17-Civil and Structural Inspection Procedure

TE-STA-PRO-00-0001
EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY GROUP

Rev. 1
CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

INSPECTION PROCEDURE Page 1 of 21
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................2
2. PURPOSE.................................................................................................2
3. DEFINITIONS............................................................................................2
4. INSPECTION PROCEDURE....................................................................3
5. RESPONSIBLITIES................................................................................10
6. REFERENCES........................................................................................10
7. APPENDICES.........................................................................................11
Prepared Reviewed Approved

Rev. Issue Date Amendment Description
By By By
Change ownership of procedure to ERG (Reference
1 11-Feb-13 CU MOR KK
number changed from TE-DES-PRO-00-0023)
0 13-Oct-09 First Release GJS AJ ABM
Next Scheduled Periodic Review: February / 2016
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1. INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of this document is to serve as a complementary document to Equipment

Integrity Program (QC-PSM-MNL-00-0002), which is designed to meet the objective of
company’s Operational Excellence Program and Chevron Phillips Global OE procedure EHS-
6160 (Mechanical Integrity Program) This procedure presents a guide to conduct regular
maintenance inspection for all critical civil and plant structures in service. The primary purpose
of the maintenance inspection is to establish a maintenance work or upgrade recommendation
of the structure to maintain the functional and serviceability condition throughout its service
life.
2. PURPOSE
The critical civil and Structural inspection survey is intended to examine critical civil and plant
structures in service for the purpose of identifying and defining the areas of distress or
deterioration that could affect directly or indirectly the safety of plant operation.
This document provides the guidance on the selection and application of methods for the
inspection, repair, protection, and strengthening of structures. The information presented
herein is basically applicable to repairing damaged or deteriorated structures but this can also
be applied to overcoming design or construction deficiencies, or to adapting a structure for
new uses beyond the usual design. A typical case in the plant was the upgrading of structural
members of a supporting tower (Flue Gas Chamber) to sustain heavier loads due to a new,
heavier cooling chamber.
Critical Civil and Structural inspection procedure shall conform to Chevron Engineering
Standard (FPM-EN-1700 Fireproofing) and API Publication 2218, “Fireproofing Practices in
Petroleum and Petrochemical Processing Plants”. This section describes various types,
relative merits, and properties of fireproofing materials. It gives guidelines for determining
structures that require fireproofing and recommended materials and suppliers. It also
discusses the various types of fireproofed and fire resistant systems for critical control
systems. API RP 2218 is the industry standard for fireproofing. Use API RP 2218,
“Fireproofing Practices in Petroleum and Petrochemical Processing Plants” as a guide to
determine the extent of fireproofing required.
3. DEFINITIONS
i. Critical Structures - are civil and Plant structures within the plant which are vital to plant
operation, failure of which can initiate a process safety incident.
ii. Non-Critical Structures - are civil and Plant /building structures within the plant which
are not vital to plant operation failure of which can’t initiate a process safety incident.
iii. Repair - To replace or correct deteriorated, damaged, or faulty materials, components,

or elements of a structure.
iv. Repair systems - The materials and techniques used for repair.
v. Protection - The process of maintaining a structure in its present or restored condition

by minimizing the potential for deterioration or damage in the future.
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vi. Strengthening - The process of restoring the capacity of weakened components or

elements to their original design capacity, or increasing the strength of components or
elements of a structure.
vii. Maintenance Inspection Schedule - is the schedule for maintenance inspection of civil
and Plant structures established by Technical Department in coordination with the end-
users or plant owners.
viii. Crack - is a complete or incomplete separation, of either concrete or any other structural
material, into two or more parts produced by breaking or fracturing.
ix. Deterioration - is the physical manifestation of failure of a material (for example,

cracking, delamination, flaking, pitting, scaling, spalling, and staining) caused by
environmental or internal autogenous influences hardened concrete as well as other
materials. It is also a decomposition of material during either testing or exposure to
service loads.
x. Fire proofing – Covering provided on structural members to protect from fire incidents.
A passive fire protection measure; refers to the act of making materials or structures
more resistant to fire, or to those materials themselves, or the act of applying such
materials. Applying a certification listed fireproofing system to certain structures allows
these to have a fire-resistance rating. The term fireproof does not necessarily mean that
an item cannot ever burn: It relates to measured performance under specific conditions
of testing and evaluation. Fireproofing does not allow treated items to be entirely
unaffected by any fire, as conventional materials are not immune to the effects of fire at
a sufficient intensity and/or duration.
4. INSPECTION PROCEDURE
4.1. DAMAGE OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Since the plant is located in coastal environment, the extreme hot and cold weather cycle
and high salinity of air are the most common major causes of concrete deterioration in the
plant. The two most common concrete deteriorations of concrete structures in the plant are:
a) scaling and b) cracking. Scaling is the loss of surface mortar, exposing the coarse
aggregates. This types of deterioration occurs when concrete is subjected to constant
wetting-drying cycle (or hot- cold weather cycle) or concentration of harmful chemicals.
Scaling can be observed mostly within 500 mm above and below the ground.
The other most common type of deterioration of concrete is cracking. It is usually caused by
any or combination of several factors such of thermal change (different temperature in
opposite faces), dry and cold weather cycle, drying shrinkage or other factor. Cracks often
accelerate entry of saline air to the level of reinforcement, which eventually causes
corrosion of reinforcement. When reinforcement steel is corroded, it causes subsequent
damage to concrete such as large cracking, delamination or spalling. See Appendix C and
D for other types of concrete deterioration.
The common structural damage are briefly outline below:
4.1.1. Moment resisting frames
The common structural damage to concrete moment frame structures is as follows:
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i. Columns (Failure of columns due to inadequate reinforcing and strong

beam/weak column conditions often resulting in collapse)
ii. Joints (Failure of joints due to inadequate reinforcing)
iii. Infill Walls (Failure of masonry infill walls between beams and columns)
4.1.2. Tilt-up structures
Typical structural damage to tilt-up structures is as follows:
i. Out-of-Plane Failure (Separation of walls from roof and floor diaphragms due to
inadequate anchorage)
ii. Diaphragms (Failure of generally framed roof and floor systems)
iii. Cracks in Walls (Inadequate shear strength in walls or piers)
4.1.3. Masonry structures
The typical damage to reinforced masonry structures is as follows:
i. Wall Cracking (Lightly reinforced walls may be subject to cracking)
ii. Failed Piers (Generally associated with a soft or weak story irregularities, and lack
of overall strength)
iii. Out-of-Plane Failure (Separation of walls from roof and floor diaphragms due to
inadequate anchorage)
iv. Diaphragms (failure of generally wood framed roof and floor systems)
4.2. DAMAGE OF STEEL STRUCTURES
The most common deterioration of steel structures in Gulf Region is corrosion which is
attributed to combine effect of extreme weather condition and high air salinity.
The common structural damage is briefly outlined below:
4.2.1. Moment resisting frames
Typical damage to steel moment frame structures is as follows:

i. Joint Failure (cracks develop through the beam-column joint)
ii. Column Buckling (Strong beam/weak column conditions or soft story irregularities
may result in column failure)
iii. Significant damage of non-structural elements due to excessive drift
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4.2.2. Braced frame buildings
Typical damage to steel braced frame structures are as follows:

i. Brace Failure (buckling of the brace due to excessive load, high length to stiffness
ratios, or local buckling due to thin wall braces)
ii. Connection Failure (Inadequate connection strength)
iii. Torsion or Overloading (Poor brace layout, redundancy or soft story irregularities)
iv. Column Failure (Generally associated with K-braces or excessive drift)
Non-structural elements are all of the items in or on a building that are not part of the
main structural framing. Non-structural elements consist of cladding, windows,
interior partitions and ceiling systems, lights, office furniture, and building service
equipment to name a few. The damage to these elements is dependent upon the
motion (primarily deflection) of the building to the earthquake and the anchorage or
bracing of the element.
4.3. DAMAGE OF FIRE PROOFING
Fireproofing is a misnomer because no material is completely fireproof. All construction

materials are subject to fire damage. What we really mean is fire resistant - we seek to
resist potential fire situations for a given period of time. Fireproofing is passive, built-in
protection that buys time to fight the fire, shut off the fire’s fuel supply and shut down the
process. The aim is to minimize the overall damage incurred. Failures of a fireproofing
material during a fire have caused the following problems:
i. Severe corrosion of the structural steel and reinforcement mesh underneath fire-
proofing.
The primary cause is water that gets between the fireproofing and the steel. Some
proprietary fireproofing may cause corrosion problems if the steel is not coated.
ii. Excessive cracking of cementitious fireproofing.
Cracking can occur even when concrete is properly cured. The main causes are
thermal cycling, shrinkage, and corrosion of reinforcing steel. If the cracking is bad
enough, it can accelerate corrosion of the underlying steel by allowing in water. While
cracking is undesirable, it is not cause for rejection unless severe.
Proper cure of cementitious fireproofing materials greatly reduces the amount of

cracking. In some geographic locations, it is necessary to take extra measures like
spray-applying a curing compound to seal the surface to prevent moisture loss.
Another measure is to wrap the freshly poured concrete work with burlap or
polyethylene sheet; however, this method can cause staining. The concrete can also
be cured by continuous application of a fine fresh water mist to keep the surface
moist.
iii. Corrosion of the steel substrate weakens the adhesion of the concrete and renders
the concrete fireproofing more susceptible to explosive spalling during a fire exposure.
Corrosion of the steel substrate can be insidious and by the time it manifests itself as
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rust bleed-thru and spalling of the concrete, the fire resistive properties have already
been significantly impacted.
Where fireproofing is required, the level of fireproofing varies with the application in the
plant. Typical protection requirements for a refinery or petrochemical plant might be as
follows:
i. For structural steel, a facility may require a fire test rating of two or three hours.
Poured-in-place concrete or gunite is most common with a specified minimum
thickness of 1 3/8” to 3.0 inches (38-75 mm). Lightweight cementitious products may
also be used.
ii. For steel vessels, a facility may require a fire test rating of one to two hours. Gunite
applied at 1.5 to 2.0 inches (40-50 mm) may be required. Alternative fireproofing
materials that provide a comparable fire resistance rating may be used, including
systems that function as both thermal insulation and fireproofing.
iii. Plate and frame exchangers are a special concern because of the rubber gasketing
material between plates. These exchangers are provided with a protective enclosure
designed to prevent the exchanger from exceeding its maximum operating
temperature for an hour or so. The maximum operating temperature is vendor
specified and typically less than 300oF (150oC).
iv. Electrical and pneumatic components (including manual initiators, valve actuators,
aboveground wiring, cable, and conduit) essential to emergency isolation,
depressurization, and process shutdown are generally fireproofed to achieve a rating
of at least 15-20 minutes. This equipment needs to function properly in the first few
minutes of a fire.
4.4. STRUCTURAL INSPECTION
The inspection work shall be carried out in all critical civil and plant structures so as to
implement necessary maintenance or upgrade works of the structures necessary
throughout its service life.
The inspection team shall compose of experience team members. Structural inspection
shall be conducted based on the date specified in the approved Structural Inspection
Schedule.
The inspection works includes the following stages of work:
i. Condition survey to indentify damaged areas or members of structure
ii. Evaluation of causes of distress or deterioration.
iii. Recommend the required repair system.
4.4.1. Condition survey
Condition survey shall be carried out to determine present condition of the structure.
This evaluation may include a review of available design and construction
documents, structural analysis of the structure, review of records of any previous
repair work accomplished, review of maintenance records, visual examination,
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destructive (core drilling) and non-destructive testing, and laboratory analysis of

concrete samples.
An inspection report showing maps, sketches or drawings of damaged structure shall

be prepared and photographs taken to document the damaged or deteriorated part of
the structure.
After gathering all the survey data, the survey team making the evaluation should
have a thorough understanding of the condition of the structure and insights into the
causes of any deterioration or distress noted.
4.4.2. Evaluation of distress
After the condition survey of the structure has been completed, the visual
observations and other supporting data are used to determine the causes of
deterioration of structure. Since many deficiencies are caused by more than one
mechanism, a basic understanding of the causes of deterioration of structure is
needed to determine what has actually happened to a particular structure.
Proper evaluation of the problem is crucial and is often the deciding factor between
the success and failure of a repair. Symptoms or observations of a deficiency must be
differentiated from the actual cause of the deficiency, and it is imperative that causes
and not symptoms be dealt with wherever possible or practical. For example,
cracking is a symptom of distress that may have a variety of causes such as repeated
thermal cycling, accidental overloading, drying shrinkage, inadequate design or
construction, or some other cause. Only after the cause or causes are known can
rational decisions be made concerning the selection of a proper repair system.
Therefore, before proceeding with any remedial effort, the Civil Inspection Engineer
make sure that the problems designated for repair have been properly evaluated as
to the cause, effect, and degree of influence those problems have on the present
and long-term serviceability and integrity of the structure.
It may also include the modal analysis of the structure to find out the actual cause of
defect or failure. Modal analysis shall be carried out to calculate the effect of the
stress on the existing structure or its member due any additional load. Overstressed
members may be replaced with heavy profiled members or some other acceptable
method can be adopted to increase the strength of existing members to secure
reoccurrence of same failure.
The best suitable method for concrete and steel structural repair works shall be
adopted as per international codes & standards.
The most common types of damage of concrete and steel structure are discussed in
Section 4.1 and 4.2.
4.4.3. Repair system
Repair of damaged structure ranges from minor modification of structural member,

strengthening, or complete replacement of part or whole structure.
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After the underlying cause or causes of the damage observed in a structure have
been determined, the selection of appropriate repair materials and methods shall be
based upon the following considerations:
i. Advantages and disadvantages of making permanent versus temporary repairs.

Materials and methods selected shall match the intended life of the repair.
ii. Inherent problems that cannot be corrected such as continued exposure to

chlorides or continued exposure to deleterious chemicals.
iii. Constraints such as access to the structure, the operating schedule of the
structure, limitations imposed by the owner of the structure, the design life of the
repaired structure, and the weather.
iv. Environmental constraints that will play a role in the decision of methods and
materials. Environmental considerations may be minimal or monumental on a
repair project. Areas of concern include airborne vapors that might result from
the use of certain membranes, sealers, and coatings; airborne particles resulting
from abrasive blasting of silica aggregate contained in concrete; noise; and
hazardous waste.
v. Structural safety before, during, and after the repair. Repair work many times
involves the removal of concrete and reinforcing steel which creates changes in
the shear, bending, tensile, and compression capacity of the structure. Structural
review, if necessary, should include live and dead loads and the effects of
volume changes resulting from temperature changes. Areas of special concern
include negative moment areas in slabs and beams, cantilever beams, joint and
connection details, precast spandrel beams, and columns. Also, any
requirements for temporary supports, shoring, and strengthening should be
determined,
vi. Available repair materials and methods and the technical feasibility of using
them. When selecting the appropriate repair material, one should keep in mind
that the technical data presented in manufacturer’s literature may not be
sufficient since the tests presented may not be representative of the use of the
material under the circumstances of a particular application.
vii. Capabilities of potential contractors to use specialized materials or unusual

procedures successfully.
viii. The most economical combination of methods and materials found to be

technically feasible.
4.5. REPAIR WORKS
After the repair system has been approved, repair work shall be implemented on areas
identified necessary for immediate repair. The repair project includes the following stages of
work:
i. Preparation of Drawings and Specifications
ii. Selection of Contractor
iii. Implementation Work
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4.5.1. Drawings and specifications
The next step in the repair process is the preparation of project drawings and
specifications. Since the full extent of damage may not be completely known until
actual repair is done, drawings and specifications for repair projects should be
prepared with as much flexibility as possible with regard to work items such as
surface preparation, replacement or strengthening of members, and quantities of
repair materials, etc.
A thorough condition survey, performed as close as possible to the time that repair
work is executed, should help minimize variations in estimated quantities. When
existing deterioration is particularly severe or where extensive reduction of structural
member is anticipated during repair, provisions for temporary structural support
should be included in the project documents. Protection of the repair site as well as
adjacent areas may present unique problems during the execution of a repair project.
Special attention to shoring and bracing shall be given, particularly for slab and beam
repairs, and in some cases for column repairs. Provisions for these contingencies
must be included in the drawings and specifications.
Effective repair specifications should be clear and concise. The scope of the work,
the materials requirements, the application considerations, and the performance
testing standards with reference to specific requirements and related support
documents shall be specified.
4.5.2. Selection of a contractor
One of the most important aspects of a repair project is the selection of a qualified
contractor or the preparation of a list of qualified bidders. If a certain contractor is not
proficient in all phases of major repair work, it is advisable to utilize different
contractor in each stages of the repair project.
4.5.3. Implementation
There is a growing evidence of experience of repair projects over several years that
works on repair projects requires much greater attention to details and good practice
than may be necessary for new construction. So the success of a repair project will
depend on the degree to which the work is executed by the contractor in
conformance with drawings and specifications.
The repair work shall be carried out in accordance with approved quality program.
Quality control program shall cover construction and all testing works of the repair
project. Such a program may include taking of cores for compression testing,
petrographic examination, pullout testing, chloride testing, or evaluation of bond.
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5. RESPONSIBLITIES
The responsibilities of key personnel involved in the implementation of this procedure are
outlined below:
5.1. TECHNICAL MANAGER
The Technical Manager is the overall responsible for the implementation of this
procedure to comply requirements as set forth in the Equipment Integrity Program.
5.2. ERG SUPERINTENDENT
The ERG Superintendent is responsible for the development and implementation of this
procedure and ensures that the regular maintenance inspection for Critical civil and plant
structures and the necessary repair work have been undertaken as required in this
procedure.
5.3. ENGINEERING SUPERINTENDENT
The Engineering Superintendent is responsible for identification of Critical Civil and Plant
structures and maintaining the database of them in SAP and EDMS.
5.4. LEAD INSPECTION ENGINEER
The Lead inspection engineer is responsible of organizing an inspection team that

carries out the inspection work described in this procedure. He is also responsible in
supervising the inspection team, which shall carry out the inspection works to identify
damage or deterioration of plant structures and establish protection and repair system of
the structure.
He shall be responsible in preparation of maintenance inspection report and

establishment of repair system recommendation for approval by ERG Superintendent.
He shall plan, monitor and maintain records of maintenance inspection and repair works.
5.5. MAINTENANCE MANAGER
The Maintenance Manager is responsible for carrying out repairs based on inspection
recommendations.
6. REFERENCES
i. ACI 201.1 R-92 Guide For Making Condition Survey for Concrete in Service
ii. ACI 214.77 Recommended Practice For Evaluation of Strength Test Results of
Concrete
iii. ACI 224.1R-93 Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures
iv. ACI 546R-96 Concrete Repair Guide
v. ACI 546.1R-80 Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge Superstructure
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vi. AISC-ASD-89 American Institute of Steel Construction
vii. EHS-6160 Global OE procedure for Mechanical Integrity
viii. FPM-EN-1700 Fireproofing
ix. GA-N33336-6 Standard Details - Concrete Fireproofing for Structural Members
x. API 2218 Guideline for Fireproofing Practices in Petroleum and

Petrochemical Processing Plants
xi. Chevron Engineering Standards
7. APPENDICES
i. Appendix A Inspection Schedule

ii. Appendix B Inspection Check List
iii. Appendix C Concrete Cracks
iv. Appendix D Physical Deterioration of Concrete
v. Appendix E Steel Defects
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i. APPENDIX A: INSPECTION SCHEDULE
The frequency of inspection shall be taken from the date of last maintenance inspection.
In case where inspection date is not applicable, the first inspection date of any structure
may be calculated from the date of latest issue of any IFC drawing of any members of the
structure. Maintenance Inspection Schedule shall be carried out based on the following:
TYPE OF STRUCTURES FREQUENCY OF INPECTION
ESSENTIAL STRUCTURES : Five (5) year from last inspection date
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ii. APPENDIX B: INSPECTION CHECK LIST
Personnel conducting the condition survey must select those items important to the
specific concerns relating to the reasons for the survey. Other factors not specified herein
may be involved and should not be overlooked during the survey.
GENERAL CHECK LIST

B1. Description of structure
B1.1 Name, location, type, and size
B1.2 Owner, project engineer, contractor, when built
B1.3 Design
B1.4 Construction
B1.5 Photographs
B1.6 Sketch map-orientation
B2 Present condition of structure

B2.1 Overall alignment of structure
B2.2 Portions showing distress
B2.3 Surface condition of concrete
B2.4 Interior condition of concrete
B3. Nature of loading and detrimental elements

B3.1 Exposure to environmental conditions
B3 .2 Drainage
B3.3 Loading
B3.4 Soils (foundation conditions)
B4. Original condition of structure
B4.1 Condition of formed and finished surfaces
B4.2 Defects
B5. Materials of construction

B5.1 Hydraulic cement
B5.2 Aggregates
B5.3 Mixing Water
B5.4 Admixture
B5.5 Concrete
B6. Construction practices

B6.1 Storage and processing of materials
B6.2 Forming
B6.3 Concreting operation; Erection
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iii. APPENDIX C: CONCRETE CRACKS
Cracking is a symptom of distress that may have a variety of causes. Selection of the
correct repair technique for cracking depends on knowing whether the cracking is due to
repeated thermal cycling, accidental overloading, drying shrinkage, inadequate design or
construction, or some other cause. Only after the cause or causes are known can rational
decisions be made concerning the selection of a proper repair system. Common types of
cracks are:
 Checking
Development of shallow cracks at closely spaced but irregular intervals on the surface
of plaster, cement paste, mortar, or concrete.
 Craze Cracks
Fine random cracks or fissures in a surface of plaster, cement paste, mortar, or
concrete.
 Crazing
The development of craze cracks; the pattern of craze cracks existing in a surface.
 D-Cracking
A series of cracks in concrete near and roughly parallel to joints, edges, and structural
cracks.
 Diagonal Crack
In a flexural member, an inclined crack caused by shear stress, usually at about 45
deg to the axis; or a crack in a slab, not parallel to either the lateral or longitudinal
directions.
 Hairline Cracks
Cracks in an exposed concrete surface having widths so small as to be barely
perceptible.
 Pattern Cracking
Fine openings on concrete surfaces in the form of a pattern; resulting from a
decrease in volume of the material near the surface, or increase in volume of the
material below the surface, or both.
 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
Cracking that occurs in the surface of fresh concrete soon after it is placed and while
it is still plastic.
 Shrinkage Cracking
Cracking of a structure or member due to failure in tension caused by external or
internal restraints as reduction in moisture content develops, or as carbonation
occurs, or both.
 Temperature Cracking
Cracking due to tensile failure, caused by temperature gradient in members subjected
to external restraints or by temperature differential in members subjected to internal
restraints.
 Transverse Cracks
Cracks that develop at right angles to the long direction of the member.
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iv. APPENDIX D: PHYSICAL DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE
The physical deterioration of concrete is caused by influence of environment, material

interaction or service load. Common types of physical deterioration are:
 Disintegration
Reduction into small fragments and subsequently into particles.
 Abrasion damage
Wearing away of a surface by rubbing and friction.
 Blistering
The irregular raising of a thin layer, frequently 25 to 300 mm in diameter, at the
surface of placed mortar or concrete during or soon after completion of the finishing
operation; blistering is usually attributed to early closing of the surface and may be
aggravated by cool temperatures. Blisters also occur in pipe after spinning or in a
finish plastic coat in plastering as it separates and draws away from the base coat.
 Cavitation damage
Pitting of concrete caused by implosion, i.e., the collapse of vapor bubbles in flowing
water which form in areas of low pressure and collapse as they enter areas of higher
pressure.
 Chalking
Formation of a loose powder resulting from the disintegration of the surface of
concrete or of applied coating, such as cement paint.
 Corrosion
Destruction of metal by chemical, electrochemical, or electrolytic reaction with its
environment.
 Curling
The distortion of an originally essentially linear or planar member into a curved shape
such as the warping of a slab due to creep or to differences in temperature or
moisture content in the zones adjacent to its opposite faces.
 Deflection
Movement of a point on a structure or structural element, usually measured as a
linear displacement transverse to a reference line or axis.
 Deformation
A change in dimension or shape.
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 Delamination
A separation along a plane parallel to a surface as in the separation of a coating from
a substrate or the layers of a coating from each other, or in the case of a concrete
slab, a horizontal splitting, cracking or separation of a slab in a plane roughly parallel
to, and generally near, the upper surface; found frequently in bridge decks and other
types of elevated reinforced-concrete slabs and may be caused by the corrosion of
reinforcing steel; also found in slabs on grade caused by development, during the
finishing operation, of a plane of weakness below the densified surface; or caused by
freezing and thawing, similar to spalling, scaling, or peeling except that delamination
affects large areas and can often be detected by tapping.
 Dusting
The development of a powdered material at the surface of hardened concrete.
 Efflorescence
A deposit of salts, usually white, formed on a surface, the substance having emerged
in solution from within either concrete or masonry and subsequently been precipitated
by evaporation.
 Erosion
Progressive disintegration of a solid by the abrasive or cavitation action of gases,
fluids, or solids in motion.
 Exfoliation
Disintegration occurring by peeling off in successive layers; swelling up and opening
into leaves or plates like a partly opened book.
 Exudation
A liquid or viscous gel-like material discharged through a pore, crack, or opening in
the surface of concrete.
 Joint spall
A spall adjacent to a joint.
 Pitting
Development of relatively small cavities in a surface; in concrete, localized
disintegration, such as a popout; in steel, localized corrosion evident as minute
cavities on the surface.
 Peeling
A process in which thin flakes of mortar are broken away from a concrete surface,
such as by deterioration or by adherence of surface mortar to forms as forms are
removed
 Popout
The breaking away of small portions of a concrete surface due to localized internal
pressure which leaves a shallow, typical conical, depression.
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 Popouts, small
Popouts leaving holes up to 10 mm in diameter, or the equivalent.
 Popouts, medium
Popouts leaving holes between 10 and 50 mm in diameter, or the equivalent.
 Popouts, large
Popouts leaving holes greater than 50 mm in diameter, or the equivalent.
 Scaling
Local flaking or peeling away of the near-surface portion of hardened concrete or
mortar; also of a layer from metal.
 Scaling, light-Loss of surface mortar without exposure of coarse aggregate.
 Scaling, medium
Loss of surface mortar 5 to 10 mm in depth and exposure of coarse aggregate.
 Scaling, severe
Loss of surface mortar 5 to 10 mm in depth with some loss of mortar surrounding
aggregate particles 10 to 20 mm in depth.
 Scaling, very severe

Loss of coarse aggregate particles as well as mortar, generally to a depth greater
than 20 mm.
 Spall
A fragment, usually in the shape of a flake, detached from a larger mass by a blow,
by the action of weather, by pressure, or by expansion within the large mass.
 Small spall
A roughly circular depression not greater than 20 mm in depth nor 50 mm in any

dimension.
 Large spall
May be roughly circular or oval or in some cases elongated, more than 20 mm in

depth and 150 mm in greatest dimension.
 Warping
A deviation of a slab or wall surface from its original shape, usually caused by either
temperature or moisture differentials or both within the slab or wall.
Textural features and phenomena relative to the development of physical deterioration

are:
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 Air void
A space in cement paste, mortar, or concrete filled with air; an entrapped air void is
characteristically 1 mm or more in size and irregular in shape; an entrained air void is
typically between 10 pm and 1 mm in diameter and spherical or nearly so.
 Bleeding
The autogenous flow of mixing water within, or its emergence from, newly placed
concrete or mortar; caused by the settlement of the solid materials within the mass;
also called water gain.
 Bugholes
Small regular or irregular cavities, usually not exceeding 25 mm in diameter, resulting
from entrapment of air bubbles in the surface of formed concrete during placement
and consolidation.
 Cold joint
A joint or discontinuity resulting from a delay in placement of sufficient time to
preclude a union of the material in two successive lifts.
 Cold-joint lines
Visible lines on the surfaces of formed concrete indicating the presence of joints
where one layer of concrete had hardened before subsequent concrete was placed.
 Discoloration
Departure of color from that which is normal or desired.
 Honeycomb
Voids left in concrete due to failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces among
coarse aggregate particles.
 Incrustation
A crust or coating, generally hard, formed on the surface of concrete or masonry
construction or on aggregate particles.
 Joint
A physical separation in concrete, whether precast or cast-in-place, including cracks if
intentionally made to occur at specified locations; also the region where structural
members intersect such as a beam-column joint.
 Laitance
A layer of weak and nondurable material containing cement and fines from
aggregates, brought by bleeding water to the top of overwet concrete; the amount is
generally increased by overworking or over-manipulating concrete at the surface by
improper finishing or by job traffic.
 Sand pocket
A zone in concrete or mortar containing fine aggregate with little or no cement.
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 Sand streak
A streak of exposed fine aggregate in the surface of formed concrete, caused by
bleeding.
 Segregation
The differential concentration of the components of mixed concrete, aggregate, or the
like, resulting in nonuniform proportions in the mass.
 Stalactite
A downward-pointing deposit formed as an accretion of mineral matter produced by
evaporation of dripping water from the surface of concrete, commonly shaped like an
icicle.
 Stalagmite
An upward-pointing deposit formed as an accretion of mineral matter produced by
evaporation of dripping water, projecting from the surface of concrete, commonly
conical in shape.
 Stratification
The separation of overwet or overvibrated concrete into horizontal layers with
increasingly lighter material toward the top; water, laitance, mortar, and coarse
aggregate tend to occupy successively lower positions in that order; a layered
structure in concrete resulting from placing of successive batches that differ in
appearance; occurrence in aggregate stockpiles of layers of differing grading or
composition; a layered structure in a rock foundation.
 Water void
Void along the underside of an aggregate particle or reinforcing steel which formed
during the bleeding period; initially filled with bleed water.
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v. APPENDIX E: STEEL DEFECTS
Defects in steel structures are usually caused by excessive loadings, cyclic loadings,
impact loadings temperature variations, environmental effects, inadequate design or some
other causes. Best repair works of steel defects can be selected after identifying its actual
root cause. Common types of steel defects are:
 Overall Buckling
Overall buckling is a type of collapse of a member due to sudden large bending caused
by critical compressive loads. Slenderness ratio controls overall buckling of the
member, if it is greater than a certain value then slender member will get an overall
bend shape at high compressive load.
 Local Buckling
Local buckling is a type of failure which is caused by the buckling of individual parts of
a member. Width/thickness ratio of the element controls local buckling of a member.
 Web Crippling
Web crippling is a term used in structural engineering to indicate when a cold-formed
steel plate buckles or bends because it is too thin to support a given load.
Web crippling is a localized, incomplete failure because the steel plate is still able to
withstand yield loads even though the structure becomes buckled. This failure,
however, can contribute to overall building collapse.
 Creep
It is plastic deformation under a constant load for a long period of time. This produces
excessively large deflections /deformations of main members forcing the other
members to higher stress or even to collapse.
 Deflection
Sagging of a member beyond code & standard limitations due to excessive loadings /
stresses is termed as deflection. Large deflections may also result is the collapse of the
structure.
 Shear Failure
This is a type of failure in which member or its component fails due to large opposite
forces resulting in the fracture of the part or element of the member. This is most
common in bolts when shearing stress increases the design limit. Block shear failure
usually occurs in the members at bolt joint locations.
 Joint Failure
Higher shear stresses at joint locations usually result in failure of bolts or connections
which ultimately results in the collapse of the member.
 Corrosion
Adverse environmental effects which result in the rusting of member is called corrosion.
It will cause reduction in effective thickness of the member which may result in brittle
failure leading to collapse of the structure.
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 Bolt Loosen
Cyclic loads on the structure usually result in loosening of the bolts/connections which
impart additional stresses on members resulting in local buckling and shear cracking. It
can also be due to result of loose-fittings during installation stage of the structure.
 Vibrations
A periodic motion of a member or its component in alternate opposite direction from the
position of equilibrium due to cyclic loads is called as vibration. Excessive vibrations
create extra stresses on the structure which may result in structural failure.
 Cracking
It is a failure which results due to inadequate thickness of the structural element
against the desired stress capacity. There are many forms of such cracks like shear
cracks, thermal cracks, cyclic cracks etc.
 Yielding
Elongation of element due external stress when it crosses the elastic limit state is
called yielding.
 Fatigue Failure
Failure of a structure or its component due to different cycles of loads with same or
variable intensities is called as fatigue failure. It is a slow process depending upon the
characteristic strength of the component.

17-Civil and Structural Inspection Procedure

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TE-STA-PRO-00-0001

EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY GROUP

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

Prepared Reviewed Approved

Next Scheduled Periodic Review: February / 2016

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

The primary purpose of this document is to serve as a complementary document to Equipment

iii. Repair - To replace or correct deteriorated, damaged, or faulty materials, components,

v. Protection - The process of maintaining a structure in its present or restored condition

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

vi. Strengthening - The process of restoring the capacity of weakened components or

ix. Deterioration - is the physical manifestation of failure of a material (for example,

4.1. DAMAGE OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

The common structural damage are briefly outline below:

4.1.1. Moment resisting frames

The common structural damage to concrete moment frame structures is as follows:

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

i. Columns (Failure of columns due to inadequate reinforcing and strong

ii. Joints (Failure of joints due to inadequate reinforcing)

4.1.2. Tilt-up structures

Typical structural damage to tilt-up structures is as follows:

ii. Diaphragms (Failure of generally framed roof and floor systems)

iii. Cracks in Walls (Inadequate shear strength in walls or piers)

4.1.3. Masonry structures

The typical damage to reinforced masonry structures is as follows:

i. Wall Cracking (Lightly reinforced walls may be subject to cracking)

4.2. DAMAGE OF STEEL STRUCTURES

4.2.1. Moment resisting frames

Typical damage to steel moment frame structures is as follows:

iii. Significant damage of non-structural elements due to excessive drift

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

4.2.2. Braced frame buildings

Typical damage to steel braced frame structures are as follows:

ii. Connection Failure (Inadequate connection strength)

iv. Column Failure (Generally associated with K-braces or excessive drift)

4.3. DAMAGE OF FIRE PROOFING

Fireproofing is a misnomer because no material is completely fireproof. All construction

ii. Excessive cracking of cementitious fireproofing.

Proper cure of cementitious fireproofing materials greatly reduces the amount of

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

4.4. STRUCTURAL INSPECTION

The inspection works includes the following stages of work:

i. Condition survey to indentify damaged areas or members of structure

ii. Evaluation of causes of distress or deterioration.

iii. Recommend the required repair system.

4.4.1. Condition survey

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

destructive (core drilling) and non-destructive testing, and laboratory analysis of

An inspection report showing maps, sketches or drawings of damaged structure shall

4.4.2. Evaluation of distress

4.4.3. Repair system

Repair of damaged structure ranges from minor modification of structural member,

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

i. Advantages and disadvantages of making permanent versus temporary repairs.

ii. Inherent problems that cannot be corrected such as continued exposure to

vii. Capabilities of potential contractors to use specialized materials or unusual

viii. The most economical combination of methods and materials found to be

4.5. REPAIR WORKS

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

4.5.1. Drawings and specifications

4.5.2. Selection of a contractor

CRITICAL CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL 11-Feb-2013

5.1. TECHNICAL MANAGER

5.2. ERG SUPERINTENDENT