FLUID MECHANICS 37

FLUID MECHANICS

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FLUID Chapter 11
MECHANICS 38

FLUID MECHANICS

1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUIDS
1.1 Introduction to Fluids and Fluid Pressure
 Pressure P at any point is defined as the normal force
per unit area.

dF
P
dA Fig. 11.2
 Pressure at two points which are at a depth separation
of h when fluid is at rest or moving with constant velocity
Fig. 11.1 is related by the expression
 The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal and
2
1 Pascal = 1 N/m
NOTE:
Fluid force acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid,
no matter how that surface is oriented. Hence pressure,
has no intrinsic direction of its own, it is a scalar.

1.2 Relative Density or Specific Gravity

 Relative density, or specific gravity, is the ratio of the
density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the
density of a given reference material.
 lf the relative density is exactly 1 then the densities are
equal: that is, equal volumes of the two substances
have the same mass.
substance
RD 
reference
RD = relative density
substance = density of substance being measured
reference = density of the reference
Fig. 11.3
P2 – P1 = gh, where  is the density of liquid.
2.2 Types of Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
 It is the pressure exerted by the before earth earth’s
atmosphere. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is
5
1 atmosphere (atm) that is equal to 1.013 × 10 Pa.
Gauge Pressure
 Gauge pressure is the difference between absolute
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
 If the gauge pressure is above the atmospheric pressure,
it’s positive.

 If the gauge pressure is below the atmospheric pressure,

it’s negative. Since gauge pressure readings include
2. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure can differ
2.1 Variation of Pressure
depending on weather and sea level.
 Pressure at two points in a horizontal plane or at same
level when the fluid is at rest or moving with constant  If you’re measuring pressure in an environment that
velocity is same. won’t be heavily affected by the atmosphere, you can
measure in pounds per square inch gauge .

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Absolute Pressure 2.4 Hydrostatic paradox

Absolute pressure is gauge pressure plus atmospheric  Hydrostatic Paradox
pressure. An absolute pressure reading of zero can only be “Hydrostatic Paradox states that, the pressure at a
achieved in a perfect vacuum and only naturally occurs in certain horizontal level in the fluid is proportional to the
outer space. vertical distance to the surface of the fluid.”

 Hydrostatic Paradox is mathematically expressed as:

Ph
 Example
Three-vessel X, ‘Y, Z of different shape, containing a
different volume of liquid, but all exert the same
pressure(P) at all points at the same horizontal level.

3. FORCE EXERTED BY FLUIDS ON

THE WALLS OF THE CONTAINER

Fig. 11.4
2.3 Manometer
A Manometer is a device to measure pressures. A common
simple manometer consists of a U shaped tube of glass
filled with some liquid. Typically the liquid is mercury
because of its high density.
3.1 Horizontal Force Exerted on the Walls of the Container
Force on Side Wall of a Vesssel
Consider a strip of width dx at a depth x from the surface of
the liquid as shown in figure, and on this strip the force due
to the liquid:
dF  xg  bdx (perpendicular to the wall) ....(i)

Fig. 11.6

Net force on the wall from eq (i).

h
F   dF   xg bdx
0

gbh 2
F
2

Fig. 11.5

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Average Pressure on Side Wall According to principle of hydraulics,

The average pressure on the wall can be given as : F1 F2 A
P1  P2    F2  2 F1
A1 A2 A1
F
Paverage 
bh
5. BUOYANCY
 Buoyancy is the tendency of an object to float in a
1 gbh 2 1 fluid.
   gh
2 bh 2
 All liquids and gases in the presence of gravity exert an
Above equation shows that the average pressure on side upward force known as the buoyant force on any object
vertical wall is half of the net pressure at the bottom of the immersed in them.
vessel.  Buoyant Force
Torque on the Side Wall due to Fluid Pressure  The buoyant force is the upward force exerted on an
As shown in figure, due to the force dF, the side wall object wholly or partly immersed in a fluid.
experiences a torque about the bottom edge of the side  This upward force is also called Upthrust.
which is given as :  Due to the buoyant force, a body submerged partially
d  dF   h  x  or fully in a fluid appears to lose its weight, ie. appears
to be lighter.
 xgb dx  h  x  Following factors affect buoyant force:
 Density of the fluid
h

Thus net torque is    d   gb  hx  x dx

2
 Volume of the fluid displaced
0

 Local acceleration due to gravity

 h3 h3  5.2 Archimedes Principle
 gb   
2 3 Archimedes’ principle states that:
“The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body
1 immersed in a fluid, whether partially or fully submerged,
 gbh 3
6 is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces
and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of
4. PASCAL’S LAW the displaced fluid”.
 A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is  Archimedes Principle Explanation
transmitted equally to every portion of the fluid in all
direction of to the walls of the containing vessel.
 There are a lot of practical applications of Pascal’s law
e.g Hydraulic lift

Fig. 11.8
If you look at the figure, the weight due to gravity is opposed
by the thrust provided by the fluid. The object inside the
Fig. 11.7 liquid only feels the total force acting on it as the weight.

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Because the actual gravitational force is decreased by the
liquid’s upthrust, the object feels as though its weight is
reduced. The apparent weight is thus given by:
Apparent weight = Weight of object (in the air)
- Thrust force (buoyancy)
Archimedes’s principle tells us that the weight loss is equal
to the weight of liquid the object displaces.
6. ACCELERATED FLUIDS
 Archimedes Principle Formula
Archimedes law states that the buoyant force on an object
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Mathematically written as:
Fb    g  V
Where Fb is the buoyant force,  is the density of the fluid,
V is the submerged volume, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
Floatation
When a solid body is dipped into a fluid, the fluid exerts
and upward force of buoyancy on the solid. If the force of
buoyancy equals the weight of the solid, the solid will remain
in equilibrium. This is called floatation. When the overall
density of the solid is smaller than the density of the fluid,
the solid floats with a part of it in the fluid. The fraction
dipped is such that the weight of the displaced fluid equals
the weight of the solid.
Center of Buoyancy
The center of buoyancy is the point where if you were to
take all of the displaced fluid and hold it by that point it
would remain perfectly balanced, assuming you could hold
a fluid in a fixed shape. This point is also called the center
of mass. The center of buoyancy for an object is the center
of mass for the fluid it displaces.
Buoyant Force in an accelerated Fluid
Suppose a body is dipped inside a liquid of density 
placed in an elevator going up with an acceleration a 0 . Let
us calculate the force of buoyancy FB on this body. As was
done earlier, let us suppose that we substitute the body
into the liquid by the same liquid of equal volume. The
entire liquid becomes a homogenous mass and hence he
substituted liquid is at rest with respect to the rest of the
liquid. Thus, the substituted liquid is also going up with an
acceleration a 0 together with the rest of the liquid.
The forces acting on the substituted liquid are
(a) The buoyant force FB and
(b) The weight mg of the substituted liquid.
41
From Newton’s second law
FB – mg = ma0 …(1)
or B = m (g + a0) …(2)
Equation (1) and (2) are similar to the corresponding
equations for unaccelerated liquid with the only differ-
ence that g + a takes the role of g.
 Pressure Distribution in an Accelerated Frame
 We’ve seen that when a liquid is filled in a container,
generally its free surface remains horizontal as shown
in figure 10.9 as for its equilibrium its free surface must
be perpendicualr to gravity i.e. horizontal.
 Due to same reason we said that pressure at every point
of a liquid layer parallel to its free surface remains
constant, Similar situation exist when liquid is in an
accelerated frame as shown in figure.
 Due to acceleration of container, liquid filled in it
experiences a pseudo force relative to container and
due to this the free surface of liquid which remains
normal to the gravity now is filled as shown in figure 10.10
and normal to the direction of effective gravity.
 Thus we can get the inclination angle of free surface of
liquid from horizontal as
a
  tan 1   ....(i)
g
Fig. 11.9 Fig. 11.10
 Now from equilibrium of liquid we can state that
pressure at every point in a liquid layer parallel to the
free Surface
 Remains same for example if we find pressure at a point
A in the accelerated containers shown in figure 10.11 is
given as
PA  P0  h a 2  g 2 ...(ii)
Where h is the depth of the point A below the free surface
of liquid along effective gravity and P0 is the atmospheric
pressure acting on free surface of the liquid.
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h g 2  a2
l2  h cos ec 
a

From eq. (iii) we have

PA  P0  h g 2  a 2

Here we can see that while evaluating pressure at point A

Fig. 11.11
from vertical direction we haven’t mentioned any thing
about pseudo acceleration as along vertical length l1 due
to pseudo acceleration at every point pressure must be
constant similarly in horizontal direction at every point due
to gravity pressure remains constant.
Using the above concept we can write pressure equations
for a static fluid. These pressure equations are very helpful
in solving numerical examples.
Fig. 11.12
6.2 Fluid in a Rotating Container
 The pressure at point A can also be obtained in an
 When tube is rotated, liquid starts to flow radially
another way as shown in figure 10.12.
outward. Let the shift of liquid mal as shown in
 If l1 and l2 are the vertical and horizontal distances of figure 10.14. Let the cross sectional area of tube be S.
point. Then pressure at point A will be
 Here the pressure difference between point A and B can
PA  P0  l1g  P0  l2 a ....(iii) be given by integrating the pressure difference across
an element of width dx, which is given as
Here l1g is the pressure at A due to the vertical height of
dP  dx  2 x
liquid above A and according to Pascal’s Law pressure at
A is given as Now integrating from A to B, we get
L
PB  PA   H 2 xdx 2 2
PA  P0  l1g ....(iv)
y

2
 L  y2 
here we can write l1 as

h a 2  g2
l1  h s ec  
g

or from equation (iv)

PA  P0  h a 2  g 2

Similarly if we consider the horizontal distance of point A

from free surface of liquid, which is l2 then du e to pseudo
acceleration of container the pressure at point A is given
as

PA  P0  l2 a ....(v)

Here l2 is given as
Fig. 11.13

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If 2  1 then P2  P1 and the junction of the liquid can

not remain in equilibrium, it will be displaced to the left as-
shown in figure 10.16. The displacement of the junction is
such that the pressure on the two sides at every point must
be same, then only the liquid remains in equilibrium.

In figure 10.16, if x be the displacement of the junction, the

pressure at the bottom from the two sides must be same.
Thus now P1  P2 , here P1 and P2 are given as

P1  P0  l1 g  x2 g

P2  P0   l  x  2 g

Fig. 11.14 On equation P1 and P2 we get the value of x.

Thus pressure at point C can be given as
PC  PB  yg
8. TYPES OF FLUID FLOWS
and at point A, pressure is atmospheric, thus we have
 Steady Flow (Stream Line Flow)

The flow in which the velocity of fluid particles crossing

2 2
PC 
2
 L  y 2   0  yg a particular point is the same at all the times. Thus, each
particle takes the same path as taken by a previous
particle through that point.
7. MISCELLANEOUS CASES IN FLUID STATICS
7.1 U-tube problems
Consider the situation shown in figure 10.15, a U tube,
filled with equal volumes of two different liquids 1 and 2.
In case-1, the pressure at the left of the bottom is
P  P0  l1 g
At the right pressure is
Fig. 11.17
P2  P0  l2 g
 Line of flow
It is the path taken by a particle in flowing liquid. In case of a
steady flow, it is called streamline. Two streamlines can
never intersect. Streamlines do not intersect each other
 Turbulent flow
It is type of fluid flow in which the fluid undergoes
irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar
flow, in which the fluid moves in smooth paths or layers.
In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is
continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude
and direction. The flow of wind and rivers is generally
turbulent in this sense, even if the currents are gentle.
The air or water swirls and eddies while its overall bulk
Fig. 11.15 Fig. 11.16 moves along a specific direction.

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Fig. 11.18
Reynold’s number
 The stability of laminar flow is maintained by viscous
forces. It is observed, however that laminar or steady
flow is disrupted when the rate of flow is large. Irregular,
unsteady motion, turbulence, sets in at high flow rates.
 Reynolds numbers defined as a dimensionless number
whose value gives one an approximate idea, whether
the flow rate would be turbulent or laminar.
vD
Re 
 Newton’s Second Law: ‘’The rate of change of momentum of a
where,  = the density of the fluid flowing with a
speed v.
D = the diameter of the tube.
 = the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
 It is found that flow is streamline or laminar for Re less
than 1000. The flow is turbulent for Re > 2000. The flow
becomes unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000.
Note:-
For lower density and higher viscosity fluids laminar flow
is more probable.
9. EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
In a time t, the volume of liquid entering the tube of flow in
a steady flow is A1 V1 t. The same volume must flow out as
the liquid is incompressible. The volume flowing out in t is
A2 V2 t. It is a consequence of conservation of mass.
Fig. 11.19
44
 A1 V1 = A2 V2
 mass flows rate = AV
(where  is the density of the liquid.)
 Thus AV = constant, velocity of liquid is smaller in codes
parts and velocity is smaller in larger part of the body.
Thrust Force
The total normal force exerted by a liquid at rest on a surface
in contact with it is called fluid thrust. SI unit fluid thrust is
newton (N) and is a vector quantity.
Force by fluid on bent pipe corners
Forces on pipe bend due to slug flow
When fluid flows through a pipe bend or elbow, the fluid changes
direction and hence there is a change in momentum. As per
body is equal to the net force acting on the body’’. Slug forces are
generated when there is ‘two-phase’ (gaseous and liquid phase)
fluid flowing through pipes and slugs of liquid that are formed
intermittently travel at relatively high velocity.
The liquid slug can cause large reaction forces at changes in
direction such as elbows or tee connections. High slug forces
have the potential to cause large pipe deflection or damage to the
supports if they are not designed to withstand them. The slug
load lasts until the slug has traversed the elbow and then drops to
near zero. The time duration of the load is calculated as slug
length divided by the fluid velocity.
Fig. 11.20
Let us assume a horizontal pipe bend turning through and
angle  as shown in figure below..
The following details apply:
V = Velocity of flow
Q = Flow Rate
 = Fluid Density
A = Cross-section area of pipe ID
 = Change in direction at Bend
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The forces exerted on the bend by the flowing fluid are Fx  It is a mathematical consequences of low of conservation
and Fy respectively. of energy an fluid dynamics.
Force in X-direction
Net force acting on the bend in x-direction (Fx) = Rate of
change of momentum in x-direction
= Mass Flow × (Final velocity in x-direction – Initial velocity
in x-direction)
= Density (  ) × Flow Rate (Q) × (Vcos  – V) = (  ) × (Q)
(Vcos  – V)
Net force acting on the bend in x-direction
(Fx) =  QV(cos  – 1) ….(1) Fig. 11.21
Force in Y-direction  Bernoulli’s equation is valid only for incompressible
Net force acting on the bend in x-direction (Fy) = Rate of steady flow of a fluid with no viscosity.
change on momentum in y-direction
= Mass Flow × (Final velocity in y-direction – Initial 11. APPLICATION OF FLUID DYNAMICS
velocity in y-direction)
= Density (  ) × Flow rate (Q) × (Vsin  – 0) = (  ) × (Q) 11.1 Velocity of Efflux
× (Vsin  )
Net force acting on the bend in y-direction
(Fy) =  Q(Vsin  ) …..(2)
Resultant Force acting on the Bend
The resultant force acting on the bend

  Fy 
2
 FR    Fx 
2
…(3)

Solving equation (3) gives

The resultant force actin on the bend
 FR   QV 2 1 – cos   …(4)
Substituting Q = A × V
The resultant force acting on the bend
 FR   AV 2 2 1 – cos   …(5) Fig. 11.22

For 90° elbow or bend, cos   0 hence Let us find the velocity with which liquid comes out of a
hole at a depth h below the liquid surface.
The resultant force acting on the bend
Using Bernoulli’s theorem,
 FR   AV 2 2 …(6)
1 2 1 2
PA  vA  gh A  PB  v B  gh B
10. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION 2 2

In a stream line flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of pressure 1 2 1 2

 Patm  v  gh  Patm  v  0
energy per unit volume, potential energy per unit volume 2 A 2
and kinetic energy per unit volume is always constant at all Note:
cross section of the liquid.
PB = Patm, because we have opened the liquid to atmosphere)
ρV 2
P+ρgh+ =Constant 2 2
2  v = vA + 2gh

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Using equation of continuity 2 2

Q Q
   2 hg (Q = av)
AvA = av 2
a2
2
a1
A: area of cross-section of vessel

a: area of hole 2hg

 Q  a1a 2 2 2
a  a2
1

2 a2 2
 v  v  2gh Here Q is the rate of fluid flow
A2
11.3 Magnus Effect
2gh  Magnus effect is described as a phenomenon that is
 v 2 2
 2gh (if the hole is very small) mainly characterized by a spinning object that is moving
1 a / A
through fluid wherein there is relative motion between
the spinning body and the fluid.
11.2 Venturi Meter
 When the Magnus effect takes place, the path of the
This is an instrument for measuring the rate of flow of fluids.
spinning object is usually deflected in a way that is
completely different from when the object is not
spinning. The deflection that occurs can be described
by the difference in pressure of the fluid that is present
on the opposite sides of the spinning object.

 In simple terms, there is a generation of a sidewise force

on a spinning object. Magnus effect is greatly affected
by the speed of rotation or we can say that it is
dependent on it.

 The Magnus effect is why a football player is able to

bend a football into the goal around a 5-person wall
and the movement of the cricket ball as seen in
conventional swing bowling.
Fig. 11.23
If PA is pressure at A and PB is pressure at B,

PA – PB = hg

[h : difference of heights of liquids of density  in vertical

tubes]

If v1 is velocity at a and v2 is velocity at B

Q = a1v1 = a2v2 [equation of continuity]

2 2
v1 v
Pa    Pa   2 [Bernoulli’s Theorem]
2 2

2 2
2
 v 2  v1 
2
 Pa  PB   hg
 

Fig. 11.24

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11.4 Aerodynamic lift 12.2 Stoke’s Law

Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body by virtue of its
motion through a fluid. It can be defined as:
Dynamic lift is the force which acts on a body such as an
airplane wing hydro fall or spinning Ball by virtue of its
motion through a fluid.
12. VISCOSITY
The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes
the relative motion between its different layers is known
as viscosity and the force that is into play is called the viscous
force.
12.1 Newton’a Law of Viscocity
It defines relationship between the shear strers and rate of
fluid subjected to an externals strers.
where  is a constant depending upon the nature of the
liquid and is called the coefficient of viscosity and velocity
 When a solid moves through a viscous medium, its
motion is opposed by a viscous force depending on the
velocity and shape and size of the body.
 The viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r, moving
with velocity v, in a viscous medium of viscosity  is given
by
Fviscous = 6rv
This relation is called Stoke’s law.
12.3 Terminal Velocity
It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the body while
falling freely in a viscous medium.
2r    s  g
2
vr 
9
Where r is raduis of body  is density of body,  is density
of liquid and  is coefficient of viscosity.

dv
gradient =  dy

–2
S.I. unit of coefficient of viscosity is Pa.s or Nsm .
CGS unit of viscocity is poise. (1 Pa.s = 10 Poise)
 Viscous force is given by :

dv
F  A
dy

Fig. 11.26
12.4 Poiseuille’s Formula
This law states that the flow of liquid depend on variables
such as length of tube (L) radius(r), pressure difference (P)
and coefficient of visocity 
Poiseuille studied the stream-line flow of liquid in capillary
tubes.
Volume of liquid coming out of tube per second in given by
4
 Pr
V
8

Fig. 11.25

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13. SURFACE TESNSION
13.1 Cohesion and Adhesion
 As for the definitions, the tendency of two or more
different molecules to bond with each other is known
as Adhesion, whereas the force of attraction between
the same molecules is known as Cohesion.
 The adhesion forces can be one of the results of
electrostatic forces which are exerted on different
substances.
 The adhesion and cohesion forces, both vary in their
strengths. For example, if cohesion forces between the
water molecules are stronger than that of the adhesion
forces between them, then the individual molecules will
atiract towards each other thus resulting in settling. In
case, the adhesion forces of the water surfaces are
stronger than that of the cohesion forces of the water
molecules. then the water tends to disperse.

 The cohesive forces are associated with Van der Waals

forces and hydrogen bonding that cause liquids such
as water to withstand the separation.

 When a glass surface is poured with water, both

adhesive and the cohesive forces act on the surface of
the water. A strong adhesive force tends the liquid to
spread over the surface whereas a strong cohesive force
is responsible for the formation of water droplets on
the water surface. Fig. 11.27 Fig. 11.28 Fig. 11.29

DIFFERENCE BETWEENADHESIONAND COHESION

Sr. no. Adhesion Cohesion

1. Adhesion happens between two dissimilar When two similar substances or molecules face the force of
molecules or substances attraction this force is known as cohesion force.
2. Adhesion is generally the force of attraction Cohesion force is rampant among water molecules
present between the water molecules and the
walls of xylem vessels.
3. Capillary action and meniscus (the curved Surface tension meniscus and capilary action are the effects
surface which is formed by any liquid in a of cohesion.
4. Adhesion is caused by electrostatic or Cohesion is caused by hydrogen bonding and Van der Walls forces
mechanical forces that exist among two kinds
of different substances.
5. A strong adhesion force causes the liquid to A strong force of cohesion forms water droplets on any surface
spread all over the surface

13.2 Introduction to surface tension Surface tension is a property of liquid where liquid surface
The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per behaves like a stretched membrane which have the tendency
unit length in the plane of the liquid surface at right angles to contract tending to have minimum possible area at the
to either side of an imaginary line drawn on that surface. surface. The property is called surface tension.
2
F Unit of surface tension in MKS system : N/m, J/m
So, S  where S = surface tension of liquid. 2
 CGS system  Dyne/cm, erg/cm

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13.3 Surface Energy 16. CAPILLARITY

In order to increase the surface area, the work has to be
 A very narrow glass tube with fine bore and open at
done over the surface of the liquid. This work done is stored
both ends is known as capillary tube. When a capillary
in the liquid surface as its potential energy. Hence the surface
tube in dipped in a liquid, then liquid will rise or fall in
energy of a liquid can be defined as the excess potential
the tube, this action is termed as capillarity.
energy per unit area of the liquid surface.

Fig. 11.30

W = SA, where A = increase in surface area.

Note:
(1) Work done in formation of drop of radius
2
r = surface tension × A = 4r S
(2) Work done in formation of soap bubble Fig. 11.31
2
= 2 × surafce tension × A = 8r S
2Scos  2S
h 
r g Rg
14. EXCESS PRESSURE where, S = surface tension,
 Excess pressure in a liquid drop or bubble in a liquid is  = angle of contact,
2S r = radius of capillary tube,
P , S is surface tension
R R = radius of meniscus, and
4S
 Excess pressure in a soap bubble is P =  = density of liquid.
R
(because it has two free surfaces)  Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length :

If the actual height to which a liquid will rise in a capillary

15. ANGLE OF CONTACT tube is ‘h’ then a capillary tube of length less than ‘h’
can be called a tube of “insufficient length”.
 The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at
the point of contact and the solid surface inside the In such a case, liquid rises to the top of the capillary
liquid is called the angle of contact. It depends upon tube of length l (l < h) and adjusts the radius of curvature
nature of liqiud and solid in contact. of its meniscus until the excess pressure is equalised by
the pressure of liquid column of length l. (Note liquid
 If the glass plate is immersed in mercury, the surface is does not overflow).
curved and the mercury is depressed below. Angle of
2
contact is obtuse for mercury.   g ... (i)
 If the plate is dipped in water with its side vertical, the r
water is drawn-up along the plane and assumes the If r were the actual radius of curvature,
curved shape as shown. Angle of contact is acute for 2
water.   h g ...(ii)
r

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Comparing (i) and (ii)

Fig. 10.32

2
 r   hr
g

hr
 r  i.e. radius of curvature r’ can be calculated.


Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion = Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion

1. Liquid will wet the solid. 1. Critical. 1. Liquid will not wet the solid.
2. Meniscus is concave. 2. Meniscus is plane. 2. Meniscus is convex.
3. Angle of contact is acute  < 90°). 3. Angle of contact is 90°. 3. Angle of contact is obtuse  > 90°).
4. Pressure below the meniscus is 4. Pressure below the 4. Pressure below the meniscus
lesser than above it by (2T/r), meniscus is same as more then above it by (2T/r),

i.e. P  P0  2T . above it, i.e. P = P0. i.e., P  P0  2T .

r r
5. In capillary there will be rise. 5. No capillarity. 5. In capillary there will be fall

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