of the earthwork is therefore to determine the cross-section areas. The method of
computation of cross-sections will depend on the type of cross-sections.
The following five types of cross-sections generally occur in practice:
● Level sections
● Two level sections
● Side hill two level sections
● Three level sections
● Multi-level sections
3.6.1 Two Level section in Filling

Given figure shows a two-level section in filling. It can be shown that the expressions for
areas developed for two-level sections in cutting are also applicable to the two-level sections in
filling. However, in this case
w1 = (b/2+nh) x m/(m+n) h1= h-(w1/m)
w1 = (b/2+nh) x m/(m+n) h2= h+(w2/m)

Figure 1: Two-level section in filling
3.6.2 Prismoidal Formula

The volume ΔV of a Prismoidal is given by,
D
ΔV = × (A1 + 4Am + A2)
6
Where,
A1 & A2 are the end areas
Am is the area of section situated midway
D is the distance between the sections
The above equation can be applied to determine the volume of earthwork. Treating alternate sections
as end sections and taking the length of each Prismoidal as 2D, the total volume is given by
2D 2D
V= × (A1 + 4A2 + A3) + × (A3 + 4A4)
6 6
D
V= × (A1 + An) + (A2 + A4 +….) + 2 (A3 + A5 + A7)
3

This formula is applicable only when the number of sections ‘n’ is an odd number. When ‘n’ is even
number, the volume up to (n-1) sections should be determined. The last section may be determined
separately by trapezoidal formula.
CAPACITY CONTOUR
Figure 2: Capacity Contour of OTP
TABLE 1: CAPACITY CONTOUR

SL. NO. CONTOUR RL CONTOUR AREA MEAN AREA VOLUME
(m) INTERVAL (m2)
(m2) (m3)
1 963.00 1.9 802.113
2 961.015 0.89 864.914 833.513 833.513
3 960.116 0.89 960.115 912.514 1746.027
TOTAL = 2579.54 m3

TABLE 2: EARTHWORK QUANTITY ESTIMATE FOR PROPOSED

BUND
CHAINAGE NATURAL TOP DEPTH MEAN BEADTH GROSS LENGTH QUANTITY
GROUND BUND DEPTH AREA OF
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m3)
2
LEVEL (m) LEVEL (m) C/S (m )
(m)
0 961.542 963.00 1.458 - - - - -
30 960.969 963.00 2.031 1.744 6.0 10.464 30 313.92
60 960.670 963.00 2.330 2.180 6.0 13.08 30 392.4
90 961.277 963.00 1.723 4.053 6.0 24.318 30 729.54
120 961.570 963.00 1.43 1.576 6.0 9.456 30 283.68
150 960.845 963.00 2.155 1.792 6.0 10.752 30 322.56
180 960.860 963.00 2.14 2.147 6.0 12.882 30 386.46
210 960.527 963.00 2.473 2.30 6.0 13.8 30 414
240 960.670 963.00 2.33 2.401 6.0 14.406 30 432.18
270 960.815 963.00 2.185 2.257 6.0 13.542 30 406.26
300 961.277 963.00 1.723 1.954 6.0 11.724 30 315.72
330 961.668 963.00 1.332 1.527 6.0 9.162 30 294.36
360 961.728 963.00 1.272 1.302 6.0 7.812 30 234.36
390 960.925 963.00 2.075 1.673 6.0 10.038 30 301.14
420 960.812 963.00 2.188 2.131 6.0 12.786 30 383.58
450 961.081 963.00 1.919 2.053 6.0 12.318 30 369.54
TOTAL = 5579.66 m3

TABLE 3: VOLUME OF EXISTING BUND

CHAINAGE GROUND GROUND FILLING MEAN BREADTH GROSS LENGTH QUANTITY
LEVEL WATER DEPTH AREA
(m) (m) (m) (m3)
LEVEL
(m) (m2)
0 961.542 960.300 1.242 - - - - -
30 960.969 960.300 0.669 0.96 6.00 5.76 30 172.8
60 960.670 960.300 0.37 0.52 6.00 3.12 30 93.6
90 961.277 960.300 0.977 0.67 6.00 4.02 30 120.6
120 961.570 960.300 1.27 1.123 6.00 6.738 30 202.14
150 960.845 960.300 0.545 0.91 6.00 5.46 30 163.8
180 960.860 960.300 0.56 0.55 6.00 3.3 30 99
210 960.527 960.300 0.227 0.4 6.00 2.4 30 72
240 960.670 960.300 0.37 0.3 6.00 1.8 30 54
270 960.815 960.300 0.515 0.44 6.00 2.64 30 79.2
300 961.277 960.300 0.977 0.75 6.00 4.5 30 135
330 961.668 960.300 1.368 1.17 6.00 7.02 30 210.6
360 961.728 960.300 1.428 1.398 6.00 8.388 30 251.64
390 960.925 960.300 0.625 1.02 6.00 6.12 30 183.6
420 960.812 960.300 0.512 0.56 6.00 3.36 30 100.8
450 961.081 960.300 0.781 0.65 6.00 3.9 30 117
TOTAL = 2055.78 m3
Quantity of Soil Require to Restore Existing Bund

= Volume of predesigned bund – volume of existing bund

= 5579.66 – 2055.78
= 3523.88 m3
3.7 CONCLUSION:
Bund is substantially increased by 1m.
● Volume of Earthwork required to restore Bund = 5579.66 m3
● Volume of Earthwork required to restore Bund =3523.88 m3
● Cost required to Retrofit and restore bund is ₹ 4,91,75,487.03 @ ₹ 9,546.21/m
For 1m height of bund 3523.88 m3 volume of area will be submerge






HIGHWAY
The road to success is always under construction. it is a

progressive course, not an end to be reached
Tony Robbins

4.0 INTRODUCTION
4.1 Role of Transportation

Transportation is a non-separable part of any society. It exhibits a very close relation
to the style of life, the range and location of activities and the goods and services which will
be available for consumption. Advances in transportation has made possible changes in the
way of living and the way in which societies are organized and therefore have a great
influence in the development of civilizations. The inadequate transportation facilities retard
the process of the socio – economic development of the country. The adequacy of the
transportation system of a country indicates its economic and social development.
4.2 Economic activity and Transport

The economic activities are the processes by means of which the products are utilized
to satisfy the human wants. Two important factors well known in economic activity are:
● Production or Supply
● Consumption for human wants and demand
In the production stage, good transportation is required for the transporting raw materials
from site where it is available to the site where finished products are made.
In the consumption stage, increase in productivity and its efficient transportation can reduce
the cost of the product.
Man, and his products are thus not bound to his local surroundings. The importance
of the transportation in economic activity is to be founds in its effects on both human wants
for the good and satisfaction through production and distribution. While discussing the
general effects of the transportation, it may be said that the increased productivity and its
efficient transportation can lower the cost of the products. The transportation cost is always
an influencing factor on consumer price commodities.
4.3 Effect of Transportation

Progress follows the line of the transportation. Population has always settled along
the river shoes, road sides and near railway stations. In the present concept of the
transportation network, this kind of the ribbon development is greatly discouraged. Attempts

are being made to decentralize the population centers away from the sides of the main
transportation routes.
The various effects of the transportation may be further classified as follows:
● Sectionalism and transportation.
● Concentration of populations into urban area.
● Aspect of safety, law, and order.
4.4 Characteristics of Road Transport

It is an accepted fact that of all the modes of the transportation, road transport is the
nearest to the people. The passengers and the goods must be first transported by road before
reaching a railway station or a port or an airport. The road network alone could serve the
remotest villages of the vast country like ours.
● Roads are used by the various types of the road vehicles like passenger cars, buses,
trucks, two and three wheeled automobiles, pedal cycles, and animal drawn vehicles.
But railway tracks are used by the rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used
by only ships and boats, airway is only used be the aircrafts.
● Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Motor
vehicles are much cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotives and wagons,
water, and air carriers. Construction and maintenance of the roads is also cheaper
than that of the railway tracks, docks, harbors, and airports.
● Road transport offers a complete freedom to the road users to transfer the vehicle
from one lane to another and from one road to the according to the need and
convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed, and timings of
the travel is not available to other modes of the transportation.
● For short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop at junctions and main
stations for the comparatively longer time.

● Speed of the movement is directly related with the severity of accident. The road
safety decreases with increasing dispersion in speed. Road transport is subjected to a

high degree of accidents due to the flexibility of movements offered to the road users.
● Road transport is the only means of the transport that offers itself to the whole
community alike.
4.5 Highway Planning
4.5.1 Objectives
● To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum cost
● To arrive at the road system which could provide maximum utility
● To fix up data wise priorities for development of each road link
● To plan for future requirements and improvements of road in view of anticipated
developments
● To work out financing systems
4.5.2 Planning survey

It involves:
● Economic studies
● Financial studies
● Traffic or road use studies
● Engineering studies
4.5.3 Highway Alignment

The position or the layout of the center line of the highway on the ground is called as
the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations,

and curves. Changes in the gradient and vertical curves are covered under the vertical
alignment of the roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in
the one or more of the following disadvantages:
● Increase in the construction cost.
● Increase in the maintenance cost.
● Increase in the vehicle operation cost.
● Increase in the accident rate.
4.6 Ideal Alignment of Highway

The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between the two terminal stations are
that it should be:
● Short: It is desirable to have a short alignment between the two terminal stations. A
straight alignment would be shortest, though there may be several practical

considerations which would cause deviations from the shortest path
● Easy: The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain the road
with the minimum problems. Also, the alignment should be easy for the operation of
the vehicles with the easy gradients and curves.
● Safe: The alignment should be safe enough for the construction and maintenance
from the view point of the stability of the natural hill slopes, embankment and cut
slopes and foundation of the embankments.
● Economical: The road alignment could be considered economical only if the total
cost including the initial cost, maintenance cost and the vehicle operation cost is
lowest.
All these factors should be given due consideration before working out the economics of
each alignment.

4.7 Factors Controlling Alignment

The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed
as:
● Obligatory points.
● Traffic.
● Geometric design.
● Economics.
● Other consideration.
In hill roads additional care must be given for:
● Stability.
● Drainage.
● Geometric standards of hill roads.
4.7.1 Obligatory Points

These are the control points governing the alignment of the highways. These
control points may be divided broadly into the two categories.
● Points through which the alignment is to pass.
● Points through which the alignment should not pass.
Obligatory points through which the road alignment must pass may cause the
alignment to often deviate from the shortest or the easiest path. The various examples of
this category may be bridging site, intermediate town, a mountain pass, or a quarry.
Obligatory points through which the road should not pass also may make it necessary
to deviate from the proposed shortest alignment. The obligatory points which should be

avoided while aligning the road includes religious places, very costly structures,
unsuitable land, etc.
Religious places like temples, mosque, church, grave or tomb have been protected by
the law from being acquired for any purpose. Acquiring the costly structure would mean
heavy compensation resulting in the increased cost. Marshy, peaty, and water-logged
areas are generally unsuitable for the road construction and should be avoided as far as
possible.
4.7.2 Traffic
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Origin and destination study
should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the trend of the
traffic flow. The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic
flow patterns and the future trends.
4.7.3 Geometric Design

Geometric design factors such as the gradient, radius of the curve and the sight
distance also would govern the final alignment of the highway. If the straight alignment
is aimed at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep gradients. As far as possible
while aligning a new road, the gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient.
Thus, it may be necessary to change the alignment in view of the design speed,
maximum allowable super elevation, and the coefficient of the lateral friction. It may be
necessary to make adjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the
minimum radius of the curve and the transition curve.
4.7.4 Economy
The alignment finalized based on the above factors should also be economical. In
working out the economics, the initial cost, the maintenance cost and the vehicle
operation cost should be taken into the account. The initial cost of the construction can
be decreased if the high embankments and deep cuttings are avoided and the alignment is
chosen in a manner to balance the cutting and filling.

4.7.5 Other Consideration

Various other factors which may govern the alignment are the drainage
considerations, hydrological factors, political considerations, and the monotony.
The vertical alignment is often guided by the drainage considerations. The

subsurface water level, seepage flow and high flood level are the factors to be kept in the
view. A foreign territory coming across a straight alignment will necessitate deviation of
the alignment around the foreign land. At some times the alignment is decided only on
the strategic considerations.
In a flat terrain it is possible to have a very long stretch of the road, straight
without the horizontal curve. But straight road of very long stretch may be monotonous
for the driving. Hence after a few kilometers of straight road, it may be desirable to have
a slight bend to break the monotony and keep the driver alert.
4.7.6 Drainage
Numerous hill side drains should be provided for the adequate drainage facility
across the road. But the cross-drainage structure being costly, attempts should be made to
align the road in such a way where the number of the cross-drainage structures is
minimum.
4.7.7 Geometric Standards of The Hill Roads

Different sets of the geometric standards are followed in the hill roads with
reference to gradient, curves and speed and they consequently influence the sight
distance, radius of the curve and other related features. The route should enable the
ruling gradient to be attained in most of the length, minimizing steep gradients, hair pin
bands and needless rise and fall.
4.8 Engineering survey for highway alignment

Before a highway alignment is finalized in the highway track. The engineering
surveys are carried out. The surveys may be completed in the four stages. The first three
stages consider all the possible alternative alignment
● Map study.

● Reconnaissance survey.
● Preliminary survey.
● Final location and the detailed survey.
4.8.1 Map Study

If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely
routes of the road. In India topographic maps are available from the survey of India, with
15 or 30 meter of contour intervals. The main features like rivers, hill, valleys, etc are
also shown on these maps. By careful study of the maps, it is possible to have an idea of
several possible alternate routes so that further details of these may be studied later at the
site. The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details
available on the map.
● Alignment avoiding valley, ponds, or lakes.
● When the road must cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a
mountainous pass.
● Approximate location of the bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river
● When a road is to be connected between the two stations, one at the top and one at
the bottom of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the
permissible gradient.
4.8.2 Reconnaissance Survey

The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to
examine the general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for the
detailed studies. A field survey party may inspect a broad stretch of land along the
proposed alternative routes of the map in the field. Only very instrument like dumpy
level, tangent clinometers, barometer, etc. are used by the reconnaissance party to collect
additional details rapidly. All relevant details not available in the map are collected and

noted down. Some of the details to be collected during the reconnaissance are given
below:
● Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures, and other
obstructions along the route which are not available in the map.
● Approximate value of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of the
alternate alignments.
● Number and type of cross drainage structure, maximum flood level and natural
ground water level along the probable routes.
● Soil type along the routes from the field identification tests and observation of the
geological features.
● Sources of the construction materials, water, and location of the stone quarries.
When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding the
geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow, etc. may be observed to
decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment. A rapid
reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult may be
done by an aerial survey.
From the details collected during the reconnaissance, the alignment proposed after
study may be altered or even changed completely. As a result of the reconnaissance a
few alternate alignments may be chosen for the further study based on the practical
considerations observed at the site.
4.8.3 Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:
● To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and
to collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography and
drainage.

● To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good
alignment.
● To estimate the quantity of the earth work materials and other constructions
aspects and to work out the cost of the alternate proposals.
● To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.
● The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical information which
is necessary in connection with the proposed highway alignment. The preliminary

survey may be carried out by any one of the following methods:
● Conventional approach, in which a survey parts carried out surveys using the
required field equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and

other data and carrying out the soil survey.
● Modern rapid approach, by serial survey taking the required aerial photographs
and by the photogrammetry methods and photo interpretation techniques for

obtaining the necessary topographic and other maps including the details of the
soil and geology.
4.8.4 Final Location Survey

The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be
first located on the field by establishing the Centre line. Next detailed survey should be
carried out for collecting the information necessary for the preparation of the plans and
construction details for the highway project.
4.8.5 Location
The centerline of the road finalized in the drawings is to be translated on the
ground during the location survey. This is done using a total station and by staking of the
Centre line. The location of the Centre line should follow as closely as practicable, the
alignment finalized after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are
established on the ground and the Centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric design
requirements. However, modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if

found essential. The Centre line stakes are driven at suitable intervals say at 50m
intervals in plain and rolling terrains and at 20m in hilly terrains.
4.9 Instruments Required for Surveys
● Leveling instruments with stand and leveling staff for profile.
● Compass or plane table with accessories.
● Arrows, chains, tapes, cross staff, ranging rods, pegs etc.
4.10 Office Work from Field Data

Reduced levels are computed from field data by Height of Instrument rise and fall
method for all the observed levels of longitudinal sections, cross sections and block
leveling in the field book. Page checks for R.L’s computed must be carried out to ensure
correct entry and calculating. Details of physical features, computed R.L’s, observed
bearings for the center line etc. are to be transferred to drawings as required in a
standard.
4.11 Drawings to Be Prepared
4.11.1 Index Map

Details are to be presented by a neat and proportionate free hand sketch, showing
various alignments considered for connection station points, obligatory points, physical
features like land, valleys, ponds, streams, buildings etc. using appropriate symbols on a
sheet of size 30X20 CMS.
4.11.2 Initial Alignment Plan

This is drawn to scale of 1:1000m generally or as specified. The plan shows
center line alignment with bearings R. Ls along L/S and C/S, chainages, stream crossings
and all the physical features surveyed. The details are represented on a standard size
drawing sheet ink in Black, North line is represented for reference.

4.11.3 Final Alignment Plan

Finalized alignment details after the designs are shown in red ink on the initial
alignment plan sheet only. Horizontal curves, transition curves designed are presented in
green ink with radius, length etc. and are numbered. Final center line alignment with
designed curves is marked clearly from station points connecting obligatory points.
4.11.4 Road Plan

Road plan is drawn on a separate sheet to a scale of 1:1000 by transferring the
final alignment preferably showing existing features and formation width and right of
way along the alignment finalized.
4.12 Survey Objectives
● To trace the initial and final alignment of highway in the field
● To obtain the longitudinal and cross-sectional profile of existing ground for the
alignment.
To obtain details of drawing works, soil types, terrain, and other essential features
important for highway alignment and design.
4.13 Details of Field Works
4.13.1 General
Survey work is started with carrying fly levels from a specified reference B.M to the
starting point from local B.M. (as specified). Starting point is fixed with reference to three
permanent objects by taking bearings and measurements.
4.13.2 Centre line alignment

This is carried out by stretching one chain length fully in the direction of survey
as guided by gentle and flowing gradients of the terrain. Generally gradient of 1 in 100 is
provided for plain and rolling terrains. After ensuring the direction and gradient, bearing
(FB) are taken for the center line thus fixed by using compass, frequent zig-zags, sharp
and reverse turns are avoided for center line alignment.

4.13.3 Levelling Work

To start with, fly levels are carried from a permanent B.M. to the starting point of
survey. At beginning of day’s work similarly fly levels can be carried back from the
terminal point of survey at the end of day’s work (to check errors in field work).
Leveling work for highway alignment includes:
● Longitudinal sections are taken at every 10m intervals along the center line as the
survey proceeds.
● Cross sections are taken at 30m intervals and the cross levels taken at 5m
intervals extending up to 15m on either side of center line.
4.13.4 Soil Sampling

Representative samples of soil are collected from different stretches of the
alignment for analysis and testing in the laboratory. Sampling procedure and quantities to
be obtained as specified at site.
4.13.5 Pavement Thickness Details

Minimum of three cross sections of the pavement showing the thickness of
individual layers of flexible pavement must be indicated on a separate sheet, after the
designs are finalized. It contains details of different layers like sub-base, base and
wearing coarse, stretches where such thickness is proposed are also indicated.
4.13.6 Project Report

The project report forms an important part of the project document:
● Objectives.
● Minimum geometric design standards as per IRC.
● Field work details.
● Geometric deficiency and re-design details.

● Laboratory work and graphs.
● Pavement design details.
● Mix design details.
● Estimation of quantities of materials.
● Drawings.
● Recommendations.
4.13.7 Highway Project

The new highway project work may be divided into the following stages:
● Route selection.
● Collection of materials.
● Construction stages including quality control.
4.13.8 Steps in New Project Work

The various steps in a highway project may be summarized as given below
● Map Study: With the help of available topographic maps of the area.
● Reconnaissance Survey: A general idea of the topography and other features,
field identification of the soils and survey of the construction materials by an on-
the-spot inspection of the site.
● Preliminary Survey: Topographic details and soil survey along the alternate
alignments, considerations of the geometric design and other requirements of the

alignment, preparation of the plans and comparison of the alternate routes,

economic analysis, and selection of the final alignment. Typical plan, longitudinal
section and cross section drawing for the new alignment.
● Location of the Final Alignment: Transfer of the alignment from the drawings
to the ground by driving pegs along the Centre line of finally chosen alignment,
setting out the geometric design elements by location of the tangent points, apex
points, circular and transition curves, elevation of the Centre line and super
elevation details.
● Detailed Survey: Survey of the highway construction work for the preparation of
the longitudinal and cross section, computations of the earthwork quantities and
other construction materials and checking details of the geometric design
elements.
● Material Survey: Survey of the construction materials, their collection and
testing.
● Design: Design details of the embankment and cut slopes, foundation of the
embankments and bridges and pavement layers.
● Earth Work: Excavations for the highway cutting and drawings system,
construction of the embankments.
● Pavement Construction: Preparation of the sub-grade, construction of the sub
base and surface courses.
● Construction Controls: Quality control tests during the different stages of the
construction and check for the finished road surface.
4.14 Geometric Design
4.14.1 Importance
The geometric design deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of
the highway such as alignment, sight distance and intersections.

The geometrics of the highway should be designed to provide the optimum

efficiency in traffic operations with the maximum safety at the reasonable cost. The
designer may be exposed to either planning of new highway network or improvement of
the existing highways to meet the requirement of the existing and anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct the pavement of a road in stages, but it is

very expensive and rather difficult to improve the geometric elements of the road in the
stages later. Therefore, it is important to plan and design the geometric features of the
road during the initial alignment itself taking into consideration the future growth of the
traffic flow. Geometric designs of the highway deals with the following elements:
● Cross sectional elements
● Sight distance elements
● Horizontal alignment details
● Vertical alignment details
● Intersection elements.
4.14.2 Factors Controlling the Design of The Geometric Elements

The geometric design of the highways depends upon the several designs factors. The
important of these factors which control the geometric elements are:
● Design speed
● Topography
● Traffic factors
● Designs hourly volume and capacity
● Environmental and other factors

4.14.3 Design Speed

The design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design
elements of the highways. The design speed is decided considering the overall
requirements of the highway. In India different speed standards have been assigned
depending upon the importance of the class of the road such as nation, state highway,
major/other district roads and village roads. Further the design speed standards have
modified depending upon the terrain and the topography. Design of almost every
geometric design element of a road is dependent on the design speed.
4.14.4 Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric designs of the
highway significantly. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the
country across the alignment, as plain rolling, mountainous rolling, and steep rolling. The
designs standards specified for different classes of roads are different depending upon the
terrain condition.
4.14.5 Traffic Factor

The factors associated with the traffic that affect the geometric design of the
roads are the vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road users. It is
difficult to decide the design vehicle or the standard traffic lane under the mixed traffic
flow condition especially on urban roads of the developing countries. The different
vehicle classes such as passenger cars, buses, trucks, motor cycles having different speed
and acceleration characteristics, apart from having the different dimensions and weights.
The important human factors which affect the traffic include the physical, mental, and
psychological behavior of drivers and pedestrians.
4.14.6 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity

The traffic flow or volume keeps on fluctuating from time to time, from a low
value during the off-peak hours to the highest value during the peak hour. It will be
uneconomical to design the roadway facilities for the peak flow or the highest hourly
volume traffic. Therefore, a reasonable value of traffic volume is decided for the design
and this is called ads design hourly volume.

4.14.7 Environmental and other Factors

The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution and other
local conditions should be given due to consideration in the design on the road geometrics.
Some of the arterial high-speed highways and expressways are designed for the higher speed
standards and uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing grade separated intersections and
controlled access.
4.15 Highway Cross-Sectional Element
4.15.1 Pavement Surface Characteristics

The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decided based on the
availability of the materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grade and
climatic condition. Construction facilities and cost considerations, the important surface
characteristics are the friction unevenness, light reflecting characteristics and drainage of
surface water.
4.15.2 Friction
It is a force developing in between the tires and the pavement surface during the
movement of the vehicles. Friction is important factor in determining the operating
speed, distance, requirements in stopping and accelerating the vehicles. There are two
types of frictions:
● Longitudinal friction.
● Lateral friction
Longitudinal friction occurs along the longitudinal direction (length) of the road.
Indian road congress had recommended the coefficient of friction as 0.4, considering the
worst pavement condition (wet condition). Lateral friction occurs when vehicles move
along a horizontal curve and Indian road congress has suggested a coefficient of friction
as 0.15, considering the pavement as mud surface.
Skid occurs when the wheels slide without revolving or when the wheels partially
revolve. When the brakes are applied, the wheels are locked partially of fully. If vehicle
moves forward longitudinal skidding takes place.

Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the correspondence longitudinal
movement along the roads. Slipping normally occurs when the wheel rapidly accelerates
from the stationary position or from the slow speed on pavement surface which is either
slippery or when the road surface is loose with mud.
4.16 Factors Affecting the Friction or Skid Resistance

The following are the factors affecting the friction:
● Type of pavement surface namely cement concrete, bituminous, water bound
macadam road, earth surface, etc.
● Macro-texture of the pavement surface or its relative roughness.
● Condition of the pavement namely wet or dry, smoothened, or rough, oil spilled,
mud or dry sand on pavement.
● Type and condition of tire i.e., new with good treads or smoothened and worn-out tire.
● Speed of the vehicle.
● Extent of brake application or brake efficiency.
● Load and tire pressure.
● Temperature of tire and pavement
● Type of skid.
4.17 Width of the Pavement or Carriageway

The pavement or carriageway depends on the width of traffic lane and number of
lanes. The carriageway intended for one line of traffic movement may be called a traffic
lane. The lane width is determined based on the width of vehicle and the minimum side
clearance which may be provided for the safety. When the side clearance is increased,
there is an increase in operating speed of vehicles and hence an increase in capacity of the

traffic lane. Width of 3.75 m is considered desirable for single lane for vehicles of
maximum width 2.44 m. For pavements having two or more lanes width of 3.5 m per lane
is considered sufficient. The maximum width of the vehicles as per IRC specification is 2.
44m.If a single lane carriage of width 3.8m is provided, a side clearance of 0.68m would
be obtained. In case of two-lane pavements of the width 0.7m a minimum clearance
between two lanes of traffic would be 1.06m for the widest vehicles on the road.
Table 1: Recommended Carriageway Width [ ref. Pg. 30 of IRC: SP:20-2002]
Road Classification Carriageway Width (m)
Rural Roads (ODR and VR) 3.75
4.18 Side Slopes

Side slope for rural road where embankment height less than 3.0 m is given in
table below:
Table 2: Side Slope for Rural Roads [ ref. Pg. 34 of IRC: SP:20-2002]
Condition Slope (H: V)
Embankment in silty/sandy/gravelly soil 2:1
Embankment in clay or clayey silt or inundated 21/2 to 3:1

condition
Cutting in silty/sandy/gravelly soil 1:1 to ½:1
Cutting in disintegrated rock or conglomerate ½:1 to ¼:1
Cutting in soft rock like shale ¼:1 to 1/8:1
Cutting in medium rock like sandstone, phyllite 1/12:1 to 1/16:1
Cutting in hard rock like quartzite, granite Near vertical

Table 3: Recommendation Values of Camber for Different Types of Roads Surface:
RANGE OF
CAMBER IN AREAS
SL TYPE OF ROAD SURFACE
OF RAINFALL
.
RANGE
N
(HEAVY TO LIGHT)
O
1. Cement concrete and high type 1 in 50 (2.0%) to 1 in

bituminous 60
(1.7%)
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) to 1 in

50
(2.0%)
3. Water bound macadam and gravel 1 in 33 (3.0%) to 1 in

pavement 40
(2.5%)
4. Earth surface 1 in 25 (4.0%) to 1 in

33
(3.0%)
[ ref. Pg. 35 of IRC: SP:20-2002]
4.19 Total Reaction Time

Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible
to the driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied. The amount of time gap
depends on several factors. During this time the vehicle travels a certain distance at the
original speed or the design speed. Thus, the stopping distance increases with increases
in reaction time of the driver. The total reaction time may be split up into two parts.

● Perception time
● Brake reaction time
The perception time is the time required for a driver to realize that brakes must be
applied it is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to
the instant he realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped. The various other
environment factor. Often the total brake reaction time of the driver is taken together.
IRC Recommends the Following F- Values for Design [ ref. Pg. 38 of IRC: SP:20-2002]
Speed, kmph 20-30 40 50 60 65 80 100
Longitudinal
Coefficient of
Friction(f) 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.36 0.3 0.35 0.35
8 7 6
The minimum stopping sight distance hence should be equal to the stopping
distance in one-way traffic lanes and in two-way traffic roads when there are two or more
traffic lanes. On roads with restricted width or on single lane roads when two-way
movement of traffic is permitted, the minimum stopping sight distance should be equal to
TWICE the stopping distance to enable both vehicles coming from opposite directions to
stop. The safe stopping distance values calculated in the similar manner for various
design speeds and recommended by IRC are given below.
4.20 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

If all the vehicles travel on a road at the design speed, then theoretically there
should be no need for any overtaking. In fact, all vehicles do not move at the designed
speed and this is particularly true under mixed traffic conditions. In such circumstances,
it is necessary for fast moving vehicles to overtake or pass the slow-moving vehicles. It
may not be possible to provide the facility to overtake slow moving vehicles throughout
the length of a road. In such cases facilities for overtaking slow vehicles with adequate
safety should be made possible at frequent distance intervals.

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known
as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight distance
available. The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the distance measured along the
Centre of the road which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see
the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface.
Some Of the Important Factors on Which the Minimum Overtaking Sight

Distance Required for The Safe Overtaking Maneuver Depends Are:
● Speeds of (i)overtaking vehicle (ii) overtaken vehicle and (iii) the vehicle coming
from opposite direction, if any.
● Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the minimum spacing
depends on the speeds.
● Skill and reaction time of the driver
● Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
● Gradient of the road, if any
At overtaking sections, the minimum overtaking distance should be (d1+d2+d3)

when two-way traffic exists. On divide highways and on roads with one way traffic
regulation, the overtaking distance need be only (d1 +d2) as no vehicle is expected from
the opposite direction. On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggest that it
is not necessary to provide the usual OOD; however, the sight distance on any highway
should be more than the SSD, which is the absolute minimum sight distance.
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible
ahead at every point is sufficient for safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there
may be stretches where the safe overtaking distance cannot be provided. In such zones
where overtaking or passing is not safe or is not possible, sign posts should be installed
indicating “Overtaking Prohibited” before such restricted zones starts. But the overtaking

opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at frequent intervals.
These zones which are meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones.
4.21 Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)

Sufficient overtaking sight distance should be available on most of the road
stretches. On horizontal curves the overtaking sight distance requirements cannot always
be fulfilled especially on sharp curves, if the safe overtaking sight distance requirements
are high. In such cases overtaking should be prohibited by regulatory signs. In case of
vertical summit curves, it is possible to provide the sight distance requirements by
suitably designing the vertical alignment. At stretches of the road where required
overtaking sight distance cannot be provide as far as possible Intermediate Sight
Distance, ISD equal to twice SSD may be provided. The measurement of the ISD may be
made assuming both the height of the eye level of the driver and the object to be 1.2
meters above the road the road surface.
4.22 Design of Horizontal Alignment
4.22.1 Design Speed

The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends.
The design speed of roads depends upon
● Class of the road
● Terrain
The speed standards of a particular class of road thus depend on the classification of
the terrain through which it passes. The terrains have been classified as plain, rolling,
mountainous and steep.
4.22.2 Super Elevation

In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of
the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to
the inner edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal

curve. This transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as super elevation or
can’t or banking.
To avoid the danger of toppling of loaded slow moving vehicles, it is essential to

limit the value of maximum allowable super elevation. IRC has fixed the maximum limit
of super elevation in plain and rolling terrains and is snow bound as 7% taking mixed
traffic into consideration. However, on hill roads not bound by snow a max. Super
elevation up to 10 % has been recommended. Therefore, in order to assess the Super
elevation e required, the speed is taken as equal to the design speed of the road and the
minimum value of transverse skid resistance f for design purpose is standardized equal to
0.15. From drainage considerations it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope to
drain off the surface water. In very flat curves with large radius the centrifugal forces
developed will be very small and, in such cases, the normal camber may be retained on
the curves. Super elevation rates for various design speeds.
Fig.1 Super elevation curves (ref.Pg.37 of IRC: SP:20-2002)
4.22.3 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

On horizontal curves, especially when they are not of very large radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. This is called as

extra widening. Thus, the required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal
curves depends upon the length of wheel base of the vehicle, radius of the curve
negotiated and the psychological factor which is a function of the speed of the vehicle and
the radius of the curve. It has been a practice therefore to provide extra width of pavement
on horizontal curves when the radius is less than about 300m. The extra widening of
pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two parts:
● Mechanical Widening -
It is the widening required to account for the off-tracking due to the

rigidity of wheel based.
● Psychological Widening -
Extra width of pavement is also provided for psychological reasons such

as, to provide foe greater maneuverability of steering at higher speeds, to allow
for the extra space requirements for the overhangs of vehicles and to provide
greater chance for crossing and overtaking vehicles on the curves. Psychological
widening is therefore important in pavements with more than one lane.
4.23 Horizontal Transition Curve

A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the tangent point to a
designed radius of the circular curve. When a transition curve is introduced between a
straight & circular curve, the radius of the transition curve decreases becomes minimum at
the beginning of the circular curve.
Function Of Transition Curves:
● To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle.
● To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security.
● To enable introduction of the designed super elevation and extra widening of
pavement at the start of the circular curve.

● To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Types Of Transition Curves:
● Spiral
● Lemniscus’s
● Cubic parabola
4.24 Set-Back Distance

In the design of horizontal alignment, the sight distance along the inner side of
the curves should be considered. Where there is sight obstruction like buildings, cut
slopes, or tree on the inner side of the curves, either the obstruction should be removed or
the alignment should be changed in order to provide adequate sight distance.
In case of new highways for the design speed and distance requirements, the
actual condition in the alignment should be checked and necessary adjustments be made
in a manner most fitting to provide adequate sight distance.
The clearance distance or set back distance required from the center line of a
horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight
distance depends upon the following factors
● Required sight distance
● Radius of horizontal curve
● Length of the curve
4.25 Design of Vertical Alignment

While aligning a highway body it is the general practice to follow the general
topography or profile of the land. But the natural ground may be level only at some
places and otherwise the ground may have slope of varying magnitudes. Hence the

vertical profile of a road would have level stretches as well as slopes or grades. The
vertical alignment consists of grades and vertical curves, sight distance and comfort in
vehicle movements at high speeds.
4.25.1 Gradients
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is sometimes the gradient is also expressed in percentage, i.e., n in
100.when the angle of gradient, α is small the gradient which is 1 in α or tan α is
approximately equal to the circular measure or α in radians. The ascending gradients are
given in the positive signs and are denoted as + n1, + n2 etc., and the descending gradient
are given in the negative signs and are denoted as –n3, - n4 etc. The angle which
measures the change of direction at the intersection of the two grades is called deviation
angle N which is equal to the algebraic difference between the two grades.
Deviation angle = n1 - (-n2) = n1 + n2

Where, n1 = ascending gradient
n2 = descending gradient
4.25.2 Vertical Curves

Due to the changes in the vertical alignment of the highway, it is necessary to
introduce vertical curve at the intersections of different grades to smoothen out the
vertical profile and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast-moving vehicles.
The vertical curves in highway may be classified into two categories
● Summit curves or crest with convexity upwards.
● Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards.
Length Of the Summit Curve:
Parabolic summit curves are generally adopted the equation which is given by:
Y=ax2, with value of a=N/2L.Here N is the deviation angle and L is the length of
the summit curve. since the summit curve are long and flat, the length of the summit

curve L is taken as equal to its horizontal projection and it is particularly equal to the
actual length of the curve.
Length Of the Summit Curve for The Stopping Sight Distance:
Two cases are to be considered in deciding the length:
● When the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance (L> SSD)
● When the length of the curve is less than the sight distance (L<SSD)
● When L>SSD
The general equation for the length L of the parabolic curve is given by
2
Ns
L=
4.4
● When L<SSD
The general equation of the parabolic summit curve, when it is less than the sight
2 S−4.4
distance is given by L=
N
Length of the Summit Curve for the Overtaking Sight Distance or Intermediate Sight Distance:
Two cases are considered in deciding the length is
● When the length of the curve is greater than the overtaking sight distance or
intermediate distance (L>OSD)
● When the length of the curve is less than the overtaking sight distance
(L<OSD)

2
NS
⇨ When L>OSD L=
9.6
2 S−9.6
⇨ When L<OSD L=
N
Where,
L = length of the parabolic summit curve
N = Deviation angle, radians, or tangent of the deviation angle
S = over taking or intermediate sight distance (OSD, ISD)
4.25.3 Valley Curves

Valley curves or gradient meets the sag is formed when the ascending gradient
meets the descending gradient with some deviation angle.
The most important factors considered in the design of valley curves are,
● Impact free movement of the vehicles at the design speed or the comfort to the
passengers.
● Availability of the stopping sight distance under the head lights of the vehicles for
night driving.
Length of the Valley Curves:
The length of the valley curve is designed based on the following the criteria:
● The allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.
● The head light sight distance, and the higher two values is adopted. Usually the
second criterion of the head light sight distance is higher is and therefore governs
the design.

The total length of valley curve is based on rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is
given by the following equation
L=2 √
N V3
C
Where,
L= total length of the valley curve in m
N=deviation angle in radius or tangent of the deviation angle or the algebraic

difference in grades V= design speed, Kmph.
The Length of the Valley Curve for the Head Light Sight Distance:
It can be determined by the following conditions
● When the total length of valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight distance
SSD
● When L is less than SSD, as given by
L>SSD L<SSD
2
NS 2 S−(1.5+.035 S)
L= L=
(1.5+ .035 S) N
Where, L=total length of the valley curve,
S=SSD in meters,
N =deviation angle = (n1+n2),
with slopes n1 and n2.
4.25.4 Types of Highway Construction

The highway types are classified as below:
● Earth road and gravel roads

● Soil stabilized roads
● Water bound macadam road
● Bituminous or black top roads
● Cement concrete roads
4.25.5 Type of Bituminous Construction

Number of types and methods are used for bituminous pavement construction. The
following construction techniques are in use
● Interface treatments like prime coat and tack coat.
● Surface dressing and seal coat.
● Grouted or penetration type constructions
● Penetration macadam.
● Built-up spry grout.
● Premix which may be any of the following:
● Bituminous bound macadam.
● Carpet.
● Bituminous concrete.
4.25.6 Data for Drainage Design
● The following data are to be collected for the design of road side drain

● Total road length and width of land from where water is expected to flow on the
stretch of the side drain.
● Run-off coefficients of different types of surfaces in the drainage area and their
respective areas.
● Distance from farthest points in the drainage area to the inlet of the side drain
along the steepest gradient and the average value of the slope.
● Type of soil of the side drain, roughness coefficient allowable velocity of flow in
the drain.
● Rainfall data including average intensity and frequency of recurrence of flood.
4.25.7 Cross Drainage

Whenever streams must cross the roadway, facility for cross drainage is to be
provided. Also, often the water from the side drain is taken across by these cross drain in
order to divert the water away from the road, to a water or valley. The cross-drainage
structures commonly used are culverts and small bridges. When small stream crosses a
road with a linear waterway less than about six meters, the cross-drainage structure
provided is called culvert; for higher values of linear waterway, the structure is called a
bridge. The common types of culverts in use are
● Slab culvert
● Box culvert
● Arch culvert
● Pipe culvert
Various types of bridges are in use. The choice is based on several considerations
including the span. RCC and steel bridge are commonly constructed these days.

On less important roads, in order to reduce the construction cost of cross drainage
structures, sometimes submersible bridges or cause ways are constructed. During the
floods the water will flow over the road. The total period interruption to traffic has
however to be kept as low as possible, not exceeding about 15 days in a year.
4.25.8 Sub–Surface Drainage

Changes in moisture content of subgrade are caused by fluctuations in ground
water table seepage flow, percolation of rain water and movement of capillary water and
even water vapor. Only the gravitational water is drained by the usual drainage systems.
4.25.9 Lowering Of Water Table

The highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of sub grade, in order
that the sub grade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture. From practical
considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept at least 1.0 to 1.2m below the
sub grade. In places where water table is high the best remedy is to take the road formation on
embankment of height not less than 1.0 to 1.2 meter. When the formation is to be at or below the
general ground level, it would be necessary to lower the table. If soil is relatively permeable, it
may be possible to lower the high-water table by merely construction of longitudinal drainage
trenches with drain pipe and filter sand.
4.26 Control of Seepage Flow

When the general ground as well as the impervious strata below are slopping,
seepage flow is likely to exist. If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 to 0.9 meter
from the subgrade level, longitudinal pipe drains in trench filled with filter material and
clay seal may be constructed to intercept the seepage flow.
Control of Capillary Rise
If the water reaching the subgrade due to capillary rise is likely to be detrimental,
it is possible to solve the problem arresting the capillary rise instead of lowering the eater
table. The capillary rise may be checked either by a capillary cut-off any one of the
following two types:
● A layer of granular material suitable thickness is provided during the construction
of embankment, between the subgrade and the highest level of subsurface water

table. The thickness of granular capillary cut-off layer should be sufficiently

higher than the anticipated capillary rise within the granular layer so that the
capillary water cannot rise above the cut-off layer.
● Another method of providing capillary cut-off is by inserting an impermeable or a
bituminous layer in the place of granular blanket.
4.27 Design of Subsurface Drainage System

The size and spacing of the subsurface drainage system would depend on the
quantity of water to be drained off, the type of soil and the type of drains. Mostly this is
decided based on experience and other practical considerations. However, proper filler
material should be used for back filling the drainage trenches and for use in all
subsurface drainage.
Design Data and Specifications for the Alignment (IRC: SP: 20-2002)
● Type of road = Village Road
● Width of carriage way = 7.0m (3.5m each lane)
● Road land width (Right of way) = 15m (carriage way-7m+shoulder-
1.5m each side slope - 2m + drainage – 2m + base width – 1m)
● Roadway width = 10.0m (for plain and rolling terrain)
● Terrain type = Rolling (10-25% cross slope)
● Rainfall = medium intensity
● Pavement = Thin bituminous surface
● Design speeds for village road (V) kmph = 60(ruling) & 40 (minimum)
for plain and rolling terrain

● Minimum radius for village = 60m (ruling minimum) & 45m (absolute
minimum)
● Gradients (Rolling country) = 1 in 30 (ruling), 1in 20 (limiting) 1 in 15
(Exceptional)
● Coefficient of lateral friction, f = 0.15
● Coefficient of longitudinal friction, f = 0.36
● Super elevation (e) = 0.07 (max)
● Camber = 1 in 40 or 3-5% (depends on rainfall)
● Safe stopping sight distance = 45m for design speed of 40 kmph
● No super elevation is required for radius beyond 350m for design speed
of 40kmph and 2% camber
● Extra width of pavement (We)-0.60m for single lane for a radius unto
60m (from 21m) as per IRC in the absence of calculation
● Reaction time of the driver (t) = 2.5 seconds for speed 40 – 60 kmph
● Side slopes in ordinary soil = 1:1, soft rock (1/4:1)
4.28 Laboratory Investigations

The following tests are conducted to the soil collected from the field
⇨ Grain size analysis.
⇨ Group index method (Based on Liquid Limit & Plastic Limit tests).

⇨ Compaction test.
⇨ California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test.
Grain Size Analysis
● We took of soil sample of 1000gm and soaked it for 24 hours.
● On next day we took 75-micron sieve and washed the soaked soil
thoroughly then oven dried the sample at 105°C to 110°C.
● Then soil sample is place over set of sieves of sizes with finest sieve and
pan at the bottom. Mass of soil sample taken for sieving = 1000gm
Liquid Limit
● Take 120g of air-dried soil sample, free from organic matter and finer
by 425µ is taken and added with distilled water to stiff consistency.
● Take a portion of the soil using spatula and place it on cleaned liquid
limit cup parallel to the cup (the apparatus must be calibrated to a fall
of 10mm).
● Cut a groove symmetrically using proper grooving tool. Either,
a) Casagrande tool [for clay & clayey soils]

b) A.S.T.M tool [for silty soils]
● The handle of the liquid limit apparatus is operated and the number of
blows required to join the groove to a length of 10mm is noted. At this

point, the number of blows and moisture content of the soil are found
out.
● Repeat the test for the same soil sample for various moisture contents
and record the number of blows.

● A graph of “number of blows v/s moisture content” is drawn on semi-
log sheet, and moisture content for 25 blows is found out which gives
liquid limit of soil sample.
Result: Liquid limit of the soil is 37.1%.
Plastic Limit:
● Take 20g of air-dried soil sample, free from organic matter and finer by
425µ is taken and added with distilled water to stiff consistency.
● Allow it to season for sufficient time to allow water to permeate
throughout the soil mass.
● The soil is molded and rolled between fingers and made into a ball.
● This ball is rolled on a sheet of ground glass to form a thread.
● The process is continued until the thread diameter reaches 3mm and
fractures.
● Find the moisture content when it fractures at 3mm, this gives PLASTIC
LIMIT.
Result: The soil is non-plastic in nature.
Compaction Test
● Take sample weighing approx. 3 kg of thoroughly mixed without lumps
and passing through 4.75mm sieve. Clean the mold and fix it to the
base.
● Take the empty weight of it and inside surface is greased.
● Mix the soil thoroughly by adding water. And compact it in three layers
and each layer is being compacted by 25 blows.

● Remove the collar cut the excess soil with the help of straight edge.
Clean the mould from outside and weigh it.
● Repeat the same procedure for about 5 to 6 times.
Result: The maximum dry density 1.99gm/cc and the Optimum moisture
content 11.5%.
California Bearing Ratio
● Sieve the material through 4.75mm sieve.
● Take about 5kg of soil mix thoroughly by adding optimum water
content.
● Compact the soil in the mould in three layers and each layer being
compacted by 55 blows.
● Remove the collar and trim off the excess soil by a straight edge.
● Remove the base plate spar dust and then keep the surcharge weight.
● Immerse the mould assembly and weight in a tank of water allowing
free occurs of water to the top and bottom specimen.
● Keep the setup in soaked condition for 4 days.
Result: for a given soil the CBR value is 6%.
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
From the CBR test conducted, we got a CBR value of 6%.

As per IRC SP: 20-2002, the thickness of crust required for given CBR is as
shown below.

● Bituminous surfacing = 20mm
● Base course = 150mm
● Sub-base = 225mm
Also, as per IRC SP: 20-2002 (page 98), the thickness of pavement
required for the attained CBR of 6% and 450 CVPD is 395mm.

Fig. 2: CBR curves for flexible pavement

4.29 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Figure: Horizontal Curve
4.29.1 Design of Horizontal curves

By Rankine’s method
 Radius (R) = 90m

 Total length of curve, CL = π RΔ/180 = π x90x65/180 =
102.101m
 Chainage of P.C T1 470-57.336=412.664
 No of Chord =102.101/10=10m
 Length of chord=100m
 Chord Length C1= 0.336m
 Last chord length =1.765m
Calculating tangential angles
Δ=90C/ π R where C id distance

 δ1 = 006’25”
 δ2 = Δ1+ δ1 = 30 17’ 25”
 δ3 = Δ2+ δ2 =60 28’ 24”

 δ4 = Δ3+ δ3 =90 39’22”
 δ5 = Δ4+ δ4 = 120 50’ 21”
 δ6 = Δ5+ δ5 = 1601’ 20”
 δ7 = Δ6+ δ6 = 190 12’ 20”
 δ8 = Δ7+ δ7 = 220 23’ 20”
 δ9 = Δ8+ δ8 = 250 34’ 15”
 δ10 = Δ9+ δ9 = 280 45’ 17”
 δ11 = Δ10+ δ10 = 310 56’ 16”
 δ12 = Δ11+ δ11 = 320 30’ 00”
Check: Δ/2= 65/2=320 30’
To find the super-elevation
 e = (0.75V²)/127R i.e., e = (V²/225R)

= (60²/225x90) =0.178
Since, 0.178 > 0.07
Therefore, e = 0.07
 Check for the value of friction developed, f = (V²/127R) – 0.07
= (602/127x90)-0.07
= 0.245 (>0.15)
 Therefore, f = 0.15
Hence, e of 0.07 is safe for design speed.
4.29.2 Extra widening of curve

 The total widening required on a horizontal curve is given by, W e = Wm
+ Wps

2
nl V
 W e= +
2 xR 9.5 √ R
 Where, n = No of lanes = 2
V = Design speed = 60kmph
R = Radius of curve = 90m
l = Wheel base of vehicle = 6m
 Therefore, We = 1.06 m
 As per IRC recommendation the radius of curve between speeds 20to
40kmph, for 2lanes is to be taken as 1.5m. Hence provide an extra
widening 1.1m.
Calculation of Design Speed

2
V
▪ e+f =
127 R
2
V
▪ 0.07+0.15=
127 X 90
▪ v2=127x90+0.07+0.15
▪ v=50.14≈50 kmph
▪ Hence Design Speed is 50 kmph for radius of curve = 90m
Calculation of S.S.D
 V= 50Km/hr.
2
V
 S . S . D=0.278Vt +
254 f
S S D= 62m
Where’
t= total reaction time of driver i.e., 2.5 sec
f= coefficient of longitudinal friction i.e., .36 for speed of 60 kmph
 But S.S.D. for two-way traffic single lane = 2S.S.D =124m

4.29.3 Design of Longitudinal Drain of Highway
● Using Rye’s formula, we can calculate the flood discharge
2
3
Q=Cx A
● Since the rainfall in the area is of medium intensity,
we can assume C = 9
A = Catchment area in Sq.km.
 Considering 1 km length of highway and 15m width from the
center of the highway, bund
we get the road side drainage area = 1.0*15/1000 =
0.015sq.km
 Therefore,
2
3
Q=9 x .0975
¿ 1.91
 Therefore,
A =1.91/1.5
= 1.273 m2
Assuming a trapezoidal section with base width = 0.7m and side slope 1:2
Therefore, Area of trapezoidal drain, A = (B + n x d) x d
Solving the above equation, we get d= 0.28m
Providing a free board of 0.15m,
We get the total depth of trapezoidal drain as 0.73m.
4.29.4 Determination of longitudinal slope of drain

2
3 .5
 Consider Manning’s formula V = R + S
n

Where,
V= velocity in drain = 1.5 m/s (assumed)
n= rugosity coefficient for bed material =0.02(assumed)
A= are of trapezoidal drain =0.365m2
P= perimeter of trapezoidal drain
= B+ D √ 5=2.43 m
Therefore,
.365
Hydraulic radius R= =0.150 m
P
Substituting the above values

2
0.58 x S .5
3
1.5=
0.02
Therefore, S=1.86x10-3
Hence, provide slope of I in
136 for longitudinal drain
Table 4: Earthwork Calculation
Volume
Sl Depth Depth Slope Volume
Mean Rectangular Total Area Length of
N Chainage GL FL of of Area of filling
Depth Area BD A=(BD+SD2) (L) cutting
O Cutting Filling SD2 (M3)
(M3)
1 0 990.11 982.50 7.611 - - - - - - - -
2 10 989.86 982.44 7.416 - 7.513 52.59 56.45 109.05 10 1090.47 -
3 20 989.63 982.38 7.252 - 7.334 51.34 53.79 105.13 10 1051.26 -
4 30 989.38 982.32 7.058 - 7.155 50.08 51.19 101.28 10 1012.79 -
5 40 989.10 982.26 6.843 - 6.950 48.65 48.31 96.96 10 969.63 -
6 50 988.76 982.20 6.558 - 6.700 46.90 44.90 91.80 10 918.00 -
7 60 988.46 982.14 6.318 - 6.438 45.07 41.45 86.51 10 865.14 -
8 70 988.18 982.08 6.101 - 6.209 43.47 38.56 82.02 10 820.24 -
9 80 987.88 982.02 5.862 - 5.981 41.87 35.78 77.65 10 776.49 -
10 90 987.52 981.96 5.556 - 5.709 39.96 32.59 72.56 10 725.56 -
11 100 987.24 981.90 5.337 - 5.446 38.13 29.66 67.79 10 677.90 -
12 110 986.91 981.84 5.070 - 5.203 36.42 27.08 63.50 10 635.01 -
13 120 986.64 981.78 4.864 - 4.967 34.77 24.67 59.44 10 594.40 -
14 130 986.40 981.72 4.675 - 4.769 33.39 22.75 56.13 10 561.35 -

15 140 986.21 981.66 4.546 - 4.611 32.27 21.26 53.53 10 535.30 -

16 150 985.98 981.60 4.378 - 4.462 31.23 19.91 51.14 10 511.43 -
17 160 985.76 981.54 4.222 - 4.300 30.10 18.49 48.59 10 485.90 -
18 170 985.60 981.48 4.119 - 4.171 29.19 17.39 46.59 10 465.87 -
19 180 985.48 981.42 4.061 - 4.090 28.63 16.73 45.36 10 453.58 -
20 190 985.33 981.36 3.968 - 4.015 28.10 16.12 44.22 10 442.18 -
21 200 985.16 981.30 3.859 - 3.914 27.39 15.32 42.71 10 427.10 -
22 210 985.01 981.24 3.773 - 3.816 26.71 14.56 41.27 10 412.74 -
23 220 984.68 981.18 3.504 - 3.639 25.47 13.24 38.71 10 387.08 -
24 230 984.67 981.12 3.546 - 3.525 24.68 12.43 37.10 10 371.01 -
25 240 984.49 981.06 3.428 - 3.487 24.41 12.16 36.57 10 365.68 -
26 250 984.30 981.00 3.302 - 3.365 23.56 11.32 34.88 10 348.78 -
27 260 984.02 980.94 3.084 - 3.193 22.35 10.20 32.55 10 325.46 -
28 270 983.79 980.88 2.913 - 2.998 20.99 8.99 29.98 10 299.81 -
29 280 983.55 980.82 2.730 - 2.821 19.75 7.96 27.71 10 277.11 -
30 290 983.30 980.76 2.541 - 2.635 18.45 6.95 25.39 10 253.94 -
31 300 982.99 980.70 2.287 - 2.414 16.90 5.83 22.73 10 227.25 -
32 310 982.69 980.64 2.047 - 2.167 15.17 4.70 19.86 10 198.65 -
33 320 982.40 980.58 1.821 - 1.934 13.54 3.74 17.28 10 172.78 -
34 330 982.04 980.52 1.524 - 1.672 11.71 2.80 14.50 10 145.05 -
35 340 981.69 980.46 1.231 - 1.378 9.64 1.90 11.54 10 115.40 -
36 350 981.31 980.40 0.907 - 1.069 7.48 1.14 8.63 10 86.26 -
37 360 981.55 980.34 1.207 - 1.057 7.40 1.12 8.52 10 85.16 -
38 370 981.15 980.28 0.871 - 1.039 7.27 1.08 8.35 10 83.53 -
39 380 980.74 980.22 0.516 - 0.693 4.85 0.48 5.34 10 53.35 -
40 390 980.30 980.16 0.000 0 0.258 1.81 0.07 1.87 10 18.73 -
41 400 979.89 980.1 - 0.211 0.106 0.74 0.02 0.76 10 - 7.61
42 410 979.48 980.04 - 0.564 0.387 2.71 0.30 3.01 10 - 30.13
43 412.66 979.31 979.98 - 0.670 0.617 4.32 0.76 5.08 2.66 - 13.51
44 413 979.11 979.92 - 0.812 0.741 5.19 1.10 6.29 0.34 - 2.14
45 423 978.89 979.86 - 0.975 0.894 6.25 1.60 7.85 10 - 78.51
46 433 978.12 979.8 - 1.685 1.330 9.31 3.54 12.85 10 - 128.48
47 443 977.26 979.74 - 2.485 2.085 14.59 8.69 23.29 10 - 232.89
48 453 977.05 979.68 - 2.630 2.558 17.90 13.08 30.98 10 - 309.84
49 463 976.58 979.62 - 3.041 2.836 19.85 16.08 35.93 10 - 359.29
50 473 976.29 979.56 - 3.272 3.156 22.10 19.93 42.02 10 - 420.22
51 483 976.01 979.5 - 3.490 3.381 23.67 22.86 46.53 10 - 465.29
52 493 975.44 979.44 - 3.996 3.743 26.20 28.02 54.22 10 - 542.21
53 503 975.39 979.38 - 3.990 3.993 27.95 31.89 59.84 10 - 598.39
54 513 975.00 979.32 - 4.325 4.158 29.10 34.57 63.67 10 - 636.72
55 514.764 974.47 979.26 - 4.794 4.560 31.92 41.58 73.49 1.764 - 129.64
56 535 974.22 979.2 - 4.985 4.890 34.23 47.81 82.04 20.236 - 1660.18
57 555 974.09 979.14 - 5.054 5.019 35.14 50.39 85.53 20 - 1710.55

58 575 974.01 979.08 - 5.074 5.064 35.45 51.29 86.74 20 - 1734.72

59 585 973.69 979.02 - 5.332 5.203 36.42 54.14 90.56 10 - 905.63
60 595 973.45 978.96 - 5.511 5.422 37.95 58.79 96.74 10 - 967.36
61 605 973.29 978.9 - 5.610 5.561 38.92 61.84 100.76 10 - 1007.62
62 615 973.02 978.84 - 5.817 5.714 39.99 65.29 105.28 10 - 1052.83
63 625 972.88 978.78 - 5.902 5.859 41.02 68.67 109.68 10 - 1096.84
64 635 972.39 978.72 - 6.329 6.116 42.81 74.80 117.61 10 - 1176.07
65 645 972.01 978.66 - 6.649 6.489 45.42 84.21 129.64 10 - 1296.37
66 655 971.91 978.6 - 6.690 6.670 46.69 88.96 135.65 10 - 1356.51
67 665 971.59 978.54 - 6.947 6.819 47.73 92.98 140.71 10 - 1407.13
68 675 971.12 978.48 - 7.361 7.154 50.08 102.36 152.44 10 - 1524.37
69 685 971.01 978.42 - 7.410 7.385 51.70 109.09 160.79 10 - 1607.90
70 695 970.72 978.36 - 7.637 7.524 52.66 113.21 165.87 10 - 1658.71
Total Volume of Cutting 18247.37

Total Volume of Filling 24117.68
Total Volume 42365.04
Total Volume of Cutting = 18247.37m3

Total Volume of Filling = 24117.68 m3
Total Volume of Earthwork = 42365.04m3





WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER

MANAGEMENT
“sanitation should not be seen as a political tool, but should

only be connected to patriotism and commitment to public
health.”
slogan of swach bharat abhiyan

5.0 Introduction
Next to air the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. The use
of water by man, plants and animals is universal. As a matter of fact, every being will
require water for its survival. The water plays an important role in the manufacture of
essential commodities, generation of electric power, transportation, recreation, industrial
activity etc. Thus, the water can be considered as the most important raw material of the
civilization because without water, man cannot live and industries cannot survive. With our
growing population and industrial development, the demand of water is also increasing day
by day and every country must take preventive measure to avoid careless pollution and
contamination of the available water resources. In order to ensure these services for all
time to come it becomes necessary to maintain conserve and use these resources carefully.
It is therefore essential to increase available water resources and their quality by taking
remedial measures. It has been estimated that two thirds of human body constitute of
water. Therefore, in order to ensure sufficient quantity and quality of water it becomes
imperative in modern society to protect the useful supply by launching the appropriate
water supply scheme.
5.1Necessity
In order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality water, it becomes
almost imperative in a modern society, to plan and build suitable water supply schemes, which
may provide potable water to the various sections of community in accordance with their
demands and requirements. The provision of such a scheme shall ensure constant and reliable
water supply to that section of the people for which it has been designed. Such a scheme shall
not only help in supplying safe wholesome water to the people for drinking, cooking, bathing,
washing etc. To keep the diseases away and thereby promoting better health; but would also help
in supplying water for fountains, gardens, etc. and thus helping tin maintaining better sanitation
and beautification of surroundings, thereby reducing environmental pollution. Besides promoting
overall hygiene and public health, it shall ensure safety against fire by supplying enough water to
extinguish it. The existence of such a water supply scheme shall further help in attracting
industrialization and modernization of the society, consequently reducing unemployment, and

ensuring better living standards. Such schemes shall, therefore, help in promoting wealth and
welfare of the entire humanity.
5.2Points to be considered
In planning water supply scheme, it is essential to first, search a source of water in the
vicinity of the town or the city for which the scheme is to be designed. Sometimes, the water
may be available nearby, and sometimes it may be far away. Further it may be an underground
well, or it may be a river, stream, or a lake. It is therefore, necessary to seek out all possible
sources and evaluate each in terms of quality, quantity, and cost and then to take a final decision
regarding the utilization of a particular source or sources depend upon the availability of water in
those sources and the water demand of the town or the city. Suitable systems should then be
designed for the collecting, transporting, and treating this water. The treated water is finally
distributed to the residents and industries depending upon their requirements, through a network
of distribution system. The essential elements of a public water supply scheme may, therefore,
consist of intakes and a water treatment plant having screening, sedimentation, filtration,
disinfection units, etc., elevated tanks and stand pipes which provide storage to meet peak
demands occurring for limited periods; valves which control the flow of water in the pipe
system; hydrants which provide a connection with the water in the mains for fighting fires,
flushing streets, etc., mains, submains and branch lines which carry the water to the streets;
services which carry the water to the individual homes, etc. all these essentials and components
of a water supply scheme are described in details in the subsequent chapters of this volume.
Factors to be considered for a water supply scheme are listed below:
5.3Population
Present population data must be collected from census report from region and population
must be forecasted for the design period of 30 years by any of the following method.
i. Arithmetic mean method.
ii. Geometric increase method.
iii. Decreasing rate of growth method.
iv. Simple graphical method.
v. Comparative graphical method.

vi. Master plan method or zoning method

vii. The ratio method.
viii. Logistic curve method.
5.4 Terminology
Per capita water supply: Amount of water required per person is dependent on living standards
of people in region.
Sources of water supply: The sources must be studied to see whether they can supply the
requisite amount of water for future demands. An alternative source must be found if it cannot
meet future demands.
Purification works: Depending on quality of water, the purification work must be
designed.
Water pumps: Pumps are to be provided to lift water from the intake works to treatment
plant to storage reservoir side of the village. Future growth must be considered in the design
of pumps.
Storage reservoir: The position of the reservoir must be determined by conducting all the
necessary surveys. Its location in the locality.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM: Master plan of the city must be studied to design the
layout of the distribution system. Further growth must be considered.
MASTER PLAN: A master plan must be prepared to present entire water supply
scheme in its different stages regarding source of supply purification & distribution
system.
WATER SUPPLY SCHEME: Before actual construction of water supply work is taken up, it
is necessary to prepare plan and the full schemes and design the various component of the
project. The proper planning will ensure an economical and efficient functional scheme, which
will serve the various objectives in view efficient and with minimum expenditure and recurring
operational troubles.
5.5 Water supply scheme

1) Works for collection of water.
2) Works for conveyance of water.
3) Works for treatment and purification of water

4) Works for distribution of water to the consumers.

In planning of good water supply schemes, a compromise between efficiency and economy is
generally decided and the schemes possessing the least defects and professional advice and
guidance is very essential for the schemes. In this case, the sources are generally ground water
leading to special problems like fluorides, iron, sailing, etc., One should take all these
problems into account while designing.
5.6 Necessity of planned water supply

Water is a chemical compound and may occur in a liquid form or in a solid form or
in a gaseous form. All these three forms of water are extremely useful to man, providing
the luxuries and comforts, in addition to fulfilling his necessity of life. No life can exist
without water since water is essential for life as air. It has been estimated that two thirds of
human body is constituted of water. From the public health point of view, it is necessary
that the water required for their need must be invariably free from all type of impurities
whether suspended or dissolved in water and no risk should occur to the health of the
public as a result of any water contamination.
A public water supply or water works system must be both from the point of view
of providing an adequate and reliable supply of water catering to all the public need
ensuring that the supply so made are not only portable but also fully protected against
every infection which might otherwise pollute water and cause outbreak of disease.
The planned water supply scheme should not only help in supplying wholesome
water to the people for drinking cooking, bathing etc.., to keep disease away and there by
promoting better health but it should also help in supplying water for fountains, garden
etc.., thus helping in maintaining better sanitation and beautification of surrounding
thereby reducing environmental pollution. The schemes should therefore help in promoting
wealth and welfare of the entire humanity
5.7 Water quantity management

Water quantity management is important when there is an increase in population or
a population explosion. Increase in migration of people to a certain development area
due to job opportunities, quality education, religious/cultural activities, natural disasters

in the neighboring areas, due to commercial or industrial interest or due to economic

policies which causes increase in demand for water and rapid depletion of the supplies.
This increase in demand forces to use alternate sources of water there by leading to
ground water exploitation altering the quality of the ground water and polluting the
surface water also.
In order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality of drinking
water, it becomes almost imperative in a modern society, to plan and build suitable
water supply schemes, which may provide potable water to the various sections of the
community in accordance with their demands and requirements. The provision for such
a scheme shall ensure a constant and a reliable water supply to that section of the people
for which it has been designed. Such a scheme shall not only help in promoting hygiene
and public health, also supplying water for fountains, gardens, etc. for beautification of
the surroundings, but also shall ensure safety against fire by supplying sufficient
quantity of water to extinguish it. The existence of such a water supply scheme shall
further help in attracting industries and thereby helping in industrialization and
modernization of the society, consequently reducing unemployment, and ensuring better
living standards.
Water quantity management consists of the following:
● Identification of the water source.
● Suitability of water for drinking purpose.
● Reliability
● Volume of water available thought the year.
● Economics
5.8 Water quality management

Apart from providing enough water to the people, its necessary to ensure that the
water provided is potable i.e., it should be free from turbidity & undesirable tastes,

colours & odours. Also, other characteristics of water like pH, temperature, hardness
should be within permissible limits. Therefore, to ensure that the water is safe for
consumption, we carry out water quality management, in addition to, water quantity
management.
Water quality management includes:
● Carrying out physical analysis of water to determine the physical qualities of water
like turbidity, temperature etc., & ensuring that they are within the permissible limits.
● Carrying out chemical analysis of water to determine the chemical qualities of water
like pH, chloride content & ensuring they are within the permissible limits.
● To ensure that Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is nil.
● To ensure that the water is free from pathogenic bacteria.
● In addition to water quantity management & water quality management, the other
objectives of this project are:
● To meet additional water demands like fire demand & to provide water for recreation.
Type of Type of Permissibl Absolute Max. Remarks

characteristic impurity e limits Limits
s
Physical 1.Turbidity 5 10 On silica scale.
2. Colour 10 20 On cobalt scale.
3. Taste and 01
odour 03 Threshold no.

Chemical 1. pH value 6.6 8.0
2. Hardness 75mg/ltr 110mg/ltr Expressed as CaCo3

Equilate w/s.
As per WHO
3. Total 500mg/ltr 1500 mg/lit
solids international STDs.
-do-
500mg/ltr 1000mg/ltr
4. Mg & Na -do-
200mg/ltr 400mg/ltr
5. Chlorides. -do-
75mg/ltr 200mg/ltr
6. Calcium. -do-
0.3 mg/ltr 1.0mg/ltr
7. Iron. -do-
- 1.5mg/ltr
8. Fluorides.
Biological & Coliform Nil 1 Coliform -

micro-organic Bacteria colony per
100m/n of B
coli is ltd.to
1per
100me
Radiological Emitters Nil - -
THE TYPE OF IMPURITIES TEST RESULT DRINKING

WATER QUALITY
AS PER TOTAL HARDNESS 268mg/l THE INDIAN
CALCIUM HARDNESS 80mg/l STANDARDS

(as per IS 10500:2012)
MAGNESIUM 188mg/l
Results of Water
Testing in CHLORIDE 118mg/l Tabular form
PH 7.55
ELECTRICAL 0.732m.mhos cm-1

CUNDUCTIVITY
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS 475mg/l
5.9 Water Treatment

Water treatment consists of:
1) Intake works using pumping plan.

2) Plain sedimentation.
3) Sedimentation with coagulation.
4) Filtration.
5) Water softening plan.
6) Miscellaneous treatment plant.
7) Disinfection.
8) Clear water reservoir.
9) Pumps for pumping the water in the service reservoir.
10) Relevant or underground service reservoir.
1) INTAKE WORKS:
Whenever water must be drawn from a surface it is not always possible to draw the
water directly from it becomes necessary to construct intake structures. Intake structure
may be well infiltration gallery etc. These are the temporary storage reservoir than the
source from where is pumped to the treatment plant.
OBJECTIVES:

To keep safety with drawing water from the sources over the predetermined range of fly
level & the storage water to withdrawal conducts.
The intake structure primarily consists of the following.
● Screens.
● Intake conduit.
● Pumps.
2) TREATMENT PLANT:
The water which is taken from the source cannot be supplied directly. Before distribution
the water has to be treated properly to meet the domestic water standards.
OBJECTIVES:
● To remove dissolved gases, color, odour of water.
● To remove unpleasant or objectionable taste from water. To kill pathogenic bacteria &
germs.
● To make water fit for domestic use.
● To estimate the corrosive properties of water which affect the conduits & pipes.
● The water treatment plant should be located as near as possible to the town.
● The main advantage of doing this is that water will reach every consumer with
pressure & purity.
The chance of water getting contaminated will be reduced. The treatment process directly
depends as the impurities present in the water. The different process used for removing
various impurities are given below.
The following treatment water for proposed water supply scheme.

● Screens.
● Sedimentation with coagulation.
● Filtration.
3) SCREENS:
The large size suspended & floating matters can be removed by passing water through
screens. The process of removing large matters from water by passing through screens is
called as screening.
● This is the first operation carried out in the treatment plant. Following are the five
types of screens.
● Rock or bar screens.
● Perforated screens or cutting screens.
● Cutting screens.
● Head or mechanically cleared screens.
● Fixed moving or movable head screens.
4) SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION:
Very fine suspended clay particles cannot be removed by plain sedimentation

because they require more detention time which is impractical. In addition to fine
suspended matter, water also contains eccentricity charged matter which is continuously

in motion and never settles down due to gravitational force. In these layers fine
suspended matters are removed by sedimentation with coagulation instead of plain
sedimentation.
5) COAGULANT ADDING TANK:
In usual uses when a mechanical type of mixing basin in provided coagulant

feeding devices are also provided which directly to the coagulant is the mixing basin. In the
proposed project, instead of coagulant feeding device, it is proposed to provide a coagulant
adding tank. In this tank water will be retained for certain duration of time during which the
calculated number of coagulants are added after that it will be sent to mixing basin.
6) FILTRATION:
The process of passing water through the beds of sands or other granular material is
known as filtration for removing bacteria, colour, taste, and odour to produce sparkling
waters, filters are used.
The two types of filters are.
● Slow sand filters
● Rapid sand filters
5.10 Intake to Treatment Plant
● Transmission lines provided 20cm pipe.
● Intake structure including screens provided. A pump provided to lift water from intake
point to pipe point BHP.
● Gravity flow provided from pipe point to treatment point.
5.10.1 Treatment Plant:

Treatment units proposed.

● Aeration tank
● Feeding tank
● Mixing tank
● Floc
● Sedimentation
● Slow sand filter
● Disinfection unit
● Distribution system
5.11 SANITARY PROJECT
5.11.1 GENERAL:
The water after consumption must be suitably disposed off. Moreover, the other wastes
from the communities are also to be carried off and disposed suitably. The sanitary
project requires careful thinking and planning and it is not as simple as water supply
project. It requires many factors to be considered before a particular line of treatment is
recommended.
5.11.2 PURPOSE OF SANITATION:

The main purpose of sanitation is to maintain an environment, which will not affect the
public in generally. It is a preventive measure for the preservation of health of
community in general and individual. Thus, sanitation aims at creation of such condition
of living, which will not result into serious outbreak of epidemics.
5.11.3 PRINICPLES OF SANITATION:

Following are the ideal principles of sanitation which if observed results in better living
condition.

● Collection and conveyance
● Interior decoration
● Orientation of buildings
● Prevention of dampness
● Supply of water
● Treatment of waste
5.11.4 SANITARY PROJECT:

Following are the important points in any sanitary engineering projects.
● Population
● Financial aspect
● Present method of disposal
● Rainfall
● Quality of sewage
● Rate of sewage
● Source of sewage
● Topography of the area
● Treatment methods

5.11.5 IDEAL SITE FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS:
● The site for treatment unit of sewage of any town should be carefully selected and
the following aspects are to be considered at its time of final selection.
● Good foundation soil should be available for various sewage treatment units
● The general slope of sit should be neither too steep nor to flat so that the
arrangement of units are in such a way that the flow from one unit to other take
place under gravity.
● The general level of the site should be the lowest level area of the town or city so
that the sewage from the entire city can be collected and conveyed by gravity only.
● The location of the site should be such that enough area is available nearby when
in becomes necessary in future to expand the existing project.
● The site should be safe from floods for all the time.
● The site should be situated on levered side of the winds that the undesirable
odoursk would be prevented from entering the city or town.
5.11.6 DESIGN AND PLANNING OF A SEWERAGE SYSTEM:

The following points should be taken into consideration while designing the sewerage
system1.
● The sewerage system should be carefully planned and designed and so as to
remove the entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses and up to
the point of disposal.
● The sewer should be of adequate size so as to avoid their overflow and subsequent
damages to properties and health hazards.
● The sewer pipes should be designed on a slope that will permit reasonable velocity
of flow. This flow velocity should neither be too large as to scour the sewer pipe
material nor should be too small to cause deposition of solids in the sewer bottoms.

● In order to provide adequate and economical treatment it is necessary to study the
constituents of sewage produced thoroughly in the project and quality of water that
will receive the sewage.
● The sewers are generally designed to carry water from basement and should be
therefore be 2-3 meters deep. As far as possible there should be design to flow ½
or ¾ full.
5.11.7 METHODS OF CARRYING REFUSE:

The following are the two methods, which are employed for the collection of and disposal
of Refuse of a locality.
● Conservancy system:
The dry or the conveyance system is the earlier method and even now practiced in
unsewered area. This consists in the accumulation of night soil or human excreta in
latrines or prives, cesspools, etc., and its subsequent removal manually and
transportation in vehicles to points of ultimate disposal. The wastewater from kitchen,
baths, etc., called sullage and the strong water are collected separately in gutters and
lead of into neighboring drainage channels, rivers etc., for disposal.
● Water carriage system:
In this system, the night soil gets mixed up with enough wastewater forming
sewage and is collected in a system of pipes and transported for subsequent treatment
and disposal in a harmless manner without any nuisance. As the dilution of the solid
matter in water to form sewage is normally very great (sewage is known to consist as
much as 99.9% by weight of water and only 0.1% of solid matter), sewage easily flows
in accordance with the loss of hydraulics as applied to the flow of water. This system is
very advantageous and universally employed in practice.
5.11.8 SEWERAGE SYSTEM:

The sewerage system is classified according to the purpose for which they are put in uses
as,

● The combined system: In this system, the same sewer is intended to carry the domestic
sewage, industrial waste as well as the surface and the storm water flow.
● The separate system: In this system, the domestic sewage and industrial waste are
carried in one set of sewers whereas the storm and surface waters are carried in another
set of sewers.
● The partially separate system: A partially system is a modification of the separate
system in which the separate sewer discharging domestic sewage and industrial wastes
also contains a portion of the surface water drained from back paved yards and roofs of
houses.
5.11.9 WASTEWATER TREATMENT:

Sewage must be treated before the disposal and as to make it safe. The degree of treatment
depends upon the quality of sewage and the characteristics of the source of disposal.
Treatment is usually classified as:
● Preliminary treatment
● Primary treatment
● Secondary or biological treatment
● Final treatment
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT: It consists solely in separating the floating material

and also the heavy settle able in organic solids. This treatment reduces the BOD of the
waste by about 15-30%; preliminary treatment includes screening, grit chamber or
detritus tank and skimming tanks.
PRIMARY TREATMENT: It consists of removing large suspended organic solids.
This is usually accomplished by sedimentation in settling basins.

SECONDARY OR BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT: It involves further treatment of

the effluent from the primary treatment units. This is generally accomplished through
biological process using filtration or activated sludge process.
FINAL TREATMENT (TERTIARY TREATMENT): This is adopted particularly to kill
pathogenic bacteria. This is usually carried out while disposing sewage into the river, which
is again used by a nearby town.
5.12 WATER SUPPLY SCHEME FOR VILLAGE: MELUKOTE

Melukote in Pandavapura taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one of the
sacred places in Karnataka. The place is also known as Thirunarayanapuram. It is built on rocky
hills, known as Yadugiri, Yaadavagiri and Yadushailadweepa, overlooking the Cauvery valley.
Melukote is about 51 km (32 miles) from Mysore and 133 km (83 mi) from Bangalore.
Melukote is the location of the Cheluvanarayana Swamy Temple, with a collection of crowns
and jewels which are brought to the temple for the annual celebration. On the top of the hill is
the temple of Yoganarasimha. Many more shrines and ponds are located in the town. Melukote is
home to the Academy of Sanskrit Research, which has collected thousands of manuscripts. Early
in the 12th century, the famous Srivaishnava saint Sri Ramanujacharya, who hailed from Tamil
Nadu, stayed at Melukote for about 12 years. It has thus become a prominent centre of the
Srivaishnava sect.
Melukote is a municipal town and holy center of the same name, situated at a distance of 36 km
(22 miles) north-west of Mandya, and 51 km (32 miles) north of Mysore. According to
mythological account, this place was known as Narayanadri, Vedadri, Yadavadri, Yathishaila
and Tirunarayanapura. The name of the place is derived from the temple of Narayanaswamy
which is built on the hillock, surrounded by a fort. It is built on a granite rocky hill-range named
Yadugiri, which is 3,589 feet (1,094 m) high above sea level.
Early in 12th century, the great Srivaishnava saint Sri Ramanuja took up his residence lived in
this location for about 14 years. It thus became a prominent centre of the Srivaishnava sect of
Brahmins, who obtained from the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana, who had become a follower of
the Acharya, an assignment of the fertile tracts of land in the neighbourhood, especially of the
AshtaGramas, on either bank of the Cauvery in the 14th century, the place suffered at the hands
of Muslim invaders, and it was at Tondanur (Tonnur) at the southern foot of the hills, where the

Hoysala king retired. It was subsequently restored, in about 1460, by ThimmannaDannayaka, a

chief of Nagamangala, who was an army commander of the Vijayanagar king Mallikarjuna or
Immadi Prudhadeva Raya.
5.13 DETAILS OF SURVEY UNDERTAKEN:

RECONNAISSANCE: -
The site is selected from the treatment plant & details are collected at the site. Surveying is
then conducted along the proposed pipeline. The following surveys are conducted
a) Village traversing.
● Longitudinal section from source to the treatment plant and from treatment plant to the
overhead tank (OHT) or reservoir
● Longitudinal section along the left and right side of the roads in the entire village
● Block level at water treatment plant and waste water treatment plant.
VILLAGE TRAVERSING: -To obtain information layout of village, population, no-of

houses and existing water supply schemes.
EQUIPMENTS: -
● Plane table & accessories.
● Level with stand & staff.
● Measuring tape.
● Ranging rods.
● Chain
● Cross staff

PROCEDURE: - A map of the village is to be obtained using plane table methods and various
details regarding existing distribution system, layouts of loads, houses, temples, etc. are
measured on plane table sheet.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION ALONG PROPOSED PIPELINE:
Levelling is carried out along the proposed pipeline from water source to treatment plant and
from treatment plant to the distribution reservoir site. Levelling is started from an established
bench mark. Levels are taken at every 30m intervals along the proposed pipe line.
BLOCK LEVELS AT TREATMENT SITE FOR Intake, Jack well, Water Treatment
Plant, Over Head Tank, Proposed Village, Waste water treatment Plant:
Selection of site for treatment plant unit for optimum & economical utilization of resources
is important. Hence block levels are carried out to be known elevation & depressions in the
area. Block levels are taken at intake 4x4 m at 1 meter interval, jack well 4x4m at 2-meter
interval, water treatment plant 20x20m at 5meter interval, overhead tank 5x5 at 1 meter
interval, proposed village 40x40 at 10meter interval, waste water treatment plant 20x20m
at 5meter interval. Contours are drawn at an interval of 0.5m in the grid by interpolation.
5.14 ESTIMATION OF POPULATION

The future population of the town is to be estimated using the population forecasting methods:
-
● Arithmetic increase method

● Geometrical increase method
● Incremental Increase Method
YEAR POPULATION INCREASE PER

DECADE
1981 2300
1991 2800 600
2001 3300 1100
2011 4000 1800

2021 5300 2100
X=(600+1100+1800+2100)/4=1300
ARITHMATIC INCREASE METHOD:
ESTIMATED POPULATION IN 2031 = 6600
ESTIMATED POPULATION IN 2041 = 7900
Hence the population is assumed to be 9200
5.15 CALCULATION OF WATER DEMAND:

PER CAPTIA DEMAND:
It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and includes the domestic
use, Industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes, thefts etc.., It may be therefore
expressed as Liters per capita per day (LPCD).
● Domestic demand=135 lit/day/person
● Total domestic demand= 135*9200=1242000 lit/day
● Parks = 3.5 lit/m2/day
Assuming the total park area in Melukote to be 270 m2.
Total water demand for parks = 270*3.5 = 945 lit/day
● Schools and colleges = 45 lpcd
Number of schools and colleges = 5
Having 200 students each(assumed)
Total water demand for schools and colleges = 45*5*200 = 45000 lit/day
● Hospitals (<100 beds) = 340 lpcd
Number of hospitals in Melkote = 1
Total water demand for hospital = 30000 lit/day(approx.)
● Restaurants = 70 lpcd
Number of restaurants = 15 (assumed)

Total water demand for restaurants = 30000 lit/day (approx.)
● Livestock: -
Cows = 68.25 lpcd
Goats = 13.6 lpcd
Total livestock demand = 2000 lit/day (approx.)
● Commercial establishments = 45 lpcd
Number of commercial establishments = 30
Total water demand for commercial estd. = 40000 lit/day (approx.)
● Mattas = 80 lpcd
Number of Mattas = 20 with capacity of 30 persons
Total water demand for Mattas = 20*30*80
= 48000 lit/day
Therefore, the TOTAL WATER DEMAND = 1437805lit/day = 1.43MLD
5.16 COMPONENTS OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT:

INTAKE WELL AND SCREEN:
The intake well is a circular or rectangular well with circular ends located in a river bed, so
that it always remains surrounded with water, even during low flood stage. The well is built in
masonry or concrete, and is raised above the river HFL and covered at the top by wooden sleepers
etc. as to make it approachable from the river bank through a foot bridge arrangement.
Screens are generally provided in front of the intake works, to exclude the large sized particles.
Screens are normally inclined at about 45° - 60° to the horizontal, to increase the opening area to
reduce the flow velocity.
PRE-SEDIMENTATION TANK:
In order to remove the large sized and rapidly settable solids to reduce turbidity, it is
proposed to construct a pre-sedimentation tank and raw water storage.
COMBINED COAGULATION CUM SEDIMENTATION TANK (SST):

It shall be constructed to allow formation of flocs and settlement of particles. The fine
colloidal particles present in water, gets attracted and absorbed in these flocs, forming the bigger
sized flocculated particles.
RAPID GRAVITY FILTER:
Filter units shall be constructed to filter the regimented water, as usual, with provision of
wash water tank. Rapid Gravity Filter are the best and most economical and, therefore invariably
used for treating public supplies, especially for large towns and city. The treated water is not so
much safe as obtained from slow sand filter and need further treatment before they can be supplied
to the public.
CHLORINATOR:
Considering the remote area and difficulty in transporting and storing the chlorine gas
cylinders, it has been decided to use bleaching powder for disinfection by providing gravity type of
chlorinator. Bleaching powder mixed clear water will be fed by gravity into clear water tank where
contact period shall be more than half hour, which is the acceptable limit.
CASCADE TYPE AERATOR:
Since the raw water does not contain too much colour and odour, only nominal aeration
is proposed. This unit will help in maintaining the wanted oxygen levels in water, remove
dissolved iron, manganese, CO2 and H2S gases as well as colour and taste caused by volatile oils
etc.
5.17 DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT:

CALCULATIONS:
Lowest R.L of the water at intake structure = 966.900 m
Avg. G.L at intake structure = 967.0 m
Pump is mounted 1m above ground level.
Avg. water demand=1.43MLD

Pumping is done for 6 hours a day.
Design of raising main:
Q = (1.43x1010)/ (1000x60x60x60)

= 0.662m3/sec
Using Lea’s formula for most economical diameter
D = 0.97 Q1/2 to 1.22 Q1/2
Peak discharge = 1.5xQ = 1.5x0.662 = 0.993m3/sec
D = 1.22x0.761/2
= 1.067 m
Assume diameter of pipe (raising main) = d = 30 cm
.’. Area of pipe = 0.0706 m2
.’. Velocity = Q/A = 0.532/0.0706 = 9.3 m/sec
Design of the pump-to-pump water from the intake structure to the raw water storage tank,
H = Hs + HD + Hf
Hf = 4flv2/2gd
Hf = (4x0.0075x50x9.32)/ (2x9.81x0.30)
Hf= 22 m
BRAKE HORSE POWER (BHP),
BHP = √w x Q x H/η x 0.735
= 9.81x0.509x(13.2)/ (0.67)*0.735
BHP = 78 HP
5.18 DESIGN OF INLET WELL:

Providing an oblong shaped inlet well, with openings provided at 3 levels. The openings shall be
fitted with bar screens made of 20mm diameter steel bars of 50mm openings. Let the velocity
through the bar screens be limited to 0.16m/s.
The area of openings required at each level = Q/v
= 0.509/0.16 = 4.13 m2

Let us provide 3m height of screen openings; then the clear length of the openings required
= 3.18/3=1.37m
No. of openings required = 3.18/0.05 = 80 no’s
No. of bars = 80
Length occupied by 20mm diameter bars = 80x0.02 = 1.6 m
Total length of screen =0.442x1. =0.59≈ 0.6 m
Design of intake pipe to jack weltil.
Therefore, Q = 0.662 cumecs
V=0.16m/sec
Area of pipe = Q/V = 0.662/0.16 = 4.13 m2
Therefore, d = sqrt (4x3.32/π) = 4m
Diameter of the pipe is 4m
5.19 DESIGN OF RAW WATER STORAGE TANK:

The tank is designed to have a holding capacity of one day.
Volume of water to be treated per day = 880 m3/day
.’. Capacity of tank = Vol. of water to be retained for one day = 880*1 = 880m3/day
Assuming water depth to be 8.5m, we have,
Area A =880/8.5=103.52m2
.’. Día of tank = sqrt(4*A/π) = 12.9m ≈ 13m
Assuming dia of outflow pipe = 50cms = 0.5m
Discharge per day = 880/ (24*60*60) = 0.0101 m3/sec
.’. Velocity of flow in pipe = Q/A = 0.01/(π*0.5*0.5/4)
= 0.05 m/sec
Now, V = sqrt(2gH) where, V = Velocity of flow in pipe
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2

H = Height of water in tank
.’. H = V2/(2*g) = 0.052/ (2*9.81) = 1.27*10-4 = 0.130mm,
which is the minimum height required in the tank to produce a velocity of 0.05m/sec in the
pipe. A regulator is provided in the pipe along with a pressure gauge in order to maintain the
same velocity in case of variations in the height of water in the tank.
5.20 PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK:

Q = 1437000 liters/day
= 1437000 (1000*24*60*60) = 0.016 m3/sec Detention

period is assumed to be 3hrs.
Quantity of water treated per day = 880m3
Assume height of tank as 4.5m
.’. volume of tank = D2((0.011D) +(0.785H))
880*3/24 = D2((0.011D) +(0.785*4.5))
D = 5.8 m
.’. Surface area (As) of tank = 128 m2
Surface loading = 0.012/As = 0.012/128 = 10.93x10-5 m/sec
Vo = 9.375x10-5 m/sec = Vh
Settling velocity is given by,
Vs = Depth/detention time = 4.5/ (3*60*60) = 4.387x10-4 m/sec.
Weir loading rate = 880/(π*D)
= 880/(π*5.6) = 51.5 m3/m day
Width of inlet zone = 20% of diameter
Width of settling zone = (6.2-2.9)/2 = 2.24 m
5.21 COAGULATION SEDIMENTATION PLANT:

Coagulant added is Alum.

Given pH=8
The coagulant added: ALUM
Alkalinity of water is 4.5mg/lit of CaCO3 (nat)
# Quantity of water treated =1.24MLD
# Quantity of filter ALUM required at 20 mg/lit= 20 x1.24x 106 mg/day

=20 x 1.24 = 24 kg/day
Thus, the following chemical reaction will take place:
Al2 (SO4)3.18H2O+3Ca (HCO3)2 = 2AL (OH) 3+3CaSO4+18H20+6CO2
● CaCO3+H2O+CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2
● CaCO3-->CaO+CO2
The molecular weight shall be:
AL2(SO4)3.18H20={(2x27)+3x(32+(16x4))+18x((1x2)+16)}=666gm
Ca(HCO3)2=40+(1+12+48)x2=162gm
CaO=40+16=56gm
From the above equations 3x100parts of CaO3 will produce the same alkalinity as that off
660mg of ALUM
Quantity of CaCO3 required producing the same alkalinity which is equal to 20mg/litre
=> (3x100x20)/666=9.01mg/lit
The natural alkalinity available in CaCO3 =4.5mg/lit
Additional alkaline required to be added to form the lime=40.5mg/lit of CaCO 3
Thus, the above equation clearly states that 40 parts of CaCO3 produce by 56 parts of CaO.
Therefore, Cao required = (4.5 x 56)/100 = 2.52 mg/lit
But Quick lime required = (2.52 x 100)/80 = 3.156 mg/lit
The quantity of lime required for treatment = 1.10x 106 x 3.156 mg/day
= 3.74 kg/day
And, from above result,

The quantity of alum = kg/day
Or, alum = 18/ (24 x 3600) = 0.0002 kg/sec.
This coagulant is dispensed using a dry feeding device. These are in the form of a tank with a
hopper bottom. Agitating plates are placed inside the tank to prevent the arching the coagulant.
The coagulant is in the powdered form and is allowed to fall in the mixing basin. Its dose is
regulated by the speed of a toothed wheel or a helical screw. The speed of the toothed wheel or
the helical screw is controlled by connecting it to a venturi device installed in the raw water
pipes bringing the water to the mixing basin.
5.22 MIXING THE COAGULANT IN A MIXING BASIN WITH BAFFLE WALLS

Design:
Assume Velocity of flow = 0.3 m/sec

Detention time = 30min.
Volume of water to be treated per day = 880m3/day
.’. Volume of water required to be treated in 30min = Capacity of tank = 880*30/(24*60)
= 18.60m3
Length of flow = velocity*Detention period
= 0.3*30*60 = 540m
The required c/s between each baffle is assumed to be 0.5m.
.’. Depth of water in the basin = 0.24/0.5 = 0.48 ≈ 0.5m
The clear opening between end of each baffle is kept equal to 1.5 times the distance between
baffles = 1.5*0.5 = 0.75m
Assume clear with of clear compartment as 9m.
Effective length of each channel = clear width of each compartment – (2*0.5 of clear opening)
= 9 – (0.5*2*0.75)
= 8.25m
.’. No. of channels = Total flow length/eff. Flow length of each channel

= 540/8.25 = 65.45 ≈ 66
.’. The total no. of channels =66 ; and 66/2 = 33 in each half.
Clear length of tank excluding baffle walls and side walls = No. of channels x distance b/w baffles
= 33*0.5 =16.5m
Assume thickness of baffle = 7.5cm
.’. Overall, inside length of tank = 18+ ((7.5/100) x no. of baffles)
= 18 + ((7.5/100) x (33-1))
= 19.7m ≈ 20m
1.21 SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION TANK:

Average daily consumption = Volume of water treated per day =865.5 m3
Assume detention period of 4hrs.
Quantity of water to be treated =880*4/24 = 145m3
.’. Capacity of tank = 146m3
Assuming depth of water in tank = 4m, we have,
Plan area = Breadth* length= capacity/depth
= 146/4 = 36.5m3
Take Breadth = 9m
.’. Length = 36.25/9 = 4.02 ≈ 4m
Settling tank dimension = 4x9x4=144m3
Providing an extra depth of 0.5m at the starting tank, i.e.; a depth of 4.5 at the start and providing a
slope of 1in30 along the length. We get 4.5+ 5/5 = 5.5m, at the end.
1.22 DESIGN OF FLOCCULATION CHAMBER:

The flocculation chamber 4 is provided at the entry and its depth is assumed to be half the depth
of the tank at the start, i.e., near flocculation chamber.
i.e., 4/2 = 2m = depth of flocculation tank.

The period of flocculation chamber = (900/24) *(5/10) = 18.75m3 ≈ 19m3
Area or plan of flocculation tank = capacity of tank/ tank depth
= 19/2.25 = 8.44≈ 8.5m2
.’. Breadth is same as that of settling tank = 9m
Length*Breadth = 8.5
.’. Length = 8.5/9 = 0.94 ≈ 1m
1.23 FILTRATION BY RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS:

Water required per day = 1.43 MLD
Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter, every day, we have,
Total filtered water required per day = 1.43*9
= 12.87lit/day
Now, assuming that 0.5hrs is lost every day in washing the filter, we have,
Filtered water required per hour = 0.27 ML/hr.
Assuming the rate of filtration to be 5000litres/hr/sq. m, we have,
The area of filter required = 0.27*106/5000
= 54 m2
Now, assuming the length of the filter bed(L) as 1.5 times the width of the filter bed(B), and two
beds, the total area provided is,
2*(L * B) = 54
2*(1.5B)*(B) = 54
.’. B = 4.24 m ≈ 4.3m
L = 1.5B = 1.5*4.5 = 6.75 m ≈ 6.8m
Hence, adopt 2 filter units, each of dimensions = 6.75 x 4.3

Now, let a manifold and lateral system be provided below the filter bed, for receiving the filtered
water and to allow back washing for cleaning the filter. This consists of central manifold pipe with
laterals having perforations at the bottom.
.’. Total area of perforations = 0.2% * filter area
= (0.2/100) *(6.75*4.3) m2 = 0.06 m2

Assuming the area of each lateral = 2 times the area of perforations
Total area of laterals = 2*Total area of perforations
= 2*0.06m2 = 0.122 m2
Assuming the area of manifold to be about twice the area of laterals,
The area of manifold = 2*0.122 = 0.24 m2
.’. Dia of manifold (d) is given by, π/4*d2=
0.24
.’. d = 0.56m
Hence, use a 53 cm dia manifold pipe laid lengthwise along the centre of the filter bottom.
Laterals running perpendicular to manifold (width wise) emanating from the manifold may be
laid at a spacing of say 15cm. The number of laterals is then given as,
= 6.75/0.15 = 44.7 say 45
On the either side of manifold. Hence use 86 laterals in all, in each unit.
Now, length of each lateral = (width of filter/2) – (Dia of manifold/2)
= (4.3/2) – (0.56/2)
= 1.97m
Now, adopting 13mm diameter perforations in the laterals, we have,
Total area of perforations = 0.055
=550 cm2 = x*(π/4) *(1.3)2 Where x =

Total no. of perforations in all 86 laterals.
.’. x = 550*(π/4) *(1/1.3) = 332.28 say
333.’. No. of perforations in each lateral = 333/86 = 3.9; say 4.

.’. area of perforations per lateral = 4*((π/4) *(1.3)2) cm2 = 5.30 cm2 .
Now, area of each lateral = 2*Area of perforations per lateral
= 2*5.30 = 10.6cm2
.’. Dia of each lateral = sqrt (10.6*(π/4))
= 3.67cm; say 3.7cm
Hence, use 86 laterals each of 3.7cm dia, @ 15cm c/c, each having 4 perforations of 13mm size,
with 53cm dia manifold.
DISINFECTION PROCESS:
1.24 CHLORINATION:
Chlorine in its various forms is invariably and most universally used for disinfecting public
water supplies. It is cheap, reliable, easy to handle, easily measurable, and above all, it can
provide residual disinfecting effects for long periods, thus affording complete protection
against future recontamination of water in the distribution system.
Since, Bleaching powder is a cheap disinfectant and contains 30% of available chlorine; it can be
used in the disinfection process.
Amount of annual requirement of bleaching powder is,
Avg. annual water demand = 1.43MLD
Assume 0.3ppm of chlorine dose is required for disinfection.
.’. Amount of chlorine required daily = 1mg/ l
= 1.43x106 lt.
= 1.43x106 mg = 1.43Kg
Since the chlorine content in bleaching powder is 30%, it means that 30Kg of chlorine is
contained in 100Kg of bleaching powder.
.’. Amount of bleaching powder required daily = (1.43*100)/30 = 4.73 kg
.’. Annual consumption of bleaching powder = 4.13*365 = 1525 Kg
= 1.50 tons.

1.25 DESIGN OF CASCADE AERATOR:
Water requirement = 1.43MLD
⇒Q=1.43*106/ (24*60*60*1000)
=0.016 cumecs
Width of weir proposed= 3.0m
For broad crested weir, Q=1.65*B*H1.5
⇒ H = (Q/1.65*B)2/3
= (0.013/1.65*3)2/3
=0.019m ≈ 2cm
Provide 3 steps of 0.3m.
Design of tank to store clean water:
Quantity of water to be stored per day = 1.43MLD
Quantity of water to be stored for 1.5 days as a safety factor
= 1.43*1.5 = 2.14MLD
.’. The capacity of the tank = 2140 m3
Assume depth of tank H = 3m
The capacity of a circular tank of depth H and dia d is given by,
Volume = d2 (0.011d + 0.785H)
2140= d2 (0.011*d + 0.785*3)
.’. d = 28.3m
1.26 DESIGN OF PUMP-TO-PUMP WATER FROM STORAGE TANK TO OVERHEAD TANK:

Average daily demand = 1.43MLD
Maximum daily demand = 1.43*1.5 = 2.140MLD
Let the height of the storage tank from the G.L be 8m.

Total length of pipe = 910m
Assume the working duration of the pump as 8hrs per day.
.’. the capacity of the pump should be = 2.140*24/8
= 7MLD
Discharge required per second Q = (7*106) / (1000*24*60*60)
= 0.063 m3/sec
Using Lea’s formula for most economical diameter
D = 0.97 Q1/2 to 1.22 Q1/2
D = 1.22*0.0631/2
= 0.30m
Assume diameter of pipe (raising main) = d =30cm
.’. area of pipe = 0.07069 m2
.’. velocity = Q/A = 0.51/0.07069 = 7.20 m/sec
Design of the pump-to-pump water from the intake structure to the raw water storage tank,
H = Hs + HD + Hf
Hs + HD = 73.51m
Hf = 4flv2/2gd
= (4*0.0075*310*7.22)/(2*9.81*0.3)
Hf = 3.50m
Total lift against which the pump must work = 73.51+3.50
= 77.0
Assume efficiency of pump as 0.67
Brake horse power of the pump (BHP)
= √wQH/η*0.735

= (9.81*0.063*77)/(0.67*0.735)
BHP =28HP
1.27 DESIGN OF OVERHEAD TANK:

Assuming following pattern of % draw off from daily supply
7.00am-8.00am 30% = 0.440MLD
8.00am-5.00pm 35% = 0.514MLD
5.00pm-6.30pm 30% =0.442MLD
6.30pm-7.00am 5% = 0.073MLD
TOTAL=1.43MLD
For 3 days capacity Assume
depth of water=10m
Let the height of the top surface of the tank be 8m from the ground surface.
Volume of water=1.43*1000*3
Capacity=4290m3/days
Providing two tanks- Surface

area=1530/10
=153sq.m
Dia of tank = sqrt (153/π) = 6.98m ≈ 7m
Therefore, provide two overhead tanks of 7m dia and depth of 10.0m



UNITS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT:
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK:
The Clarification of sewage by the process of ‘sedimentation’ can be affected by

providing conditions under which the suspended material present in sewage can settle out.
This is brought about in specially designed tanks called Primary Sedimentation Tanks.
TRICKLING FILTERS:
Trickling filters are now almost universally adopted for giving secondary treatment to
sewage. These filters, also called as percolating filters or sprinkling filters, consist of tanks
of coarser filtering media, over which the sewage is allowed to sprinkle or trickle down, by
means of spray nozzles or rotary distributors. The percolating sewage is collected at the
bottom of the tank through a well-designed underdrainage system. The purification of the
sewage is brought about manly by the aerobic bacteria, which form a bacterial film around
the particles of the filtering media. The action due to the mechanical straining of the filter
bed is much less. In order to ensure the large-scale growth of the aerobic bacteria, sufficient
quantity of oxygen is supplied by providing suitable ventilation facilities in the body of the
filter; and also to some extent by the intermittent functioning of the filter.
SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION TANK:
A filter does remove only a very small percentage of the finely divided suspended organic
matter present in sewage, while the majority of this organic matter undergoes a change of
character, only due to the biological oxidation and nitrification taking place in the filter. Due
to this aerobic oxidation and nitrification that takes place in the filter, the organic solids are
converted into coagulated suspended mass, which is heavier and bulkier, and would thus
settle down by gravity, if allowed to dos so in sedimentation tanks. The effluent of the filter
is, therefore, passed through a sedimentation tank, called Secondary settling tank or Humus
Tank.

SLUDGE DIGESTION TANK:
The sludge withdrawn from the sedimentation basins contains a lot of putrescible
organic matter, and if disposed of without any treatment, the organic matter may
decompose, producing foul gases and a lot of nuisance, pollution, and health hazards. In
order to avoid such pollutions, the sludge is, first of all, stabilized by decomposing the
organic matter under controlled anaerobic conditions, and then disposed off suitably after
drying-on-drying beds, etc. The process of stabilization is called the sludge digestion; and
the tank where the process is carried out is called the sludge digestion tank.
Three distinct stages have been found to occur in the biological action involved in the
natural process of sludge digestion tank. These stages are:
● Acid
fermentation
● Acid regression
● Alkaline fermentation
SLUDGE DRYING BED:
Sludge drying beds are open beds of land, 45 to 60 cm deep, and consisting of about
30 to 45 cm thick graded layers of gravel or crushed stone varying in size from 15 cm at
bottom to 1.25 cm at top, and overlain by 10 to 15 cm thick coarse sand layer. Open jointed
under-drain pipes (15cm dia) @ 5 to 7 cm c/c spacing are laid below the gravel layer in
valleys, at a longitudinal slope of about 1 in 100. The beds are around 15 X 30 m and are
surrounded by brick walls rising about 1 meter above the sand surface.
DESIGN OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT UNITS:

Design of Inlet pipe
Assuming average velocity=0.9m/s
Discharge = 1154/(8x60x60)
Area of inlet pipe required.
=(Discharge) = 1154 = 0.0445 m3

(velocity) (8 * 60 * 60 * 0.9)
Diameter of inlet pipe = sqrt ((4 * 0.0445)/pi) = 0.56m = 560mm
Design of Oxidation Pond
Quantity of wastewater to be treated = Quantity of water supplied x * 0.9 = 0.99mld
=990cum
The BOD content per day 0.99 * 300mg / l = 297kg
Now assuming the organic loading in the pond say 300kg/hectare/day.
Surface area required.
= 35 kg/d = 0.916x * 10 ^ 4 * m 2 = 1170m2

366 kg/ha
Assuming the length (L) of the tank as twice of its width (B), we have
2B2 = 9160; B=67.67m
B = 70 m; L = 100m
Using a tank with depth as 4 m; we have
The provided capacity =70 * 100 * 4 = 28000m3
Capacity = Sewage flow per day x Detention time in days
Capacity in Cu.m = 28000/990

Sewage Flow per day in cum /day

=28.83 days …. = 29 days.
Hence, provided capacity.
Length = 70m; Breadth =100m; Depth = 4+1 (free board) =5m; (70X100X5)










DRONE SURVEY
General
Drones are powerful tools to help in the mapping and surveying industry. They can
effectively perform work for 3D mapping, land surveys, photogrammetry, and topographic
surveying by flying above the ground. a drone survey is an aerial survey done by a drone and it is
growing in popularity.
Drone Based Survey

A drone survey refers to the use of a drone, or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), to capture aerial
data with downward-facing sensors, such as RGB or Multispectral cameras, and LIDAR
payloads. During a Drone survey with an RGB camera, the ground is Photographed several times
from different angles, and each image is tagged with coordinates
Survey drones generate high-resolution Orth mosaics and detailed 3D models of areas where
low-quality, outdated or even no data, are available. They thus Enable high-accuracy cadastral
maps to be produced quickly and easily, even in complex or difficult to access environments.
Surveyors can also extract. Features from the images, such as signs, curbs, road markers, fire
hydrants and drains.
Drone surveys involve taking photos from overhead, which share parallels with satellite imagery.
The drones take photos either from the sky or from a controlled height. The drones are equipped
with cameras that can produce high-resolution images. A computer program then analyzes the
photos taken by the drone and creates a 3D model from them.
The high resolution aerial images captured by drones are called as Orth mosaic, meaning that
images are aligned and corrected and any camera distortion is removed. The images are then
stitched together to create the 3D model.
Features of the Drone:
DRONE was from EDALL system with 16MP camera.

Model : White hawk Aircraft type: Quadcopter

Payload weight :150gms Battery : 129 W

Max flight Time : 30 min Range : 2km
Benefits of Drones in Surveying
1. Reduce field time and survey costs
Capturing topographic data with a drone is up to five times faster than with land-based methods
and requires less manpower. With PPK geo-tagging, you also save time, as placing numerous
GCPs is no longer necessary. You ultimately deliver your survey results faster and at a lower
cost.
2. Provide accurate and exhaustive data
Total stations only measure individual points. One drone flight produces thousands of
measurements, which can be represented in different formats (Orth mosaic, point cloud, DTM,
DSM, contour lines, etc.). Each pixel of the produced map or point of the 3D model contains 3D
geo-data.
3. Map otherwise inaccessible areas
An aerial mapping drone can take off and fly almost anywhere. You are no longer limited by
unreachable areas, unsafe steep slopes or harsh terrain unsuitable for traditional measuring tools.
You do not need to close down highways or train tracks. In fact, you can capture data during
operation without an organizational overhead.
PROCEDURE FOR DRONE SURVEYING:
Experiment Title: Contour Generation using DTM derived from Drone survey
Objective: To generate a contour using DTM
Materials/software:
1. UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle)

2. Image processing software (e.g. Agisoft Meta shape, Pix4D)
3. Computer
4. GIS Software(E.g. QGIS, ArcGIS, Global Mapper)
Procedure:
1. Plan the drone flight mission:
2. Determine the area to be covered

3. Define the flight altitude and speed

4. Decide on the overlap ratio between images
5. Plan the flight path for the drone
Fly the drone:

1. Perform a pre-flight inspection of the drone and camera
2. Launch the drone and begin the flight mission
3. Monitor the drone's progress and battery life
4. Land the drone once the mission is complete
Transfer the images to the computer:

1. Connect the camera to the computer or remove the memory card from the camera
and insert it into the computer
2. Transfer the images to a folder on the computer
3. Import the images into the image processing software:
4. Open the image processing software
5. Create a new project
6. Import the images into the software
Align the images:

1. Select the images to be used for alignment
2. Start the alignment process
3. Review the alignment results and make any necessary adjustments
Generate the point cloud:

1. Use the aligned images to create a 3D point cloud
2. Review the point cloud and make any necessary adjustments
3. Generate the DTM:
4. Use the point cloud to generate a DTM
5. Review the DTM and make any necessary adjustments

Export the DTM:

1. Export the DTM as a raster file or in a format suitable for use in GIS software
2. Save the DTM to a folder on the computer
Analyze the DTM:

1. Use GIS software to analyze the DTM and extract features such as elevation, slope,
and aspect
2. Evaluate the results:
3. Review the DTM and analyze the extracted features
4. Evaluate the accuracy of the DTM by comparing it to ground-truth data or other sources
Contour generation from a Digital Terrain Model (DTM):

Open QGIS and add the DTM to the project. The DTM should be in a compatible format like
GeoTIFF.
Go to Raster > Extraction > Contour. This will open the Contour dialog box. In the Contour
dialog box, select the following options: Input layer: Choose the DTM layer.
Output layer: Choose a name and location for the output contour layer.
Contour interval: Enter the desired contour interval in the same unit as the
DTM. Attribute name: Enter a name for the contour attribute.
Click on the OK button. QGIS will generate the contour layer and add it to the project.

You can style the contour layer by right-clicking on it in the Layers panel and selecting
Properties. In the Layer Properties dialog box, you can choose a style for the contour lines, such
as color, width, and interval. You can also label the contour lines by selecting the Labels tab
and choosing a font, size, and placement for the labels.
Combined map of NTP, OTP, Highway and water supply and wastewater projects

HIGHWAY AND WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT DATA

EXTRACTED AND PROCESSED DATA



HIGHWAY PROFILE
WATER SUPPLY PROFILE

NTP DATA AND PROCESSED DATA







OTP DATA AND PROCESSED DATA


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EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT REPORT |2024 |

GEOLOGICAL REPORT OF STUDY AREA

“Geology differs from physics, chemistry, and biology in that

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG,

To impart training in the use of surveying instruments and to acquire a comprehensive

1.2 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF A PROJECT

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PLACE

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

Early in the 12th century, the famous srivaishnava saint RAMANUJACHARYA,who

View of lord Narasimha Swamy temple

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

1.4 STAGES OF SURVEY WORK

1.4.1 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

1.4.2 PRELIMINARY SURVEY

1.4.3 FLY LEVELLING

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

1.5 GEOLOGICAL STUDY

1.5.2 STUDY AREA

Fig 1.1: Study area map

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of map characterized by large scale

Fig 1.2: Highway alignment, NTP and OTP sites map

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

1.5.6 STRIKE AND DIP

Fig 1.3: Geological structure map.

1.5.7 TOPOSHEET MAP OF STUDY AREA

Fig 1.4: Toposheet

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

1.5.8 TRANSPORTATION NETWORK MAP OF PANDAVAPURA TALUK

Fig 1.5: Road and Rail map

1.6 NEW TANK PROJECT

1.6.1 STUDY AREA

Fig 1.6: Study area of NTP site

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

1.6.2 CATCHMENT AREA

Fig 1.7: Drainage Map of the Proposed NTP catchment

1.6.3 MINI WATERSHED MAP

Fig 1.8: Mini watershed Map of the proposed NT catchment

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA

1. Sindhughatta 6.1877 14.51

2. Singapura 11.1870 26.25

3. Melukote 13.2604 31.141

4. Horalahalli 11.9659 28.08

1.6.4 GEOMORPHOLOGY MAP

Fig 1.9: Geomorphology map of the proposed NT catchment Map

SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

1. Pediment – Inseberg Complex 69.32205563 21.89711

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

Shallow weathered/shallow buried 6.972651272 2.202487

1.6.5 LITHOLOGY MAP

Fig 1.10: Lithology Map of NTP

SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA

1 Migmatite And Granddiorite Tonalitic Gness 5.25 100

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

1.7.1 Mechanical weathering

Exfoliation is a form of mechanical weathering in which plates of rock are stripped

1.7.2 Chemical weathering

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

Fig 1.11: Physical Disintegrated rock pieces

DEPT.OF CIVIL ENGG. DSCE

Fig 1.12: Briefing about Geological condition of proposed NT area

1.7.3 SLOPE MAP

Fig 1.14: Slope Map of proposed NT catchment