Anatomy Reading Notes Membranes (p. 73-74) I. Introduction a. Membranes- A combination of epithelia and connective tissues b.

Consists of an epithelial sheet and an underlying connective tissue layer c. Cover and protect other structures and tissues in the body d. 4 types i. Mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial Mucous Membranes a. Line passageways that communicate with the exterior including digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts b. Form barrier that resists entry to pathogens c. Epithelial surfaces kept moist at all times, lubricated by mucous or other glandular secretions or exposure to fluids such as urine or semen d. Areolar tissue component of mucous membrane is called lamina propria i. Forms bridge that connects the epithelium to underlying structures ii. Support for blood vessels and nerves that supply the epithelium e. Many are line by simple epithelia that perform absorptive or secretory functions i. Ex. Simple columnuar of digestive tract ii. Mucous membrane of the mouth contains a stratified squamous epithelium and the mucous membrane along most of the urinary tract as transitional epithelium Serous Membranes a. Line the subdivisions of the ventral body cavity b. Three types each consisting of a mesothelium supported by a areolar tissue i. Pleura-lines the pleural cavities and covers the lungs ii. Peritroneum-lines the peritroneal cavity and covers the surfaces of the enclosed organism iii. Pericardium-lines the pericardial cavity and covers the heart c. Thin and firmly attach to the body wall and to the organs they cover i. Thin so relatively permeable and tissue fluids diffuse onto exposed surface keeping it moist and slippery d. Parietal and visceral portions close contact, minimizes friction between these sufaces e. Transudate-The fluid formed on surfaces of serous membranes i. Specific transudates called pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid etc ii. Small volume so enough to prevent friction between wall cavities and organ surfaces Cutaneous Membranes a. Skin, covers the surface of the body b. Consists of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and an underlying layer of areolar tissue reinforced by a layer of dense connective tissue c. Thick, relatively waterproof, and usually dry

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Synovial Membranes a. Extensive areas of areolar tissue bounded by an incomplete superficial layer of squamous and cuboidal cells b. Joints that permit a significant movement are surrounded by a fibrous capsule and contain a joint cavity line by a synovial membrane c. Usually called an epithelium but develops within CT and differs from other epithelia in three ways i. There is no basal lamina or reticular lamina ii. The cellular layers is incomplete with gaps between adjacent cells iii. The epithelial cells are derived from macrophages and fibroblasts of the adjacent connective tissue. Some are phagocytic and others are secretory 1. phagocyctic cells remove cell debris or pathogens that could disrupt the joint function 2. secretory cells regulate the composition of the synovial fluid. The SV lubricates cartilages in the joint, distributes oxygen and nutrients and cushions shock at the joint

Hair (p. 93-96) I. Hair Follicles and Hair a. Hair project beyond surface of the skin almost everywhere except over the sides and soles of the feet. Palms, sides of fingers and toes, lips, portions of external genitalia b. Nonliving structures that are formed in organs called hair follicles Hair Production a. Follicles extend deep into the dermis, projecting into the underlying subcutaneous layer. Epithelium at the follicle base surrounds a small hair papilla (a peg of CT containing capillaries and nerves b. The hair bulb consists of epithelial cells that surround the papilla c. The hair matrix is the epithelial layer involved with hair production d. Most hairs have an inner medulla and a outer cortex i. The medulla contains relatively soft and flexible soft keratin ii. Matrix cells closer to the edge of the developing hair form the hard cortex. The cortex contains hard keratin that gives hair its stiffness iii. A single layer of dead, keratinized cells at the outer surface of the hair overlap and form cuticle that coats the hair e. The hair root extends from the hair bulb to the point where internal organization of the hair is complete. The hair root attaches the hair to the hair follicle. The shaft the part we see in the surface extends from this point usually halfway to the skin surface to the exposed tip of the hair Follicle Structure a. Cells of the follicle walls into concentric layers (beginning at the hair cuticle the three layers are:)

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i. The internal root sheath 1. layer surrounds the hair root and the deeper portion of the shaft 2. produced by the cells at eh periphery of the hair matrix. Because the cells of the internal root sheath disintegrate relatively quickly, this layer does not extend the entire length of the follicle ii. The external root sheath 1. Layer extends from the skin surface to the hair matrix 2. over most of that distance it has all of the cell layers found in the superficial epidermis 3. The external root sheath joins the hair matrix , all of the cells resemble the stratum germinativum iii. The Glassy Membrane 1. This is a thickened basal lamina, wrapped in a dense connective tissue sheath Functions of Hair a. Protect scalp from uv light b. Hairs guarding entrances to nostrils and ears helps prevent foreign particles from entering c. Root Hair Plexus- Sensory nerves that surround the base of each follicle, detect touch of even single hair, early warning system (bugs, etc) d. Arrector pili-a ribbon of smooth muscle, when stimulated it pulls on follicle and elevates hair, contraction caused by emotional states or response to cold (goosebumps) Types of hairs a. Vellus Hairs i. Fine peach fuzz hairs over much of the body surface b. Intermediate Hairs i. Hairs that change in their distribution, such as the hairs of the upper and lower limbs c. Terminal Hairs i. Heavy, more deeply pigmented and sometimes curly. The hairs on your head, including your eyebrows and eyelashes Hair Color a. Pigments produced by melanocytes at the papilla b. Inherited but hormonal and environmental factors also effect c. White hair results from a combo of lack of pigment and the presence of air bubble d. Because hair is dead and inert it turns gray/white gradually not suddenly Growth and replacement of hair a. Hair grows and is shed according to the hair growth cycle b. Single hair grows for 2-5 years and is subsequently shed c. The root of the hair is firmly attached to the matrix of the follicle, at end of cycle the follicle becomes inactive and hair is now termed a club hair, when new cycle begins new hair pushes toward the surface

The Development of the Integumentary System (p. 98-99) Development of the Integumentary System The following months are the months the baby has been in the womb: 1 Month: The ectoderm is a simple epithelium overlying loosely organized mesenchyme cells. 3 Months: Epithelium now becomes stratified through repeated divisions of the basal or germinative cells. The mesenchyme differentiates into embryonic connective tissue which contain blood vessels that bring nutrients to the region. SKIN 4 Months: Basal cell layer continues to divide, basal lamina is now in irregular folds. Melanocytes migrate into this area and squeeze between germinative cells. This is like the epidermis of the adult The bottom layer, the embryonic connective tissue becomes the dermis. Fibroblasts and other connective tissue cells form from mesenchymal cells or migrate into the area. Loose connective tissue extends into the ridges, and the less vascular region has dense, irregular collage fiber. Below the dermis, the embryonic connective tissue develops into the subcutaneous layer. NAILS 4 Months: Epidermis thickens near the tips of the fingers and toes. These thickenings settle into the dermis and the borderline with the general epidermis becomes distinct. At this time period, the nail production involves all of the germinative cells of the nail field. Birth: Now nail production only is restricted to the nail root. HAIR FOLLICLES AND EXOCRINE GLANDS 4 Months: Areas of the epidermis undergo extensive divisions and forms cords of cells that grow into the dermis, EPITHELIAL COLUMNS. Mesenchymal cells are around these columns and Hair Follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands develop from these columns. Mammary Glands 5 Months: Mammary glands develop, but the epidermal thickening are much broader and extensive branching occurs Birth: Mammary glands have not completed development; for females further elaboration of duct and gland system occurs at puberty, and functional maturity occurs during pregnancy.

Sweat Glands 5 Months: Epithelial column elongates, coils, and becomes hollow to develop into a sweat gland. Birth: At birth, secretions of the gland cells to the skin surface occur. Hair Follicles and Sebaceous Glands. 5 Months: A hair follicle develops as a deep column surrounds a papilla. Hair growth will occur in the epithelium covering the papilla. An outgrowth from the epithelial column forms a sebaceous gland. Birth: At birth a hair projects from the follicle and the secretions of the sebaceous gland lubricate the hair shaft.

Nails (p.100) I. Nails a. Form on the dorsal surface of the tips of the fingers and toes b. Protect the exposed tips of the fingers and toes and help limit distortion when digits are subjected to mechanical stress c. Structure i. The nail body covers the nail bed, but nail production occurs at the nail root, an epithelial fold not visible from the surface ii. Nail body is recessed beneath the level of the surround epithelium, and it is bounded by nail grooves and nail folds. iii. A portion of the stratum corneum of the nail fold extends over the exposed nail nearest the root forming the eponychium (cuticle). iv. Underlying blood vessels give the nail its characteristics pink color but near the root these vesels maybe obscured leaving a pale crescent know as a lunula v. The free edge of the nail body extends over a thickened stratrum corneum, the hyponychium.

Bone Maintenance, Repair, and Remodeling (p.119-120) I. Introduction (p.119-120) a. Bone growth occurs when occurs when osteoblasts are creating more bone matrix than osteoclasts are removing b. The turnover rate for bone is quite high, each year almost one-fifth of the adult skeleton is broken down and then rebuilt and replaced Changes in Bone Shape a. Mineral turnover and recycling allows bone to adapt to new stresses

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i. When bone is stressed, the mineral crystals generate minute electrical fields ii. Osteoblasts are apparently attracted to these electrical fields and once in the area they begin to produce bone b. Because bones are adaptable, their shapes and surface features reflect the forces applied to them i. Regular exercise is therefore important as normal stimulus that maintains normal bone structure c. Degenerative changes in the skeleton occur after relatively brief periods of inactivity (When on crutch, unstressed bones lose mass) Injury and Repair a. A fracture is a crack in a bone. Healing of a fracture can usually occur in portions of the blood supply, endosteum, and periosteum remain intact b. Fracture repair i. Immediately after the fracture, extensive bleeding occurs. Over a period of several hours, a large blood clot or fracture hemaoma develops ii. An internal callus forms as a network of spongy bone unites the inner edges and an external callus of cartilage and bone stabilizes the outer edges iii. The cartilage of the external callus has been replaced by bone, and struts of spongy bone now unite the broken ends. Fragments of dead bone and the areas of bone closest to the break have been removed and replaced iv. Swelling initially marks the location of the fracture over time this region will be remodeled and little evidence of the fracture will remain c. Aging and the skeletal system i. The bones of the skeleton become thinner and relatively weaker as a normal part of the aging process. Osteopenia (inadequate ostification) usually develops to some degree but in some cases this process progresses to osteoporosis (reduction of bone mass and microstructural changes that compromise normal function and increases susceptibility to fracture) and the bones become dangerously weak and brittle d. Remodeling of the bone i. Bone remodeling involves the simultaneous process of adding new bone and removing previously formed bone

A Classification of Fractures (p.122) I. Classification of Fractures a. Fractures are classified to their external appearance, the site of the fracture, and the nature of the crack or break in the bone

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b. Closed Fractures, or simple, are completely closed internal and do not break skin c. Open, or compound, fractures project through the skin: they are more dangerous because of the possibility of infection or controlled bleeding Types a. Potts fracture-Occurs at the ankle and affects both the tibia and the fibula b. Comminuted fractures-shatter the affected area into a multitude of bony fragments c. Transverse fractures-Such as this fracture of the ulna break a bone across its long axis d. Spiral fracture-produced by twisting stresses that spread along the length of the bone e. Displaced fractures-produce new and abnormal bone arrangements: f. Nondisplaced fractures-Retain the normal alignment of the bones or fragments g. Colles fracture-A break in the distal portion of the radius, is typically the result of reaching out to cushion a fall h. Greenstick fracture-Only one side of the shaft is broke and the other is bent. Generally occurs in children whose long bones have yet to ossify fully i. Epiphyseal fractures-Tend to occur where the bone matrix is undergoing calcification and chondrocyctes are dying. A lean transverse fracture along this line generally heals well. Unless carefully treated, fractures between the epiphysis and the epiphyseal cartilage can permanently stop growth at this sight j. Compression fractures-occur in vertebrae subjected to extreme stresses, as when you land on your seat in a fall. They are more common when bones are weakened by osteoporosis

The Key to the Foramina and Fissures of the Skull (p. 150) The Development of the Skull (p.152-153) I. Birth a. Extensive fusions have occurred, but the cranial roof remains incomplete II. 5 Weeks a. Central nervous system is a hollow tube that runs the length of the body. Series of cartilages appear in the mesenchyme of the head beneath and alongside the expanding brain and around the developing nose, eyes and ears. Five additional pairs appear in the walls of pharynx. Located within the pharyngeal, or branchial arteries. The first arch is the mandibular arch and is the largest III. 8 Weeks a. Cartilages associated with brain enlarge and fuse forming cartilaginous chondrocranium that cradles the brain and sense organs. At 8 weeks the walls and floor are incomplete and there is no roof

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9 weeks a. Numerous centers of endochondral ossification appear within the chondrocranium. Gradually the frontal and parietal bones of the cranial roof appear as intermembranous ossification begins the overlying dermis. As centers enlarge and expand extensive fusions occur b. Mandible forms as dermal bone develops around the inferior portion of the mandibular arch 10 Weeks a. Dorsal portion of mandibular arch fuses with chondrocranium. Fused cartilages do not ossify. Osteoblasts begin sheathing them in dermal bone. On each side this sheath fuses with a bone developing at the entrance to the nasal cavity, producing two maxiallae. Ossification centers in the roof of the mouth spread to form spread to form palatine process and later fuse with maxillae b. The second arch, hyoid arch, forms near the temporal bones. Fusion of the superior tips of the hyoid with the temporals forms the styloid processes. The ventral portion of the hyoid arch ossifies as the hyoid bone. The third arch fuses with hyoid and the fourth and sixth arches form laryngeal cartilages c. If the overlying skin does not fuse normally, the result is a cleft lip. Cleft lips affect roughly 1/1000 births. A split extending into the orbit and palate is called a cleft palate. Cleft palates are half as common as cleft lips. Both conditions can be corrected surgically 12 Weeks a. Ossification is well under ways in the cranium and face