Algebraic

COLLEGE AND ADVANCED ALGEBRA – TOPIC 2

Expression
{
Real Number Line c
± √2 , ± √3 , ± √5 …
 Each point on the real number line .Q = π =3.1415 , …
represents a real number (or simply a e=2.718 , …
number)
Real Number Venn Diagram

Set of Real number

 Set of all Real Numbers or Numbers
 Set of all the points on the Number Line
 Set of all possible length from a reference
point
Operations on Real Numbers
 Addition (+)
Subsets of Real number  Multiplication (), x, ∙

 Natural Numbers (N ) PROPERTIES OF REAL

N= { 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ,11 , … } NUMBER OPERATIONS
 Whole Numbers (W ) Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ
W ={0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,10 , 11, … } 1. Closure Property
 Integers (Z) a+ b ∈ R
Z={ … ,−4 ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , … } a ⋅b ∈ R
 Rational Numbers ( Q ) 2. Commutative Property
ℚ a+ b=b+a

{ }
a a ∙ b=b ∙ a
¿ x| x= , a , b ϵ Z ,b ≠ 0 ={ Fractions ¿ 3. Associative Property
b

{
a+ a ⋅b+ c=b ⋅c=a+b+ c=a+b +c
0 0 0 a ∙ ( b ∙ c )=( a ∙ b ) ∙ c=a ∙ b ∙ c
, , ,…
1 2 3 4. Distributive Property of Multiplication
1 1 1 over Addition
ℚ¿ ± , ± ,± , … a ∙ ( b+ c ) =a ∙ b+a ∙ c
1 2 3
2 2 2 ( a+ b ) ∙ c=a ∙ c+ b ∙c
± ,± ,± ,…
1 2 3
Identity Element
 Irrational Numbers ( Q c
) Definition:
 Given a set equipped by some operation,
Q = { all real number that are NOT RATIONAL }
c
the Identity element of a set under the
given operation is an element that doesn’t
change anything when applying the
operation with other elements.
ADDITIVE IDENTITY  Subtraction (-)
The identity element of ℝ under addition or
Additive identity is 𝟎 since for any a ∈ R a−b=a+(−b)
a+ 0=0+ a=a
[𝑎 minus b is same as a plus the additive inverse
MULTIPLICATIVE IDENTITY of 𝑏]
The identity element of ℝ under multiplication
or Multiplicative identity is 𝟏 since for any  Division (/, ÷ )
a∈R a 1
a ÷ c= =a ∙
a ∙ 1=1 ∙ a=a c c
INVERSE OF AN ELEMENT [𝑎 divided by 𝑐 is same as 𝑎 times the
Definition: multiplicative inverse of 𝑐]
 Given a set equipped with an operation,
and has an identity element, the Inverse of Exponentiation

{
an element is an element of the same set Given a ∈ R ∖ {0 } and m ∈ N
such that if the operation was applied m
between the element and its inverse, the a =a ∙ a ∙ a … ∙ a
result is the identity element of the set
m copies of a
under the applied operation.

ADDITIVE INVERSE Laws of Exponent

For an element a ∈ ℝ, the Additive inverse of 𝑎, Given a , b , c ∈ R ∖ {0 } and m , n∈ Q
denoted by −𝑎 is a real number such that
1. Product Rule
m n m +n
a+ (−a ) =−a+ a=0 a ∙ a =a
MULTIPLICATIVE INVERSE Example: a=3 , m=4 , n=2
For an element a ∈ ℝ ∖{0}, the Multiplicative 4 2 6 4 +2
1 3 ∙ 3 =( 81 )( 9 )=729=3 =3
inverse 1 of 𝑎, denoted by , is a real numbers
a 2. Quotient Rule
such that m
a m−n
n
=a
1 1 a
a ∙ = ∙ a=1
a a Example: a=3 , m=4 , n=2
Properties involving Identities and 3 81
4
2 4−2
inverse 2
= =9=3 =3
3 9
Let a , b , c , d ∈ R , c , d ≠ 0
1. a ∙ 0=0∙ a=0 3. Power of a Power Rule
n mn
2. −(−a )=a (a ¿¿ m) =a ¿
3. −1 ∙ a=−a
Example: a=3 , m=4 , n=2
4. −a ∙ b=−(ab)
2 2 8 4∙ 2
5. (−a )(−b )=ab (3¿¿ 4) =(81) =6561=3 =3 ¿
6. −( a+ b )=−a+ (−b )
4. Power of a Product Rule
1 m m m
=c (ab) =a b
7.
()1
c Example: a=3 , b=2, m=4
1 1 1 4 4
(3 ∙ 2) =( 6) =1296=81 ∙16=3 ∙ 2
4 4
8. ∙ =
c d cd
5. Power of a Quotient Rule
Remarks: Let a , b , c ∈ R , c ≠ 0 ,
 ()
m m The term “5” is a constant because its value is
a a
= m known
b b
The term "𝑥” is a variable because its value is
Example: a=3 , b=2, m=4 not known, we only know that its value ranges
from 1 to 69.

( ) ( )( )( )( )
4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 ∙ 3 ∙3 ∙ 3 3
= = = 2. “The sum of two distinct integers is 35. “
2 2 2 2 2 2∙ 2 ∙2 ∙ 2 24
“The sum of two distinct integers is 35. “
6. Zero Exponent Rule
0
a =1 Here, there are three terms/symbols: 𝑥, 𝑦, and
35
Example: a=3
The term “35” is a constant because its value is
2
0 2−2 3 9 known
3 =3 = 2 = =1
3 9 The terms "𝑥” and “𝑦” are variables because
their value is not known, we only know that
7. Negative Exponent Rule they are integers.
−m 1
a = m Polynomials
a
Definition:
Example: a=3 , m=4 →−m=−4  A Polynomial is an expression which is
composed of variables, constants, and
0
−4 0−4 3 1 exponents, that are combined using
3 =3 = 4
= 4 mathematical operations; Addition,
3 3
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division (no
8. Fractional Exponent Rule division by a variable)
m
a =√ am
n n

Examples:
Example: a=3 , m=4 , n=5
4
With One Variable: Not a polynomial:
3 =√ 3 =√ 81
5 5 4 5  x +1 1
 x 2−2 
x
Variables and Constants  3 x−x 3 x
−2

1 
Variable:  x−7 x+1
 Any symbol/term that represents an 2  √ x+ 1
unknown number, value, quantity,
With Two Variables: 25 x + y
expression, or object. 
 xy−2 x− y
 Its value is not fixed and is liable to change
 0.55 x 77+ y 2 1
depending on the situation.  x+
 √ 2 x 7 +5 y y
Constant: 3 2
 Any symbol/term that represents a known  1+ xy + y
4
number, value, quantity, expression, or
object. Terms of a Polynomial
 Its value is fixed.
Monomial - A polynomial with exactly one
Examples: term
1. “A number from 1 to 69, is multiplied by  5
5”.  √6 x
 7 xy 2
This statement can be expressed as: “5𝑥”
 −4 y 8
Here, there are two terms/symbols: 5 and 𝑥  0.001 z 13
Binomial - A polynomial with exactly two 3 2
¿ ( 1 ) x + ( 1 ) x + 2 ( x ) +(3)
terms
 x +1 3 2
¿ x + x +2 x +(3)
 xy +2
 x2 y3 + z2 Subtraction
 Change each terms of the subtrahend to
2 2
 0.5 z + y their respective Additive Inverses, and then
3 proceed to Addition.
Trinomial - A polynomial with exactly three n
p+q=( an−b n ) x + ( an−1−b n−1 ) x
n−1
+… ( a 1−b1 ) +
terms
Example:
 x 2+ 2 x +1
 x 3− y +1 2
p=x +3 x+ 1q=x −x +2
3

2 2 1
 xy + x y − y p+q=( x 2 +3 x+1 )−(x3 −x+2)
2
Polynomials in One Variable ¿ ( 0 x 3 + x 2+3 x +1 )− ( x3 + 0 x 2−x +2 )
Standard Form: ¿ ( 0 x 3 + x 2+3 x +1 ) + (−x 3−0 x 2 + x−2 )
n n−1
a n x +a n−1 x + …+a1 x+ a0 ¿ ( 0 x 3−x 3 ) + ( x 2−0 x 2 ) + ( 3 x+ x ) +(1−2)
Where a 0 , a 1 , … , an ∈ R and the variable here 3 2
¿ ( 0−1 ) x + ( 1−0 ) x + ( 3+1 ) x+ ( 1−2 )
is x
3 2
¿ (−1 ) x + ( 1 ) x + 4 ( x ) +(−1)
a 1 , a2 , a3 , … , an are called coefficients of
3 2
2 3 n
x , x , x , … , x respectively. ¿−x + x + 4 x−(3)

Operations on Polynomials Multiplication

 USE THE DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY!!
Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be polynomials where
p ∙ q=( an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +…+ a1 x+ a0 ) q
n n−1
p=an x + an−1 x +…+ a1 x +a 0,
n n−1
n n−1
¿ a n x q+ an−1 x q+…+ a1 x q+ a0 q
q=b n x +b n−1 x + …+b1 x+ b0
¿ a n x n ( b n x n +bn−1 x n−1 + …+b1 x+ b0 )
Addition
 The terms from the addends that has
identical set of powers of variables are + an−1 x n−1 ( bn x n+ bn−1 xn −1 +…+ b1 x +b 0 )
called “like terms”. In addition of two
polynomials, just add the coefficients of +… a1 x ( b n x n +b n−1 x n−1+ …+b1 x+ b0 )
those “like terms”.
n n−1 + a0 ( bn x n+ bn−1 xn −1 +…+ b1 x +b 0 )
p+q=( an +bn ) x + ( a n−1+ bn−1 ) x +… ( a1+ b1 ) +(a0 +b 0)
Example:
Example:
2 3
p=x +3 x+ 1q=x −x +2
p+q=( x 2 +3 x+1 )+(x 3−x +2)

¿(0 x 3 + x 2 +3 x+1)+ ( x 3 +0 x 2−x+ 2 )

¿ ( 0 x 3 + x 3 )+ ( x 2+ 0 x 2 ) + ( 3 x−x ) +(1+ 2)
3 2 Remarks:
¿ ( 0+1 ) x + ( 1+ 0 ) x + ( 3−1 ) x + ( 1+2 )
1. The properties of operation on numbers  Finding the common monomial factor of
also applies to operations on polynomials. each term of the polynomial.
2. The sum of two polynomials is a
polynomial Example:
3. The product of two polynomials is a Factor the polynomial p=5 x 4 y +10 x 3 y 2
polynomial
Observe that: p=5 x 4 y +10 x 3 y 2
DEGREE OF A POLYNOMIAL 3 3
¿ 5 x xy +5 ∙2 x yy
3 3
The degree of a polynomial 𝑝, denoted by deg ¿ 5 x y ( x )+ 5 x y (2 y)
3
(𝑝), is the largest exponent of the variable with ¿ 5 x y (x +2 y)
nonzero coefficients. That is if
n n−1
Therefore,5 x 3 y and 1+2 xy are factors of
p=an x + an−1 x +…+ a1 x +a 0 4 3 2 3
p=5 x y +10 x y and 5 x y is the
And a n ≠ 0, then deg ( p )=n common monomial factor (CMF) of each term
of p.
Examples:
3 8 2 Factoring by Grouping
p=x +5 x −9 x  Requirements: Factoring by Grouping can
only be done if the Polynomial has at least
deg ( p )=8 4 terms.
2 3 8 4
q=1+ x + x + 0 x + x Factoring Procedure:
 Grouping the terms of the polynomial.
deg ( p )=4 Each group must consist of at least two
terms.
Factoring  Factor each grouping
Factoring a polynomial 𝑝 is finding polynomials  Finding the common factor in each of the
group factored.
p1 and p2, where each of the degree of p1 and
p2 is less than or equal to degree of 𝑝, and Example:
3 2
p= p 1 p2 Factor the polynomial p=x y +2 x y + x+ 2
3 2
p1and p2 are called factors of 𝑝. p=x y +2 x y + x+ 2
Examples: ¿ ( x 3 y+ 2 x 2 y )+( x +2)
¿ ( x x 2 y +2 x 2 y ) +(x +2)
1. Let p=x 2 +3 x+ 2. Take p1=x +1 and
¿ ( x +2 ) ∙ x 2 y + ( x +2 ) ∙1
p2=x +2 2
¿ ( x +2 ) (x y +1)
2
p=x +3 x+ 2=( x +1 ) ( x +2 ) =p 1 p2
x +2 and x 2 y +1 are the factors of
Therefore, x +1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 x +2 are factors of 3 2
p=x y +2 x y + x+ 2.
2
x + 3 x +2
Note:
2. Let p=x 2− y 2. Take p1=x + y and Any Polynomial can be factored using CMF
p2=x− y and FACTORING BY GROUPING.

2 2
p=x − y =( x+ y )( x− y )=p 1 p2 SPECIAL PRODUCTS
Therefore, x + y 𝑎𝑛𝑑 x− y are factors of Trinomials of the Form a x 2 +bxy +c y 2
2 (F.O.I.L.)
x + 3 x +2 Let a , b , c ∈ R . Then
Factoring Techniques 2 2
a x +bxy +c y =( px+ qy ) (rx + sy)
Common Monomial Factor (CMF)
Where p , q , r , s ∈ R , and Difference of Two Squares

p ∙r =a Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be polynomials. Then, the

p ∙ s+ q ∙r =b difference of their squares is just the product of
their sum and difference. That is
q ∙ s=c
2 2
Factoring by grouping can also be used in p −q =(p +q)( p−q)
factoring trinomials of this form. You just have
Examples:
to split the middle term 𝑏𝑥𝑦 into two separate
terms. The breakdown is precisely  2
x −1=x −1
2 2

bxy =( p ∙ s ) xy+ ( q ∙ r ) xy ¿(x +1)(x−1)

4 2 2 2
Example:  4 x − y =(2 x) − y
Factor 6 x 2+ 7 x+2 ¿(2 x + y )(2 x − y)
Solution: Sum & Difference of Two Cubes
Its factor is of the form ( px+ q)(rx + s) You
Difference of two cubes:
have to think of four numbers 𝑝, 𝑞,𝑟, 𝑠 where:
p3−q3=( p−q ) ( p2 + pq+ q2 )
p ∙r =6
p ∙ s+ q ∙r =7 Sum of two cubes:
q ∙ s=2 p3 +q 3=( p+q ) ( p 2− pq+q 2 )
Verify that 𝑝 = 3, 𝑞 = 2, 𝑟 = 2, and 𝑠 = 1 Examples:
satisfies the conditions above. Hence the given 3 3 3
can be written as product of polynomials  x −1=x −1
2 2
¿(x +1)( x + ( x )( 1 ) +1 )
(3 x +2)(2 x +1) 2
¿( x +1)( x + x+1)
If factoring by grouping is applied here, the
6 3 2 3 3
middle term 7𝑥 can be expressed as  4 x + y =(2 x ) −( y )
¿ ( 2 x + y ) ( ( 2 x ) −( 2 x ) ( y ) + ( y ) )
2 2 22 2
7 x=( p ∙ s ) x + ( q ∙ r ) x
¿ ( 3 ∙1 ) x + ( 2∙ 2 ) x ¿ ( 2 x 2+ y )( 4 x 4 −2 x 2 y+ y 2 )
¿ 3 x+ 4 x
Difference of Two Perfect Powers of n
Thus,
2 2 Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be polynomials and 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, Then,
6 x + 7 x+2=6 x + 3 x + 4 x+ 2 n n
¿ 3 x ( 2 x+ 1 )+ 2(2 x +1) p −q
¿
¿(3 x +2)(2 x+1)
( p−q)¿
Square of Binomial
Examples:
Let 𝑠 and 𝑡 be the terms of a binomial. Then 4 4 4
16 x −1=( 2 x ) −1
( s+t )2=s2 +2 st +t 2 ¿ ( 2 x−1 ) ( ( 2 x )3 ∙1+ ( 2 x )2 ∙ 11+ ( 2 x ) ∙12 +13 )
3 2
¿ ( 2 x−1 ) (8 x + 4 x +2 x+2)
Examples: Binomial Expansion (Binomial

2 2 2
( 2 x+ y ) =( 2 x ) +2 ( 2 x ) ( y ) + ( y ) Theorem)
2 2
¿ 4 x + 4 xy + y Combination
2 2
 ( x−2 y ) =( x + (−2 y ) )  Combination is the number of ways that 𝑟 out
2 2 of 𝑛 objects can be selected, without
¿(x ) +2 ( x ) (−2 y )+ (−2 y ) considering the order of those 𝑟 objects
2 2
¿ x −4 xy+ 4 y selected.
The formula for combination is given by: In other words, the dividend must be of the
form

(nr)= ( n−r ) ! r !
n!
n n−1
a x x + an−1 x +… a1 x a 0
Binomial Expansion Formula: and the divisor must be of the form
n bx +c
( a+ b ) =∑ n an −i bi
n

i =0 i
() Here, a 0 , … , a n , b , c ∈ R

0() () 1 2 ()
( a+ b ) = n an + n an−1 b+ n a n−2 b 2 …+ n bn Long Division
n

n () Procedure
Pascal’s Triangle  Divide the first term of the dividend by the
first term of the divisor, and put that in the
answer.
 Multiply the divisor by that answer, put
that below the dividend
 Subtract to create a new polynomial
 Repeat

Synthetic Division

Procedure
 Set up the synthetic division.
 Bring down the leading coefficient to the
bottom row.
 Multiply the number outside the synthetic
division by the value just written on the
bottom row.
 Multiply c by the value just written on the
bottom row.
 Repeat until done.
 Write out the answer.
Example:
Example:
Expand ( 2 x+3 )4

Here: n=4 , a=2 x ,b=3. Plugging these to

the Binomial Expansion formula;

0 () 1 () 2
2
()
2

3
3
()
( 2 x+3 ) = 4 (2 x)4 + 4 ( 2 x ) (3)+ 4 (2 x ) ( 3 ) 4 (2 x ) ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 )
4 3

4
4
()
¿ 1 ( 16 x 4 ) + 4 ( 8 x 3 ) ( 3 )+ 6 ( 4 x 2 ) ( 9 ) + 4 ( 2 x )( 27 )+1(81)
4 3 2
¿ 16 x +96 x +216 x + 216 x+ 81 Remainder and Factor Theorem
LONG DIVISION and Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial (𝑥) is divided by b𝑥 −𝑐, the
SYNTHETIC DIVISION
Requirements: Can only be used the dividend is
a polynomial with one variable and the divisor
remainder is p ( cb )
.

is a binomial of degree 1. Example:

What is the remainder when p ( x )=2 x 2 +7 x +3 𝑏𝑥 −𝑐 is a factor of a polynomial p ( x ) if

( cb )=0
is divided by
p
 x−3
c
If bx−c=x−3 → =3 . Hence, the
b
remainder when p(x ) is divided by x−3
is p(3)
2
p ( 3 )=2 ( 3 ) +7 ( 3 ) +3
p ( 3 )=18+ 21+ 3
p ( 3 )=42
 x +3
c
If bx−c=x+ 3→ =−3. Hence, the
b
remainder when p(x ) is divided by x +3
is p(−3)
2
p (−3 )=2 (−3 ) +7 (−3 )+ 3
p (−3 )=18−21+3
p (−3 )=0
 2 x−1
c 1
If bx−c=2 x −1→ = . Hence, the
b 2
remainder when p(x ) is divided by
1
2 x−1 is p( )
2

() () ()
2
1 1 1
p =2 +7 +3
2 2 2
p ()
1 1 7
= + +3
2 2 2
p
1
2 ()
=7

 2 x+1
c −1
Ifbx−c=2 x +1 → = . Hence, the
b 2
remainder when p(x ) is divided by
−1
2 x+1 is p( )
2

( ) ( ) ( )
2
−1 −1 −1
p =2 +7 +3
2 2 2
p
2 ( )
−1 1 7
= − +3
2 2
p
−1
2 ( )
=0

Factor Theorem