ETHICS REVIEWER

 ETHOS = characteristic way of acting

The ethos of man as man:
 He is able to distinguish between good and evil, right and wrong, moral and
immoral;
 He feels within himself an obligation to do what is good and to avoid what is
evil;
 He feels himself accountable for his actions, expecting reward or punishment for
them.
 Man is endowed by nature with a moral sense. He is self-conscious of his dignity
and submits to the duty of doing what is good and avoiding what is wrong..
 that he conducts himself according to the “dictates of reason.”
 ethics is the science of the morality of human acts.
 Ethics is the science of Morality
 Morality is the practice of Ethics.
 human acts are those actions performed by man, knowingly and freely. Human
acts are also called deliberate, intentional, or voluntary actions.
 acts of man are instinctive and involuntary.
Ethics = Moral Philosophy
 Ethics takes the form of Value Education.
 a value is something a person prizes, cherishes, and esteems as important to
him.
aim of value education = to guide the individual in choosing wisely his values and in
acting upon them.
The Art of Correct Living
 art is the appreciation of beauty. It implies order and harmony of parts in a given
whole.
 Human life is a vocation towards the refinement of the spirit
 Ethics is the breath of life, pulsating with the desire for growth and
development.
 Today is the tomorrow which we carefully planned yesterday. Making tomorrow
even farther than today.
 Without moral perception, man is only an animal.
 Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to be.
 Ethics is the only necessary knowledge.
 Morality is the foundation of every human society
TWO ETHICAL SYSTEMS
 ATHEISTIC APPROACH – assumes that only matter exists and that man is
responsible only to himself since there is no God who creates and rules the
universe. Morality is an invention of man to preserve the society. The concept of
good ad evil is always RELATIVE and CHANGEABLE.
 THESTIC APPROACH – begins with the assumption that God is the Supreme
Lawgiver. Everything must conform to God’s eternal plan of creation. Man must
exercise his freedom in accordance with God’s will. Principles of morality are
ABSOLUTE and UNCHANGING.
 RELIGION is a system of beliefs and practices based on faith or revelation.
 Ethics teaches the value of religion.
 LAW requires that we perform the required action regardless of our feelings
towards such action.
“For law is definitely concerned with what we do, not with what we feel.”
(Mortimer J. Adler)
 Ethical norms cover thoughts and feelings, i.e. staring at a woman lustfully
 MORALITY has wider implication than LAW.
 What is legal is not necessarily moral, but what is moral is necessarily worth
legalizing.
 Ethics is a personal commitment to uphold what is true and good.
 CODE OF ETHICS guides the actuation of a professional where the law is silent or
inadequate.
 A Code of Ethics implies that a professional is a person who has the obligation to
listen to the “dictates of reason”.
 The Code of Ethics for Business, in its marketing arrangements, business shall
“deliver the product or service in the quality, quantity, and time agreed upon,
and at a reasonable price, and avoid the creation of artificial shortages, price
manipulation, and like practices.
CRITERIA OR TRUTH
 TRUTH is a judgment which accords with reality, that our knowledge of reality
and the fact of reality harmoniously conform, that the integrated system of
ideas which we have in mind correspond in exact detail with the world of reality.
 1. CUSTOM – When in Rome, do as the Romans do. Strength: Teaches a person
on what to do. Weakness: Surely, a scientist obtaining principles could never
accept conflicting customs of majorities, or of minorities either, as a test.
Decision: Custom is not a good criterion of truth.

 2. TRADITION – What lasts for generation must be valid. Strength: New

generation learns it. Weakness: Tradition often conflicts with one another.
Decision: Tradition is not a good basis of belief or decision.
 3. TIME – My belief has stood the test of time. Strength: Basis of present
decision. Weakness: Many errors have lasted for a very long time before being
exposed to errors. Decision: Time is not accepted as a good test of truth.
 4. FEELINGS – subjective feelings are guides to variety of situations. Strength:
Feeling as psychology-based can yield truth. Weakness: The experienced
business executive ignores his feelings and searches for facts when making
investments. Decision: Feelings can mislead man to falsity, so it is not a good
criterion either.
 5. INSTINCT – It is the instinct of thirst that compels us to drink. Strength: We
find out what we want through instinct. Weakness: We could not derive much
evidence from instinct. Too often, they are vague, ill-defined, variant, and
undependable, limited to specific types of activity. Decision: Instinct is not
accepted as a good criterion of truth.
 6. HUNCH – is an impulsive generalization. Strength: Sometimes, that
generalization is right. Weakness: Often, errors are committed through a hunch.
Decision: Hunch is unacceptable.
 7. INTUITION – consists of judgment without recourse to reasoning from facts; it
is an assumed truth issuing from an unknown or unexplored source. Strength:
Woman’s intuition is usually right. Weakness: It is not available when needed.
Intuitions are potential sources of truth, but it is not a test of truth.
 8. REVELATION – is a truth or disclosure which emanates from God. Strength:
bases of faith. Weakness: Revelation is hard to prove. Decision: It is not a test
but source of truth.
 9. MAJORITY – Majority vote is accepted by all members of a group as a guide to
joint decisions. Strength: Used in meetings. Weakness: Majority could be wrong.
A scientist will not try to arrive at a conclusion by consulting the majority.
 10. CONSENSUS GENTIUM – the unanimous opinion of mankind. Strength: It is
universally accepted. Weakness: At one time, the masses believed that the Sun
revolved around the Earth. Decision: not accepted.
 11. NAÏVE REALISM – things are in reality what the senses depict them.
Strength: What we sense is almost always real. Weakness: Scientific truths are
often beyond the scope of the senses. Decision: No.
 12. CORRESPONDENCE – An idea which agrees with its object is necessarily true.
Strength: If the idea is – There are monkeys in the Quezon Forest Park. You
happened to explore the place and you really saw monkeys, then your idea is
right. Weakness: It is a mere definition of truth, not a test. Decision: It does not
qualify.
 13. AUTHORITY – The opinions of highly trained men who have achieved a
degree of success in a given area of specialization are regarded as acceptable
evidence or proof. Strength: We consult authorities. Weakness: Two authorities
may give contradictory evidence (Second Opinion). Decision: Not acceptable.
 14. PRAGMATIC CRITERION OF TRUTH – If an idea works, it must be accepted as
true. Strength: helpful and useful. Weakness: The use of placebo (innocuous
medication) nullifies this criterion. Decision: not acceptable.
 15. MERE CONSISTENCY – Statements are said to be consistent if they do not
contradict not another. Strength: An individual is consistent in so far as he does
not contradict himself. Weakness: The consistent statements are disconnected
and lack cohesiveness. Decision: Not.
 16. RIGOROUS CONSISTENCY – If all As are Bs, and all Bs are Cs, then all As are
Cs. Strength: Used in logic. Weakness: To establish the accuracy of the premises
here requires another criterion of truth. Decision: Still not acceptable.
 17. COHERENCE (REASON) – refers to systematic consistent explanation of all
the factors of experience. Strength: Used by God also. Weakness: Its weakness
lies not in the criterion of coherence but in man’s limitations or his inability to
obtain all facts of experience. Decision: Finally, the best criterion of truth

 Let God be true but every man a liar (Romans 3:4).

 And the woman said to Elijah, Now by this I know that thou art a man of God,
and that the word of the LORD in thy mouth is truth. 1 Kings 17:24
 For I have not spoken of myself; but the Father which sent me, he gave me a
commandment, what I should say, and what I should speak. (John 12:49)
 37 Pilate therefore said to Him, “Are You a king then?” Jesus answered, “You
say rightly that I am a king. For this cause I was born, and for this cause I have
 come into the world, that I should bear witness to the truth. Everyone who is of
the truth hears My voice.”
 38 Pilate said to Him, “What is truth?” And when he had said this, he went out
again to the Jews, and said to them, “I find no fault in Him at all. (John 18: 37-38)
 Sanctify them through thy truth: thy word is truth (John 17:17 KJV) However,
when He, the Spirit of Truth has come, He will guide you into all truth. (John
16:13).
 And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free. (John 8:32)
 TRUTH AS OBJECTIVE (ABSOLUTE): Truth is not a matter of opinion. Truth has its
source. Truth is unchanging. WHAT WAS TRUE YESTERDAY, IS TRUE TODAY, AND
WILL BE TRUE IN THE FUTURE.
 “Every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the
Father of lights, with whom is no variableness, neither shadow of turning.”
(James 1:17)
 Jesus Christ the same yesterday, and to day, and for ever. (Hebrews 13:8)
 TRUTH AS SUBJECTIVE (RELATIVE): Truth is just a matter of opinion. What is true
for you is true for you; what is true for me is true for me. Truth is changing.
What was true yesterday may not be true today. We are not sure if what is true
today will be still true tomorrow
 TRUTH AS AN IMPOSSIBILITY (SKEPTICISM): Gorgias of Leontini said: Truth does
not exist because nothing can be known

TRUTH CAN EITHER BE UNIVERSAL OR PARTICULAR

 Universal truths, such as about God, are unchanging.

 Particular truths, such as cultural practices, vary from one individual or one
group to another

UNIVERSAL STATEMENTS = A AND E / PARTICULAR STATEMENTS = I AND O

 All human beings are mortal (A or universal affirmative); Atqui (but), some
Filipinos are human beings (I or particular affirmative); Ergo (therefore), some
Filipinos are mortal (I or particular affirmative)
 All human beings are not angels (E or universal negative); Atqui, some religious
persons are human beings (I or particular affirmative); Ergo, some religious
persons are not angels (O or particular negative)
 A human being, no doubt, is creative because he possesses tremendous bodily
and spiritual powers.
 If human beings can control themselves, they are accountable to themselves.

KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS

 1. ELICITED ACTS – are those performed by the Will and are not bodily
externalized.
 2. COMMANDED ACTS – are those done either by a human being’s mental or
bodily powers under the command of the will.
KINDS OF ELICITED ACTS:

 WISH – is the tendency of will towards something, whether this can be

realizable or not (i.e. winning the Lotto).
 INTENTION – is the tendency of the will towards something attainable but
without necessarily committing oneself to attain it (i.e. to attend a party).
 CONSENT – is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the
intention (i.e. A woman is said to show consent when she consciously attracts
attention to herself).
 ELECTION – is the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry
out the intention (i.e. A salesman shows election when he opts to visit a client
instead of just writing him a letter)
 USE = is the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry
out the intention (i.e. It is this act of the will which moves the salesman to dress
up and take a ride to see his client)
 FRUITION – is the enjoyment of the will derived from the attainment of the
thing he had desired earlier (i.e. the satisfaction of the salesman in closing a deal
with his client).

COMMANDED ACTS are either INTERNAL ACTIONS or EXTERNAL ACTIONS

 INTERNAL ACTIONS – examples are conscious reasoning, recalling something,

encouraging oneself, controlling aroused emotions and others.
 EXTERNAL ACTIONS – examples are walking, eating, dancing, laughing, listening,
reading, and others.

MORAL DISTINCTIONS
 Human acts may either be in conformity or not with the dictates of reason.
 “Dictates of Reason refers to the shared consciousness of prudent people about
the propriety of a certain action or manner of behavior. It shows what is
permissible in a given situation.
 DICTATES OF REASON = NORM OF MORALITY ( Actions are classified into
MORAL, IMMORAL, or AMORAL)

 MORAL ACTIONS – are those actions which are in conformity with the norm of
morality. They are good actions and are permissible (i.e. studying)
 IMMORAL ACTIONS – are those actions which are not in conformity with the
norm of morality. They are bad or evil and are not permissible (i.e. stealing)
 AMORAL ACTIONS – are those actions which stand neutral in relation to the
norm of morality. They are either good nor bad (i.e. playing basketball)

EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC EVIL

 Something is intrinsic to a thing when it is integral to the nature of that thing.

(The sweetness of a mango fruit is, for example, intrinsic to it. But the appeal of
 a mango to a particular person is extrinsic to it, that is, such equality is not an
integral element of it as fruit.)
 Some actions are intrinsically evil because their nature is defective either by
excess or by lack of certain attributes. Such, for example, is the nature of
stealing which, by nature, manifests lack of respect for the property of another.
 Some other actions are extrinsically evil because certain factors attached to
them by way of circumstances render them opposed to the norm of morality.
Drinking liquor is extrinsically evil when done in excess.
 Actions that are intrinsically evil are prohibited at all times and under any
circumstance. Actions that are extrinsically evil may be tolerated provided the
circumstance rendering it to be wrong is first removed. SUICIDE IS
INTRINSICALLY EVIL and remains immoral whatever is the justification.
 THERAPEUTIC ABORTION is extrinsically evil when it is resorted as a necessary
means to safeguard the life of the mother.

IMPUTABILITY OF HUMAN ACTS

 A human act is done by a person who is in control of his faculties: intellect and
will. In this sense, a person is like the captain of a ship who assumes full
responsibility and accountability for his decisions.
 The imputability of human act means that the person performing the act is
liable for such act. It involves the notion of guilt or innocence. Thus, actions are
either praiseworthy or blameworthy. Actions are attributed to the doer as their
principal cause

SANCTIONS ARE PENALTIES

 Imputability implies that the doer is either deserving of reward or punishment.

This is a basic requirement of justice.
 The penal laws of our country provide for a system of punishment for crimes,
ranging from legal punishments such as fines or imprisonment.
 The Bible Imputability implies that the doer is either deserving of reward or
punishment. This is a basic requirement of justice.
 The penal laws of our country provide for a system of punishment for crimes,
ranging from simple fines to imprisonment. The capital punishment, that is,
death penalty, is reserved for “heinous crimes”.
 Unless also prohibited by the laws of the State, immoralities are not given
corresponding legal punishments such as fines or imprisonment. The Bible,
however, speaks of death as the punishment for ‘sins’. Though the Old
Testament interpret this as death by execution, it refers more to spiritual death
or suffering
 A form of spiritual death is the loss of peace of mind, the only genuine happiness
possible in this life. Medical science and psychiatry also show that many
diseases, both mental and physical, are caused by spiritual disorientation.
Indeed, many of the human sufferings we see and experience are the direct
results of immoral situations.
 For example, an immoral person risks losing his honor, his job, and his family. He
also runs the risk of being ostracized. On the other hand, the world looks up to a
man of integrity. Peace, contentment, and honor are but some of the rewards
coming to an upright person

VOLUNTARINESS
 From the Latin word “voluntas”, referring to the WILL. Voluntariness is essential
to an act. Without it, an act is a mere act of man. We distinguish between
perfect and imperfect, and conditional and simple voluntariness

PERFECT VOLUNTARINESS
 is present in a person who fully knows and fully intends an act. A man who,
wanting to get even, takes a gun and shoots his enemy is said to be acting with
perfect voluntariness.

IMPERFECT VOLUNTARINESS
 is present in a person who acts without fully realizing what he means to do, or
without fully intending the act. A drunken man might act irrationally without
fully realizing what he is doing; or a woman, in terror, might jump out of a
window without fully intending to kill herself.

CONDITIONAL VOLUNTARINESS
 - is present in a person who is forced by circumstances beyond his control to
perform an act which he would not do under normal conditions. A child who is
intimidated by his mother to study the lesson is acting with conditional
voluntariness.

SIMPLE VOLUNTARINESS
 - is present in a person doing an act willfully, regardless of whether he likes to do
it or not. It is either positive or negative. It is positive when the act requires the
performance of an activity, such as polishing the floor, paying rent, or playing
tennis. It is negative when an act requires the omission of activity, such as not
taking prohibited drugs, remaining quiet, or not listening to the radio.

TYPES OF VOLUNTARINESS

 DIRECT VOLUNTARINESS
 accompanies an act which is primarily intended by the doer, either as an end in
itself or as a means to achieve something else.
 Eating lunch is carried on with direct voluntariness. The same directness
accompanies many of our daily activities such as, going to school, inviting a
friend to a movie, reading a book, or writing a note.
 INDIRECT VOLUNTARINESS
 Accompanies an act or situation which is the mere result of a directly willed act.
Getting a failing mark is indirectly voluntary on the part of the student who has
willingly neglected to study.
 Generally speaking, a person is liable for the results which are foreseeable by an
ordinary act of prudence. The prankster who shouts “fire” inside a crowded
place has certainly some inkling that his joke might cause fear, panic, stampede
and injury to people.

INDIRECTLY VOLUNTARY

Paul Glenn considers a person accountable for indirectly voluntary results of his
acts when:

1. The doer is able to foresee the evil result or effect, at least, in general way;
2. The doer is free to refrain from doing that which would produce the foreseen evil;
3. The doer has moral obligation not to do that which produces an evil effect.

Alfredo Panizo cites these principles:

1. A person is held morally responsible for any evil effect which flows from the action
itself directly and necessarily as a natural consequence, though the evil effect is not
directly willed or intended.
2. A human act from which two effects may result, one good and one evil, is morally
permissible under four conditions. If any of these conditions is violated, then the
action is not justifiable and should not be done

These 4 conditions are:

1. The action which produces double effects must be good in itself, or at least
morally indifferent.
2. The good effect must not come from the evil effect. To do evil in order to achieve
something good is not justified.
3. The motive of the doer must be towards the attainment of the good. The evil
effect is permitted only as an incidental result
4. The good effect must outweigh the evil result in its importance

 These principles and conditions find application in the so-called “therapeutic

abortion” where the direct intention is the saving of the mother’s life with the
incidental result of aborting the fetus

 The ideal is for a human being to act deliberately, that is, with perfect
voluntariness. This is not always possible though. Oftentimes, a certain degree of
doubt or reluctance accompanies an act. At other times, emotions hold sway,
propelling action with the swiftness of an impulse.
 Factors that influence man’s inner disposition towards certain actions are called
“modifiers” of human acts.
 They affect the mental or emotional state of a person to the extent that the
voluntariness involved in an act is either increased or decreased.

PRINCIPLE 1: The greater the knowledge and the freedom, the greater the
voluntariness and the moral responsibility.

Related principles:

 Great power comes with great responsibility.

 The more you know, the more it hurts.
 Much is given, much is required.
 A human being does not act in a vaccum.
 He is an organism responding and reacting to stimulus.
 Her total make up is the sum of all experiences.
 His personal background, education, social upbringing, political persuasion,
religion, and personal aims – contribute largely to his development and
behavioral preferences.

THE MODIFIERS
[1] Ignorance
[2] Passions
[3] Fear
[4] Violence
[5] Habit

Others include hypnoticism, brainwashing, mental conditioning, and cultural

imposition.

 IGNORANCE = Ignorance of the law excuses no one.

 Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess.

A lawyer
A doctor
A manager
In the realm of morals, everyone of age and reason is expected to know at least the
general norms of good behavior.

THE LAWS ARE NO LONGER INSCRIBED IN THE TABLETS OF STONE:

 Jeremiah 31:33. Here's the verse from the New International Version (NIV):
"But this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days,
says the Lord: I will put my law within them, and I will write it on their hearts; and I
will be their God, and they shall be my people."

 Vincible Ignorance can easily be reminded through ordinary diligence and

reasonable efforts.
 I.e. The ignorance of a visitor regarding a particular address in a certain place is
vincible, since he can easily ask for information from a policeman or pedestrian.
 Under the category of vincible ignorance is the AFFECTED IGNORANCE . This is
the type which a person keeps by positive efforts in order to escape
responsibility of blame. It is affected ignorance when a employee refuses to read
a memo precisely so that he may be exempted from its requirement.

 Invincible Ignorance = is the type which a person possesses without being aware
of it, or, having awareness of it, lacks the means to rectify it.
 i.e. The ignorance regarding missing persons or objects is often invincible.
Sometimes, too, a person acts without realizing certain facts. Thus, a cook might
be unaware that the food he is serving is contaminated.

PRINCIPLE 2: Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary.

 A person cannot be held morally liable if he is not aware of his state of
ignorance. A waiter who is not aware that the food he is serving has been
poisoned cannot be held for murder.
PRINCIPLE 3: Vincible ignorance does not destroy but lessens the voluntariness and
the corresponding accountability over the act.
 A person who becomes aware of the state of ignorance he is in has the moral
obligation to rectify it by exercising reasonable diligence in seeking the needed
information.
 To act with vincible ignorance is to act imprudently.
 A waiter who suspects that the food he is serving has been laced with poison
has the moral obligation to ascertain the fact, or, at least, forewarn the guests
about his suspicion.
PRINCIPLE 4: Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, increases the
accountability over the resultant act.
 Insofar as affected ignorance interferes with the intellect, it decreases
voluntariness. But insofar as it is willed to persist, it increases accountability.
 Certainly, refusing to rectify ignorance implies malice. And the malice is greater
when ignorance is used as an excuse for not doing the right thing. Thus, a child
who refuses to be guided by his parents has only himself to blame for his
wrongdoing.

 PASSIONS = or concupiscence, are either tendencies towards desirable objects,

or, tendencies away from undesirable or harmful things. The former are called
positive emotions; the latter, negative emotions.
 POSITIVE EMOTIONS = love, desire, delight, hope, bravery
 NEGATIVE EMOTIONS = hatred, horror, sadness, despair, fear, and anger
 Passions are psychic responses. As such, they are neither moral nor immoral.
However, man is bound to regulate his emotions and submit them to the control
of reason.

PASSIONS ARE EITHER ANTECEDENT OR CONSEQUENT

 Antecedent are those that precede an act. It may happen that a person is
emotionally aroused to perform an act. Antecedent passions predispose a
 person to act. Thus, love may induce one to make numerous and lengthy phone
calls to his sweetheart, or , to plot the murder of a rival.

PRINCIPLE 5: Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they

diminish accountability for the resultant act.

 Antecedent passions weaken the will power of a person without, however,

completely obstructing his freedom. Thus, the so-called “crimes of passion” are
voluntary. But insofar as passions interfere with the freedom of the will, one’s
accountability is diminished.
 Consequent passions are those that are intentionally aroused and kept.
Consequent passions, therefore, are said to be voluntary in cause, the result of
the will playing the strings of emotions.
 Thus, a young man may deliberately arouse himself sexually by reading
pornographic magazines. Or a victim of injustice may intentionally nurse his
resentment towards his tormentor.
 The young man who commits lasciviousness after arousing himself sexually and
the fellow who commits vengeance due to his cultivated resentment – are both
morally accountable.

PRINCIPLE 6: Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, but may even

increase accountability.

 FEAR = is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an

impending danger or harm to himself or loved ones. Distinction is made
however between an act done with fear and an act done out or because of fear.
 Certain actions which by nature are dangerous or risky are done with varying
degree of fear. Climbing a cliff, flying an airplane through a storm, diving for
pearls, or arresting a notorious killer – are examples of acts performed with fear.
In these cases, fear is a normal response to danger. Such actions are voluntary,
because the doer is in full control of his faculties and acts in spite of his fear.
 Fear is an instinct for self-preservation. We even fear new experiences or
situations such as, embarking on a long journey, being left alone in a strange
place, or being asked to speak before a group of people. But doing something
out of fear, or because of it, is entirely different. Here, fear becomes a positive
force compelling a person to act without careful deliberation.
 The child reads his book out of fear of the mother; the employer volunteers to
work over-time out of fear of being fired by the boss; a friend stops smoking out
of fear of contracting cancer. These examples show how actions are done
because of fear. Fear modifies the freedom of the doer, inducing him to act in a
certain predetermined manner, often without his full consent.

PRINCIPLE 7: Acts done with fear are voluntary.

 A person acting with fear is acting in spite of his fear and is in full control of
himself.
PRINCIPLE 8: Acts done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary, although it
is also conditionally voluntary.
 It is simply voluntary because the person remains in control of his faculties,
including that of moderating fear. It is also “conditionally voluntary” because if it
were not for the presence of something feared, the person would not act or
would act in another way.

PRINCIPLE 9: Acts done because of intense fear or panic are involuntary.

 Panic completely obscures the mind. In this mental state, a person is not
expected to think sensibly. Thus, a person in a state of panic might jump from
the 12th floor of a burning building. Such act is not considered suicide, since it is
done involuntarily, losing complete control of himself.
 Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act. Legally speaking,
actions done out of fear are invalid acts. Thus, contracts entered into out of fear
are voidable, meaning, they can later on be annulled.

 VIOLENCE = refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free

agent for the purpose of compelling said person to act against his will. Bodily
torture, maltreatment, isolation, and mutilation – are examples of violence
against persons.

PRINCIPLE 10: External actions, or commanded actions, performed by a person

subjected to violence, to which reasonable resistance has been offered, are
involuntary and are not accountable.
 Active resistance should always be offered to an unjust aggressor. However, if
resistance is impossible, or if there is a serious threat to one’s life, a person
confronted by violence can always offer intrinsic resistance by withholding
consent; that is enough to save his moral integrity.
PRINCIPLE 11: Elicited acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to
violence and are therefore voluntary.
 History carries the story of thousand heroes who had suffered death instead of
surrendering their will to that of their tormentors. On the contrary, we consider
them villains or weaklings those who succumbed and consented to the wishes of
tyrants. But we may not be too harsh on them, since every man has his own
limit of endurance.

 HABIT = is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts, for
acting in a certain manner. Habits are acquired inclinations towards something
to be done. A habit is not that easy to overcome or alter. It requires a strong-
willed person to correct a habit successfully within a limited period of time,
(alcoholics and smokers).

PRINCIPLE 12: Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless
reasonable effort is made to counteract the habitual inclination.
 Habits are either good or bad. We speak here of bad habits which lead to
immoral actions.
 Habits are voluntary in cause, because they are the result of previously willed
acts done repeatedly as a matter of fact. Therefore, for as longas the habit is not
corrected, evil actions done by force of that habit are voluntary and
accountable.

ACTION AND EMOTION

 Man does not act the way a robot does – without feeling or emotion. Emotions
become good or evil by the attitude of the person manifesting them. Man’s
thoughts and actions are colored by his emotions.
 Emotions make up the very heart of man, from which come both good and evil.

REFINEMENT OF EMOTIONS
 Instead of repressing the emotions, it calls for their refinement. The Decalogue
does not merely command that we love God, but adds to say “with all your heart
and with all your soul”.

 The mere external obedience to a law is cold and hypocritically convenient. The
ethical expectation is to enter into the spirit of the law and to accept it with
humility and respect.
 Indeed, the aim of Ethics is not to turn man into an efficient machine to do
things. Rather, it hopes to transform man by inner spiritual conversion

MORAL PERFECTION COMES FROM WITHIN.

 We, Filipinos, refer to it as kagandahan ng loob. It is “loob” because it radiates
from within the human personality.

KAGANDAHAN NG LOOB includes such moral values as MAPAGMAHAL,

MAUNAWAIN, MAY-PAKIKIRAMDAM, MAY-PAKIKIRAMAY, MATULUNGIN,
MASAYAHIN, and HINDI MAPAGKUNWARI.
MAGANDANG LOOB vs MASAMANG LOOB

ENDS OF THE HUMAN ACTS

 The "end" refers to the goal of an act.
 It is either the end of the act itself or the end of the doer.
1. End of the Act-The end of the act is the natural termination or completion of an
activity.
2. End of the Doer- The end of the doer is the motive or intention why a person
performs an act.
 Proximate End- the goal which the doer wishes to accomplish immediately.
 Remote End - the purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish sometimes
later.
 Intermediate End - is that which is sought as a means for obtaining another
thing.
 Ultimate End - is that which is desired for its own sake.
THE "END" AS "GOOD”
 The concept of good is synonymous with that of end or purpose. As mentioned
above, man does not wish anything except those that suits and benefits him; he
acts with the intention of obtaining something good for himself; he does not
desire evil for its own sake. Hence, good is equivalent to the end or purpose of
an act- It is either ultimate end or the intermediate end.
 Actions are considered to be good if they are fit to human nature.
 Actions are considered to be evil if they are unfit to human nature

APPARENT GOOD
 When someone desires evil as an end, it is only because he views it, subjectively,
as something good. Evil which is presented to the mind as something good.It is
evil disguised as good.

KINDS OF GOOD
 Essential Good - Those that fit the natural needs of a man as man are essential
good
 Accidental Good - Those that fit the wants of an individual because of his
circumstance
 Real Good - A real good is which has an intrinsic value. Thus we call it: Value. It
possesses qualities rendering "fitting"or desirable.
 Apparent Good - It is actually an evil thing but is viewed as "good" under certain
aspects.
 Perfective Good - Is that which contributes to the integral perfection of a
person.
 Non-Perfective Good - is that which merely contributes to the external
appearance or convenience of a person.
 Perfect Good - has the fullness of qualities enabling it to fully satisfy human
desire
 Imperfect Good - it possesses only certain qualities so that it does not fully
satisfy human desire except in a relative or limited sense.

THE GREATEST GOOD

 In every activity , man seeks that which is good. The greatest good as a matter of
fact.
 In the language of philosophers, the greatest good is the Summum Bonum.

SUMMUM BONUM

 is a Latin phrase which means the principle of goodness in which all moral values
are included or from which they are derived.
 In the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, the highest good is a state where the
desire to perform one’s duty is accompanied by happiness
 For Aristotle, the greatest good is happiness. Happiness is what man aims to
achieve in all his activities.
 As a psychological state, happiness is the feeling of contentment arising from
the possession of a good
 If the greatest good does not exist, or if it does but is totally beyond man's grasp,
then human life would be pointless

SOME ERRORS CONCERNING HAPPINESS:

1. Some people give the impression that money or wealth can buy happiness.
2. Some people equate health with happiness
3. Sensual people vainly seek happiness in earthly pleasures.
4. Certain people cling to their public image as if God Himself made after illusion
5. Some dedicate their lives to science and arts.
6. Some propose that the final purpose of man is the promotion or the State
Government.

NATURAL AND SUPERNATURAL HAPPINESS

 Natural happiness - is attainable by man through the use of his natural power
 Supernatural happiness - is attainable by man through the use of his natural
powers as these are informed and aided by God's infusion of grace.
 Natural happiness "consist in the perfection that can be attained by man
through the employment of his body and soul and the powers inherent in
them".

 For Aristotle, natural happiness does not rest on one single object. Rather, it
consist in the attainment of all development. Complete happiness, in natural
order, consists in those goods pertaining to the soul
 The highest good, according to Aristotle, belong to the intellect: the
contemplation of truth. But this fullness of knowledge is attained through virtue

THE ULTIMATE PURPOSE

 Christians philosophers, notably St. Agustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, teach
that man, in every deliberate action acts towards an end and ultimately to an
absolute ultimate end: happiness
 Man cannot attain perfect happiness in his life, because God can never be
known by man's natural power. But man can approximate perfect happiness in
this life by knowledge and love of God and by the exercise of virtue