Theory of Machines

MKEMCB3 / MKE3B21
Second semester 2023
Lecturer: Dr CR Bester
Office: B3 Lab 207
Tel (W): 011-559-4184
EMail: crbester@uj.ac.za
rooineustakbok@gmail.com

Assistant: Mr JG Swanepoel TBC

 Learning activities
Lectures – in class on campus, attendance is compulsory
Tutorials – posted on Blackboard, do at home, discuss
solutions in tut classes on campus
Homework – self-study, loaded onto Blackboard
Practicals: Balancing experiment (group work), in lab TBC
Semester assignment (individual), details will follow later
Tests - written on campus, dates TBD
3 semester tests, 2 best results will contribute to your
semester mark

Continuous assessment course. SEMESTER MARK IS FINAL

MARK. For mark allocation see Study Guide on Blackboard.
NO SEMESTER EXAM WILL BE WRITTEN IN THIS COURSE.
Lecture-, tutorial- and practical times

Lectures: Fridays 4th & 5th lecture periods, CLes310

Tutorials: Tuesdays 7th lecture period, CLes204

Practicals: Thursdays 7th to 10th periods, B3 Lab, TBC

 Syllabus
1. Balancing of reciprocating mechanisms
2. Valve- and cam systems
3. Epicyclic gear systems
4. Crank effort and flywheel design
5. Vibration
6. Equivalent mass and moment of inertia
7. Gyroscopes
8. Servomechanisms
9. Mechatronics
10. Kinematics: Degrees of freedom (“DOFs”)*
11. Gear trains and chains

* Will probably not be presented in 2023 due to insufficient lecture periods

 Lecture schedule
(provisional, depending on progress and UJ calendar)

2023-07-21 ✓ 1. Balancing of Reciprocating Mechanisms, Lectures I & II

2023-07-28 ✓ 2. Valve- and Cam Systems, Lectures I & II
2023-08-04 3. Epicyclic Gear Systems, Lectures I & II
2023-08-11 4. Crank Effort and Flywheel Design, Lectures I & II
2023-08-18 5. Vibration, Lectures I & II
2023-08-25 6. Vibration, Lectures III & IV
2023-09-01 7. Vibration, Lectures V & VI
2023-09-08 UJ closed – Spring recess
2023-09-15 8. Equivalent Mass and Moment of Inertia, Lectures I & II
2023-09-22 9. Gyroscopes, Lectures I & II
2023-09-29 10. Servomechanisms, Lectures I & II
2023-10-06 11. Mechatronics, Lectures I & II
2023-10-13 12. Kinematics
2023-10-20 13. Gear Trains & Chain Drives, Lectures I & II
 Textbooks
Prescribed
• Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines – Advanced
Theory and Examples, SI Units,” 2nd Edition, Edward Arnold, London, 1972
(yours should be the same edition, but may be a later print)
Relatively cheap in comparison to other textbooks

Additional
• Budynas, R.G., & Nisbett, J.K., “Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design,” 10th Edition in SI Units, McGraw-Hill Education, New York, 2015
• Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines – Elementary
Theory and Examples, SI Units,” 4th Revised Edition, Butterworth-
Heinemann, July 1984 – 15 copies in Van Schaik’s UJ on 2023-07-28
• Norton, R.L., “Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery,” 2nd Edition in SI
Units, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Singapore, 2013
 Epicyclic Gear Systems
[Hannah & Stephens “H&S”, 1972 Chapter 12]*
Applications of epicyclic gear systems
• Aircraft transmissions (turboshaft and turboprop)
• Automotive automatic gearboxes (older)

An epicyclic reduction gearbox of a Pratt & Whitney Canada

(“PWC”) PT-6 turboshaft engine is shown in Figure 3.1.

Some of the gears (i.e. the “sun”- and “planet” wheels) are shown
in Figure 3.2. The gears are straight-cut.

Epicyclic gears may also be helical (see Figure 3.3).

* Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines - Advanced theory and examples,”
2nd Edition, SI Units, Edward Arnold, London, 1972
 Figure 3.1: PWC PT-6 turboprop
with epicyclic reduction gearbox [1]
Figure 3.2: Planet- & sun gears of a
PWC PT-6 gearbox (straight-cut) [2]

Sun gear

Planet gear
Figure 3.3: Annulus, planet- and sun
wheels (helical) [3]
Annulus

Planet wheel

Sun wheel
 Epicyclic Gear Systems
The four main components of a simple epicyclic gear system are

• annulus
• planet wheel
• arm
• sun wheel

The annulus, arm, planet- and sun wheels of a simple epicyclic gear
system are shown in Figure 3.4. The gears are straight-cut (“spur”
gears).

The number of planet gears varies from gearbox to gearbox. Figure 3.5
shows a Eurocopter EC225 helicopter gearbox with 8 planet gears. The
gearbox (main gearbox, “MGB”) is one of a train of gearbox modules
which reduces the speed from that of the power turbine to that of the
main rotor.
Figure 3.4: Annulus, arm, planet-
and sun wheels (straight-cut) [4]
Figure 3.5: Eurocopter EC225
planet wheels [5]
 Epicyclic Gear Systems
Main reasons for popularity / advantages of epicyclic gears

• number of gears in contact improves reliability

• input- and output shafts are axially aligned
• high power transmission (Rooivalk MGB transmits 2,9 MW)
• high energy efficiency
• multiple gear ratios possible
• purely torsional contact loads with straight-cut gears

Disadvantages of epicyclic gears

• high bearing loads

• lubrication
• inaccessibility
• complexity
 Epicyclic Gear Systems
Aircraft like helicopters and turbopropeller planes rely on epicyclic
gearboxes to reduce the speed from the power turbine speed to that
of the propeller or rotor. Power turbine speed may be as high as
30 000 RPM, while helicopter main rotor speed may be as low as
250 RPM (requiring reduction ratios of 1:120). This is made possible
through multiple stage gearboxes.

Although the layout of an epicyclic gearbox helps improve reliability,

failures do occur. An example is the Eurocopter (now Airbus
Helicopters) Super Puma, generally considered to be a relatively safe
aircraft. Figure 3.6 shows an exposed view of Super Puma
gearboxes. Figure 3.7 shows part of a Super Puma main gearbox
recovered from the North Sea. The gearbox failed on 1 April 2009,
even though daily inspection had been carried out from 25 March that
year, when a metal particle was detected. The failure occurred due a
fatigue crack. The helicopter went down and all 16 people aboard
lost their lives.
 Epicyclic Gear Systems
Another Super Puma crashed in Norway on 29 April 2016, again due to
epicyclic module failure. Fatalities were 2 pilots and 11 passengers.
Three bearing rollers were missing from one of the planet gears
retrieved from the accident site.
 Figure 3.6: Exposed view of
Super Puma AS332 gearboxes [6]
Figure 3.7: Part of Super Puma epicyclic
module recovered from the North Sea [7]
 Analysis of Epicyclic Gear Systems
Figure 3.8 shows a schematic of a simple epicyclic gear system
[H & S, 1972]*

* Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines - Advanced theory and examples,”
2nd Edition, SI Units, Edward Arnold, London, 1972, p. 282, Figure 12.1
 Figure 3.8: Schematic of simple
epicyclic gear train [8]

A = annulus
P = planet wheel
L = arm
S = sun wheel
 Example 3.1
Simple epicyclic gear train kinematics
Epicyclic gear system with static arm and rotating annulus [8]

Refer to Figure 3.8 above. Obtain the angular rotations qS and qP

of the sun- and planet wheels if the arm L is static and the annulus
A rotates through an angle qA.
 Example 3.1
Procedure

Hold L so that qL = 0, and rotate A clockwise through an angle qA.

Determine the rotations of the sun- and planet wheels.

Result

Directions of rotation:

The planet wheel rotates clockwise

The sun wheel rotates anticlockwise
 Example 3.1
The sun- and planet wheel angles of rotation are given by

TA
qS = − q A (3.1)
TS

TA
qP = q A (3.2)
TP
where
qS is the sun wheel rotation
qP is the planet wheel rotation
TA is the number of teeth of the annulus
TS is the number of teeth of the sun wheel
TP is the number of teeth of the planet wheel
Note that the number of gear teeth is proportional to the diameter
 Example 3.2
Numerical example
Obtain the angular rotations of the sun- and planet wheels if the
arm is static and the annulus rotates through +1 revolution. The
diameters of the annulus and sun wheel are 400 mm and 200 mm
respectively.

Solution

The sun wheel rotation is obtained using Equation (3.1):

TA DA 0,4
qS = − q A = − q A = − 2 = −4 rad
TS DS 0,2

i.e. 2 revolutions anticlockwise

 Example 3.2
To obtain the rotation of the planet wheels, their diameter is
required:

D A − DS 0,4 − 0,2
DP = = = 0,1 m
2 2
The planet wheel rotation is obtained using Equation (3.2):

TA DA 0,4
qP = q A = qA = 2 = 8 rad
TP DP 0,1

i.e. 4 revolutions clockwise

 Example 3.3
Simple epicyclic gear train kinematics

If
• P may rotate freely on a pin attached to L
• L may rotate freely about the axis of S
• A is held fixed
• Determine the velocity ratio of S to L

Epicyclic gear system with fixed annulus [8]

 Example 3.3
Procedure

(a) Rotate each member through one complete revolution

clockwise (considered positive), i.e. imagine the whole gear
is locked and rotated once.

(b) Hold the arm L fixed and rotate the annulus A through one
revolution anticlockwise, thus returning it to its former
position.
 Example 3.3

The rotations of P and S due to that of A are obtained using

Equations (3.1) and (3.2):
TA
qP = q A (3.1)
TP

TA
qS = − q A (3.2)
TS
 Example 3.3
Substitution of qA with -1 into Equations (3.1) and (3.2) gives
TA
qP = −
TP
TA
qS = +
TS

(c) Add the corresponding rotations of each member in

operations (a) and (b) to obtain the resulting motion
The above operations (a) to (c) are set out in Table 3.1
 Example 3.3
Table 3.1: Operations applicable to Example 3.3
Element → L A P S
Operation ↓
(a) Turn whole gear +1 rev +1 +1 +1 +1
(b) Hold L, turn A -1 rev* 0 -1 -TA/TP +TA/TS
(c) Overall motion = (a) + (b) 1 0 1-TA/TP 1+TA/TS

The last line of Table 3.1 gives the relative motion of L, S and P
when A is fixed – see next example (3.4)

* The fixed wheel is given a -1 rev in line (b)

 Example 3.4
Numerical example

Determine the velocity ratio of S to L if the annulus A is held fixed

and the arm is rotated through one revolution. The wheel
diameters are the same as those in Example 3.2.

Solution

Table 3.1, row (c), column S gives the overall rotation of the sun
wheel:
TA DA 0,4
qS = 1 + = 1 + = 1+ = 1 + 2 = 3 revolutions
TS DS 0,2

As L is rotated through 1 revolution, the velocity ratio is 3/1 =3

 Example 3.5
Simple epicyclic gear train kinematics

When all the members are rotating

• The whole gear is given a +a rev in line (a)

• In line (b), the arm is held fixed and any wheel is given +b
revolutions; the motion of the other wheels is then found as
before
• The resulting motion is found by the addition of lines (a) and (b)
ito the constants a and b, which are then evaluated from the
known speeds of two of the members

The above operations are set out in Table 3.2

 Example 3.5
Table 3.2: Operations applicable to Example 3.5

Element → L A P S
Operation ↓
(a) Turn whole gear +a rev +a +a +a +a
(b) Hold L, turn A +b rev 0 +b +(TA/TP)b -(TA/TS)b
(c) Overall motion = (a) + (b) a a+b a+(TA/TP)b a-(TA/TS)b
 Question
How do we determine the overall input-to-output ratio of the
gearbox, e.g. qA / qS, if S is the input and A the output?
 Answer
• Use the results from Table 3.2
• Two known rotations are required, e.g. qS and qL
• For known qS and qL, determine a and b:

qL = a (3.3)

q S = a − b  b = (a − q S ) = (q L − q S )
TA TS TS
(3.4)
TS TA TA
 Answer
a and b are now known ito qS and qL, which allows us to
calculate the ratio qA / qS

TS
q L + (q L − q S )
qA a + b TA
ratio = = = (3.5)
qS qS qS
 Example 3.6
Numerical example

Consider the epicyclic gear system shown below. A is the

annulus, L is the arm, S is the sun wheel and P denotes the planet
wheels. The diameter of S is 300 mm and that of P is 100 mm. If
S is the input and A is the output, calculate the overall speed ratio
of the gearbox when L runs at +500 RPM and S runs at +800
RPM.

Epicyclic gear system with all the wheels rotating [8]

 Example 3.6
Solution

The annulus diameter is given by

DA = DS + 2DP = 300 + 2.100 = 500 mm

Table 3.3 shows the individual gear rotations

Table 3.3: Operations applicable to Example 3.6

Element → L A P S
Operation ↓
(i) Turn whole gear +a rev +a +a +a +a
(ii) Hold L, turn A +b rev 0 +b +(TA/Tp)b -(TA/Ts)b
(iii) Motion = (i) + (ii) a a+b a+(TA/Tp)b a-(TA/Ts)b
 Example 3.6
From Table 3.3
qL = a
TA
qS = a − b
TS
TS TS
 b = (a − q S ) = (q L − q S )
TA TA
 Example 3.6
Equations for the constants a and b have been obtained, which
makes it possible to obtain an expression for the ratio:

TS
q L + (q L − q S )
qA a + b TA
ratio = = =
qS qS qS
NB: Number of teeth is proportional to gear diameter

The ratio in terms of rotational speeds and gear diameters is


qL +
DA
(
DS 
q L − qS ) 500 + 300 (500 − 800 )
ratio = = 500 = 0,4
q S 800
 Homework assignment 3
Self-study for 11 August 2023

Compound epicyclic gear trains – Hannah & Stephens [1972],

pp. 284 – 285, §12.3

See Figure 3.9 on slide 42

NB: Note that the textbook uses N for wheel speed

 Figure 3.9: Schematic of
compound epicyclic train [9]

Compound epicyclic train: Train 1 annulus A1 is train 2 arm L2

 Figure references
1. http://www.primeturbines.com/img/schema-pt6a.gif
2. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Reduction_Gear.jpg/800px-Reduction_Gear.jpg
3. http://images.gizmag.com/gallery_lrg/9586_6070832729.jpg
4. http://img.interempresas.net/fotos/875394.JPEG
5. http://aerossurance.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/225epicyclic.jpg
6. http://www.airbushelicopterstrainingservices.com/docs_wsw/RUB_106/an-as332-mk1-ensmeca.pdf
7. http://isambardkingdom.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Planet-gear-damaged.jpg
8. Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines – Advanced Theory and Examples, SI Units,”
2nd Edition, Edward Arnold, London, 1972, p. 282, Fig. 12.1
9. Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines – Advanced Theory and Examples, SI Units,”
2nd Edition, Edward Arnold, London, 1972, p. 284, Fig. 12.3
End of lecture