1 | Evolutionary Biology
TOPIC 1: TRENDS WITH PHYLETIC LINES
Phyletic Lines - represent the evolutionary lineages or sequences of species
that share a common ancestor. These lineages illustrate the gradual changes
and adaptations that occur over time.
Adaptive Radiation - occurs when a single ancestral species gives rise to
multiple descendant species that occupy different ecological niches.
Parallel Evolution - refers to the independent evolution of similar traits or
adaptations in closely related or similar species.
• Convergent Evolution - is a specific type of parallel evolution
where unrelated species develop similar traits due to similar
selective pressures.
• Divergence evolution - populations or species accumulate
differences over time.
Differentiation of Traits
1. Analogous traits - Similar functions from different ancestral origins
and genetic pathways, resulting from convergent evolution.
2. Homologous traits - Common ancestry, inherited from a common
ancestor, resulting from divergent evolution.
Patterns of Convergence
1. Morphological convergence - Similar external forms or structures
evolve independently.
2. Behavioral convergence - Similar behaviors in unrelated species
due to similar ecological pressures.
3. Molecular convergence - Similar molecular mechanisms or genetic
sequences in species with no recent common ancestor.
4. Ecological convergence - Different lineages develop similar
adaptations to exploit similar resources.
Adaptive landscape - Represents organism fitness relative to phenotype and
environment. Convergent evolution occurs when different lineages find
similar adaptive peaks, leading to similar traits.
Coevolution - is the change of a species caused by the pressures put on by
a leading to potential underestimation of extinction events among soft-
related species. This can be both mutualistic and beneficial to both or one
of
the species.
1. Mutualistic Coevolution - two species engage in a mutually
beneficial relationship where both partners derive fitness benefits
from the interaction.
2. Antagonistic coevolution - also known as an arms race, involves a
competitive interaction between species where one species evolves
traits to gain an advantage over the other.
3. Mutualistic-Antagonistic Coevolution - involves a combination of
mutualistic and antagonistic interactions between species.
4. Host-Parasite Coevolution - occurs when hosts and parasites
interact over evolutionary time, leading to reciprocal adaptations.
Parasites evolve strategies to exploit host resources, while hosts
develop defenses to resist parasitic infections.
5. Symbiotic coevolution - involves the evolution of species that live
in close and prolonged association with each other. Symbiotic
relationships can be mutualistic or parasitic.
6. Nested coevolution - occurs when multiple species interact in a
hierarchical manner, with coevolutionary dynamics occurring
within a network of interactions.
7. Geographic Mosaic of Coevolution - different populations of
species may exhibit unique coevolutionary dynamics based on local
environmental conditions, leading to a mosaic pattern of
coevolutionary outcomes.
Extinction - is the complete disappearance of a species or a group of
species.
1. Background extinction - the continuous low-level extinction of
species over time due to natural factors, such as competition,
predation, or environmental changes.
2. Mass extinction - a large proportion of Earth's species go
extinct within a relatively short period.
Patterns of Extinction
• Selective Extinction - certain groups or species may be more vulnerable
to extinction due to specific traits, ecological requirements, or
geographic distributions.
• Background Extinction Rate - The average rate at which species go
extinct over long periods can vary, reflecting different environmental
conditions and evolutionary dynamics.
• Survivorship Bias - Fossils primarily preserve hard-bodied organisms,
bodied or poorly preserved species.
Stages of Adaptive Radiation
1. Ancestral Species - It all begins with an ancestral species. This species
typically occupies a specific ecological niche and has certain adaptations
that allow it to survive and reproduce in that environment.
2. Environmental Change or Opportunity - A significant change in the
environment or the availability of new ecological niches can trigger
adaptive radiation.
3. Isolation - When a population becomes isolated from other populations it
faces different selective pressures. Mutations and genetic variations
accumulate independently in these isolated populations.
4. Diversification - Once new species have been formed, they can continue
to diversify and evolve in response to the specific selective pressures of
their niches.
5. Divergent Selection - As isolated populations adapt to their specific
environments, natural selection favors different traits.
6. Speciation - Eventually, the isolated populations become reproductively
isolated due to genetic differences.
7. Radiation and Niches - The newly formed species radiate into various
ecological niches. They evolve specialized adaptations that allow them to
exploit specific resources efficiently.
8. Continued Adaptation - Adaptive radiation doesn’t stop at speciation.
The process continues as each species further adapts to its niche.
TOPIC 2: TRENDS AMONG SPECIES
The Evolutionary Trends
1. Cope’s Rule (Body Size) - refers to the tendency for animal lineages to
evolve toward larger body sizes over time.
2. Complexity - evolutionary trends toward increased complexity can be
seen in the development of the human brain.
3. Speciation and Extinction Rates - The finches of the Galápagos Islands,
famously studied by Charles Darwin, provide an example of rapid
speciation.
4. Ecological Roles - The co-evolution of flowering plants and their
pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, demonstrates an evolutionary
trend in ecological roles.
Fossil Records
• Fossils - are the preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms.
• Fossilization - occurs through processes like mineralization,
petrification, and carbonization.
Evidence of Long-Term Changes
• Transitional Fossils - These fossils show intermediate forms between
different species. For example:
o Archaeopteryx - A bird-like dinosaur with both reptilian and
avian features, bridging the gap between dinosaurs and birds.
Simone Myela Apostol
2 | Evolutionary Biology

o Tiktaalik - A fish-like tetrapod that provides evidence of the
transition from aquatic to terrestrial life.
• Mass Extinction - Fossil records reveal significant extinction events
(e.g., the Permian-Triassic extinction) that shaped the course of
evolution.
• Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium - Fossils support both gradual
changes over time and rapid bursts of evolution.
• Geological Time Scale - Fossils help us understand when major
evolutionary events occurred.
Comparative Anatomy
1. Homologous Structures - These are similar body parts in different
organisms due to shared ancestry.
2. Vestigial Structures - These are remnants of once-functional features that
have lost their original purpose.
3. Analogous Structures - These serve similar functions but have different
origins.
4. Embryonic Development - Comparing embryos across species reveals
similarities and differences.
• Marsupial Mammals - do not develop a true placenta and that usually different lineages. For example, the ability to produce vitamin C has
have a pouch on the abdomen of the female which covers the teats and been lost in most mammals but has been re-evolved in some bats and
serves to carry the young. primates.
3. Horizontal Gene Transfer - In rare cases, convergent evolution can result
TOPIC 4: DIVERGENCE from horizontal gene transfer, where a gene is transferred between
unrelated organisms. For example, some bacteria have acquired genes
Divergent evolution - is defined as what occurs when two groups of the same for antibiotic resistance from other bacteria.
species evolve different traits within those groups in order to accommodate
for differing environmental and social pressures. Examples of Convergent Evolution in Animals
1. Wings For Flights (bats and birds)
Examples 2. Echolocation (dolphins and bats)
• Kit fox - lives in the plains and in the deserts, where its sandy color helps 3. Anteaters - elongated snouts and specialized tongues, perfectly adapted
conceal it from prey and predators. to their insectivorous diet of ants and termites.
• Red fox - lives in mixed farmlands and forests, where its red color helps
it blend in with surrounding trees. Convergent Evolution in Plants
1. Leaves
New species form when individuals from diverging populations no longer 2. Seed Dispersal Mechanisms
recognize one another as potential mates, or opportunities for mating become 3. C4 photosynthesis - a pathway boosting carbon fixation. Allows plants to
limited by differences in habitat use or reproductive schedules thrive in hot, arid environments.

TOPIC 6: PARALLEL EVOLUTION

TOPIC 3: ADAPTIVE RADIATION TOPIC 5: CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
Parallel evolution - the evolution of geographically separated groups in such a
Adaptive Radiation - is the relatively fast evolution of many species from a Convergence - refers to the process or state of coming together or moving
way that they show morphological resemblances. When two species evolve
single common ancestor. toward union or uniformity.
independently of each other, maintaining the same level of similarity.
Key Concepts of Adaptive Radiation Convergent evolution - different species develop similar traits or features,
Examples
• Ecological Niches - Different environments that provide different even though they are not closely related. This happens because they live in
• Elephants and Mammoths
resources and challenges. similar environments or face similar challenges, so they evolve similar
• Sugar Glider and Flying Squirrel
• Speciation - The formation of new and distinct species during evolution. solutions.
• Common Ancestor - All new species originate from a single ancestral • Analogous structures - convergent evolution leads to the
Why Does Parallel Evolution Occur? - Similar environments present
species. development of analogous structures (also called homoplasies).
similar challenges. Natural selection favors traits that enhance survival and
These structures have similar forms or functions between species
reproduction. Over time, unrelated species can evolve similar adaptations.
Mechanisms of Adaptive Radiation but not present in their common ancestor.
• Ecological Opportunities TOPIC 7: COEVOLUTION
• Morphological Innovations Mechanisms Behind Convergent Evolution
• Genetic and Developmental Flexibility 1. Independent mutations - Similar mutations can occur independently in
Coevolution - occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each
• Reproductive Isolation different populations or species. This is the most common mechanism of
other’s evolution.
convergent evolution. For example, the streamlined body shape of
• Was coined Paul R. Elrich and Peter H. Raven.
Examples of Adaptive Radiation dolphins, tuna, and ichthyosaurs all evolved independently as an
• Darwin’s Finches adaptation for swimming.
Coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's
2. Shared ancestral alleles - Evolution can favor an allele that was already
• Cichlid Fish evolution through selective pressures. This process typically happens when
present in a shared ancestor but not expressed. This can lead to
• Anolis Lizard - their ability to cling to different surfaces is facilitated by species interact closely over long periods.
convergent evolution if the same allele is independently favored in
their adhesive toe pads, long tails and slender bodies.

Simone Myela Apostol

3 | Evolutionary Biology

Types of Coevolution believed to include massive volcanic eruptions, leading to climate

1. Mutualistic Coevolution - two or more species reciprocally affect each
other ' s evolution in a way that benefits all parties involved.
2. Antagonistic Coevolution - takes place when one organism is building up
protection against a threatening species. This type of coevolution usually
occurs because predators have means to hunt and kill the prey organism.
3. Competitive Coevolution - occurs when two or more species interact in a
way that they compete for the same resources.
4. Symbiotic Coevolution - Symbiotic coevolution refers to the process
where two or more species reciprocally influence each other’s evolution
due to their close ecological interactions. This relationship can be
mutualistic, where both species benefit, or antagonistic, where one
benefits at the expense of the other.
change, ocean acidification, and widespread environmental
disruption.
4. Triassic-Jurassic - About 201 million years ago. Resulted in the loss
of approximately 50% of marine species and many terrestrial
species, including large amphibians and reptiles.
5. Cretaceous-Paleogene - About 66 million years ago. This extinction
event is perhaps the most famous because it led to the demise of the
dinosaurs. Associated with the impact of a large asteroid or comet,
resulting in widespread wildfires, climate change, and the release of
dust and debris into the atmosphere. This event led to the extinction
of approximately 75% of all species on Earth, including most non-
avian dinosaurs.

Examples of Coevolution Between 1 and 10 species out of every million species on Earth would
• Plant and Pollinators naturally go extinct each year.
• Predator and Prey
Human Driven Extinctions
• Host and Parasite
1. Passenger Pigeon - was hunted extensively for food and sport during the
• Ants and Acacia Trees
19th century. Mass hunting, combined with habitat loss, led to a rapid
decline in populations, and the last known individual died in captivity in
TOPIC 8: EXTINCTION
1914.
2. Steller’s Sea Cow - This large, herbivorous marine mammal was native
Extinction - permanent disappearance of a species or group of organisms.
to the waters of the North Pacific, particularly around the Bering Sea. It
This occurs when the last individual of that species dies, resulting in the
was hunted to extinction by fur traders in the 18th century for its meat,
complete loss of its genetic lineage.
blubber, and hide. Steller's sea cow was officially declared extinct by the
late 1700s.
Mass extinction - is a significant, sudden, and widespread event in Earth's
3. Tasmanian Tiger - Also known as the thylacine, this carnivorous
history during which a large proportion of species across multiple taxonomic
marsupial was native to Tasmania and mainland Australia. It was hunted
groups disappear within a relatively short period of time. There are 5 major
by settlers who considered it a threat to livestock, and a government-
mass extinctions:
backed bounty scheme contributed to its decline. The last known
1. Ordovician-Silurian - about 445 million years ago. It resulted in the
thylacine died in captivity in 1936.
loss of approximately 60% of marine genera, likely due to a
combination of glaciation, sea level changes, and oceanic anoxia
(lack of oxygen).
2. Late Devonian - About 375 million years ago. This extinction event
primarily affected marine life, resulting in the loss of about 70% of
marine species, including many corals and reef builders. The causes
of this extinction are not fully understood but may include climate
change, oceanic anoxia, and habitat loss.
3. Permian-Triassic - About 252 million years ago. Often referred to as
the "Great Dying," this was the most severe mass extinction event
in Earth's history, with an estimated 90% of marine species and
70% of terrestrial vertebrate species going extinct. The causes are

Simone Myela Apostol