AN EVALUATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF CADNIUM,

COPPER, CHRONIUM AND IRON IN WATER, SEDIMENT

AND FISH FROM UFAM RIVER

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED BIOCHEMISTRY

FACULTY OF APPLIED NATURAL SCIENCES

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 ABSTRACT
The fish, sediments and water samples were collected from ozalla in nkaniu west, Enugu State
and analyzed using the standard analytical procedure. The physicochemical parameters were
determined such as pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total solid,
dissolved oxygen, sulphate, nitrate, and chloride. The heavy metal concentration was determined
by using the AAS, and the results were compared with the standards prescribed by the WHO. The
results obtained in the physicochemical analysis revealed that water parameters were found
below limits except in dissolved oxygen which was above the WHO limit with a value of
87.56±13.90 and 67.90±13.90 in location 1 and 2 respectively. The metal ion concentration in
water sample (iron, Cr, Cu and Cd) where detected in the sample location 1. Same in location 2
except Cu which was found to be below detectable limit (0.00±0.011). In sediment sample, Cu
was also below detectable limit in location 2, Fe was found to have the highest concentration of
1.209±0.011 and 1.193±0.011 in location 1 and 2 respectively. Cd, Cu and Cr were observed in
the fish sample, Cu was also below detectable limit. The obtained results reveal that Ufam River
were polluted.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title Page i

Approval Page ii

Acknowledgment iii

Table of Content iv

List of Table vii

List of Figure viii

Abstract x

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Aim 3

1.2 Objectives 3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review 4

2.1 Heavy metals

2.1.1 List of heavy metals 4

2.1.2 Physical properties 4

2.1.3 Chemical properties 5

2.1.4 Sources of mercury 5

2.1.5 Health effect of heavy metals in the body 6

2.1.6 Metabolism of heavy metals in the body 5

2.1.7 Environment effect of heavy metals 7

2.2 Cadmium 7

2.2.1 Physical property of cadmium 8

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2.2.2 Chemical property of cadmium 8

2.2.3 Source of cadmium 9

2.2.4 Metabolism of s cadmium in the body 10

2.2.5 Health effect of cadmium in the body 11

2.2.6 Recommended level of cadmium in water, sediment and fish 11

2.3 Copper 11

2.3.1 Physical property of copper 11

2.3.2 Chemical property of copper 11

2.3.3 Source of copper 12

2.3.4 Metabolism of copper in the body 12

2.3.5 Health effect of copper in the body 13

2.3.6 Recommended level of copper in drinking water 13

2.4 Chromium 14

2.4.1 Physical and chemical properties of chromium 14

2.4.2 Source of chromium 14

2.4.3 Metabolism of chromium in the body 15

2.4.4 Health benefit of chromium in the body 15

2.4.5 Recommended level of chromium in water, sediment and fish 15

2.5 Iron 16

2.5.1 Physical property of iron 16

2.5.2 Chemical property of iron 17

2.5.3 Source of iron 17

2.5.4 Metabolism of iron in the body 18

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2.5.5 Health effect of iron in the body 18

2.5.6 Recommended level of cobalt in water, sediment and fish 19

2.6 pH of water 19

2.6.1 Sources of water pollution 20

2.6.2 Effects of water pollution by heavy metals 22

2.7 Ufam River 22

2.8 Description of sample collection area 23

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Material and Methods 24

3.1 Equipment 24

3.2 Chemical and reagent 25

3.3 Method 25

3.3.1 Determination of pH 26

3.3.2 Determination of conductivity 26

3.3.3 Determination of total dissolved solid 27

3.3.4 Determination of total suspended solid 27

3.3.5 Determination of total solid 28

3.3.6 Determination of chlorine in water 28

3.3.7 Determination of sulphate

3.3.8 Determination of nitrate

3.3.9 Determination of Dissolved Oxygen in Water 28

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3.3.10 Determination of heavy metal concentration 29

3.3.11 Statistical analysis 29

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Result 30

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Discussion 32

5.1 Conclusion 32

Reference 40

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 List of Table

Table 4.1 Physiochemical parameters of Ufam River

Table 4.2 The Concentration of heavy metals in water sample.

Table 4.3 The Concentration of heavy metals in sediment sample.

Table 4.4 The Concentration of heavy metals in fish sample.

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 List of Plate

Plate 1: Location 1 of Ufam River

Plate 2: Location 2 of Ufam River

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Over the last few decades, there has been growing interest in determining heavy metal levels in

the marine environment and attention was drawn to the measurement of contamination levels in

public food supplied, particularly fish (Kalay et al., 2019). Though heavy metal is a loosely

defined term, it is widely recognized and usually applied to the wide spread contaminants of

terrestrial and fresh water ecosystems. Some examples of heavy metal include lead, zinc,

cadmium, copper and manganese. Many of these heavy metals are toxic to organisms at low

concentration (Rose et al., 2019). The concentration of metals in bio-available form is not

necessarily proportional to the total concentration of the metal. The concentration of various

elements in the air, water and land may be increased beyond their natural level due to the

agricultural, domestic and industrial effluents (Collison and Shrimp, 2012). Metals and other

fluvial contaminants in suspension or solution, do simply flow down the stream, they form

complexes with other compounds settle to the bottom and ingested by plants and animals or

adsorbed to sediments (Schwarz, 2010). Consequently, aquatic organisms may acquire heavy

metals in body directly from the water via gills or food chain mechanisms (Tariq et al., 2013).

Heavy metals enter rivers and lakes from a variety of sources such as rock and soil directly

exposed to surface water, in addition to the discharge of treated and untreated liquid wastes into

water bodies. These harmful wastes and other dangerous industrial by-products constitute major

sources of environmental pollutants. Most industrial pollutants discharged into the environment

contain organic and inorganic pollutants in dissolved, suspended and insoluble forms (Grant and

Sheppard, 2008). Effluents discharged into the water bodies may affect fish and other aquatic

organisms, either directly or indirectly. Most rivers and freshwater streams are seriously polluted

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by industrial waste water discharged from factories. A large amount of water used in industry

turns into wastewater that pollutes surface and groundwater, posing health hazards. Heavy metal

ions do not degrade into harmless end products and are toxic to humans and the surrounding

environment (Hirose and Tateno, 2010). Water and sediments are commonly used as indicators

for the state of pollution of aquatic ecosystem. Ufam river runs through the centre of the town

and the water from this stream serves domestic purposes as well as irrigation farming and aquatic

organisms (fish) from this water body is one the major sources of protein for the populace of this

location. However, the stream also serves as points of discharge for domestic wastes in some

areas along the length of the stream and runoffs from agricultural lands always flow into the

stream at different points. Aquatic animals (including fish) bio-accumulate heavy metals in

considerable amount in tissues over a long time and the dependence of the populace in this area

on this water body for domestic water supply and its aquatic organisms (fish) as source of protein

makes it imperative to assess the level of heavy metals in this aquatic ecosystem in view of the

health implications that cut across the food strata.

1.1 Aim of the study

The aim of the study was to determine the level of Cd, Cu, Cr and Fe in fish, sediments and

water from Ufam river

1.2 Specific objective of the study

(i). To determine the level of (Cd, Cu, Cr and Fe) in Ufam River

(ii). To determine the biomagnifications, bioaccumulation factors and its significance

(iii). To determine the level of Cd, Cu, Cr and Fe in Ufam River

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review

2.1 Heavy metals

Heavy metals (HMs) are defined as those elements having an atomic number greater than 20 and

atomic density above 5 g cm− 3 and must exhibit the properties of metal (Galloway et al., 2010).

The HMs can be broadly classified into two categories: essential and nonessential heavy metals.

Essential HMs are those required by living organisms for carrying out the fundamental processes

like growth, metabolism, and development of different organs. There are numerous essential

heavy metals like Cu, Fe, Mn, Co, Zn, and Ni required by plants as they form cofactors that are

structurally and functionally vital for enzymes and other proteins (Collison and Shrimp, 2012).

Essential elements are often required in trace amounts in the level of 10–15 ppm and are known

as micronutrients. Nonessential heavy metals like Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr, and Al are not required by

plants, even in trace amounts, for any of the metabolic processes.

2.1.1 Physical property

Heavy metals can be hammered into thin sheets. Heavy metals are ductile. Heavy metals are a

good conductor of heat and electricity. Heavy metals are lustrous which means they have a shiny

appearance. Heavy metals have high tensile strength. Metals are sonorous. Heavy metals are hard

(Opaluwa and Umar, 2010)

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2.1.2 Chemical property

The density of heavy metals is usually high. Heavy metals are malleable and ductile. Heavy

metals form an alloy with other metals or non metals. Some heavy metals react with air and

corrode. Heavy metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Generally, heavy metals are

in a solid state at room temperature (Ibok et al., 2009).

2.1.3 Source of heavy metal

Heavy metal sources are magmatic, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, weathering and soil

formation, the rock cycle, the origin of heavy metals in surface and groundwater as well as in the

atmosphere, and anthropogenic sources stemming from human activities such as industrial

production and agriculture (Umar and Opaluwa, 2010). There are different sources for heavy

metals in the environment. These sources can be both of natural or anthropogenic origin. General

classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks, soil horizons that develop in a temperate

humid climate, layer structures of two-layer minerals, and heavy metals in water and

groundwater. Heavy metals are mainly introduced into groundwater by agricultural and industrial

activities, landfilling, mining, and transportation. There are various possibilities for the fate and

transport of heavy metals in soil and groundwater (Pate et al., 2011).

2.1.4 Health effect of heavy metal

Some heavy metals are essential to human biological process, but depending upon their dosage

intake leads some unexpected hazardous effects on health and the physiological system.

According to (Hutton and Symon, 2016). Studies shows that despite of its beneficiary health

effects, heavy metals are acting as carcinogenic agents. Dissolved forms of these metals through

different forms as soil pollutants, water pollutant and air pollutant entering into food chain and

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finally ending in humans, these are leading to severe damage to the cellular system and leading

to exposure towards cancer. According to the reports of the international agency for rearch on

cancer non-essential heavy metals (As, Cd, and CR) are major cancer causing agents

(Woodworth and Pascoe, 2012).

2.1.5 Metabolism of heavy metal

Heavy metal poisoning is caused by the accumulation of certain metals in the body due to

exposure through food, water, industrial chemicals, or other sources. While your body needs

small amounts of some heavy metals to function normally such as zinc, copper, chromium, iron,

and manganese toxic amounts are harmful. Some heavy metals such as lead, cadmium,

manganese, arsenic can enter the body through the gastrointestinal route; that is, through the

mouth when eating food, fruits, vegetables or drinking water or other beverages. Others can enter

the body by inhalation while others such as lead can be absorbed through the skin (Oluyemi et

al., 2008)

2.1.6 Environmental effects of heavy metals

Environmental pollution of heavy metals is increasingly becoming a problem and has become of

great concern due to the adverse effects it is causing around the world. These inorganic

pollutants are being discarded in our waters, soils and into the atmosphere due to the rapidly

growing agriculture and metal industries, improper waste disposal, fertilizers and pesticides. This

review shows how pollutants enter the environment together with their fate (Kemdrin, 2017).

Some metals affect biological functions and growth, while other metals accumulate in one or

more different organs causing many serious diseases such as cancer. The pharmacokinetics and

toxicological processes in humans for each metal is described. In summary, the review shows the

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physiological and biochemical effects of each heavy metal bioaccumulation in humans and the

level of gravity and disquieting factor of the disease. The persistent pollutants such as heavy

metals can then enter the food chain through marine life such as fish which can then affect

predators such as bigger fish, birds and mammals, including humans, which migrate and

transport the pollutant to different ecosystems (Environmental Protection Agency EPA, 2016).

2.2 Cadmium Cd

Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft, silvery-

white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12, zinc and mercury.

Like zinc, it demonstrates oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds, and like mercury, it has a

lower melting point than the transition metals in groups 3 through 11. Cadmium and

its congeners in group 12 are often not considered transition metals, in that they do not have

partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states. The average

concentration of cadmium in Earth's crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was

discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity

in zinc carbonate. Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of

zinc production. Cadmium was used for a long time as a corrosion-resistant plating on steel, and

cadmium compounds are used as red, orange and yellow pigments, to color glass, and to

stabilize plastic. Cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is toxic (it is specifically listed

in the European Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive) (Opaluwa and Umar, 2010)

and nickel-cadmium batteries have been replaced with nickel-metal hydride and lithium-

ion batteries. One of its few new uses is in cadmium telluride solar panels.

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2.2.1 Physical property of cadmium

Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, silvery-white divalent metal. It is similar in many respects

to zinc but forms complex compounds. Unlike most other metals, cadmium is resistant

to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium

is insoluble in water and is not flammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and

release toxic fumes (Atta, 2017).

2.2.2 Chemical properties

Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of +2, it also exists in the +1 state. Cadmium

and its congeners are not always considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly

filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states. Cadmium burns in air to

form brown amorphous cadmium oxide (CdO); the crystalline form of this compound is a dark

red which changes color when heated, similar to zinc oxide. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid,

and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride (CdCl2), cadmium

sulfate (CdSO4), or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2). The oxidation state +1 can be produced by

dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride, forming the

Cd22+ cation, which is similar to the Hg 22+ cation in mercury(I) chloride (Fthenakis et al., 2004).

Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2(AlCl4)2

2.2.3 Sources of cadmium

Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the production

of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from zinc sulfate ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium. [34] In

the 1970s, the output of cadmium was 6.5 pounds per ton of zinc. Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in

the presence of oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either

15
by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from

the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate

is precipitated from the electrolysis solution (Fleischer et al., 2010).

2.2.4 Health effect of cadmium

Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms and is considered toxic. Cadmium is

considered an environmental pollutant that causes health hazard to living organismsn (Grant and

Sheppard, 2008). Administration of cadmium to cells causes oxidative stress and increases the

levels of antioxidants produced by cells to protect against macro molecular damage. However a

cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marine diatoms. The diatoms

live in environments with very low zinc concentrations and cadmium performs the function

normally carried out by zinc in other anhydrases. This was discovered with X-ray absorption

near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy. Cadmium is preferentially absorbed in the kidneys

of humans. Up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood

and adolescence. Cadmium is under research regarding its toxicity in humans, potentially

elevating risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis (Jiao et al., 2018).

2.2.5 Metabolism of cadmium

Cadmium taken up from lung and gastrointestinal tract is transported via blood to liver and

kidney. On long-term exposure to cadmium, renal tubular dysfunction develops in humans and

experimental animals. Data from animal experiments demonstrate that initially after exposure

cadmium in blood is bound to albumin and proteins with higher molecular weight. Such

cadmium is mainly taken up in liver. For a few days after exposure cadmium exists as

metallothionein in plasma and blood cells (Hem and John, 2012). After both single and long-

16
term administration of cadmium bound to metallothionein, cadmium is taken up by the kidney.

The concentration of metallothionein-bound cadmium in plasma is quite low due to continuous

renal clearance. Cadmium from metallothionein is taken up in renal tubules by pinocytosis and

subsequently degraded in lysosomes, thereby releasing cadmium which stimulates de novo

synthesis of metallothionein but also binds to reabsorbed metallothionein. Catabolizing and

rebinding are continuous and prevent excretion of cadmium. Because of differences in transport,

renal metabolic handling forms of cadmium are also different for different forms of cadmium

administered and rate of administration. A single dose of metallothionein-bound cadmium given

intravenously is almost immediately and completely taken up in the renal tubule. Under such

conditions, resynthesis and rebinding processes are insufficient to sequester cadmium from

sensitive tissue receptors, and renal damage occurs at total tissue concentrations much lower than

when renal cadmium concentrations rise slowly (Rickett and Payer, 2015). This explains the

wide range (10-200 micrograms Cd/g wet weight) of cadmium in the renal cortex that associated

with renal tubular dysfunction in experimental animals.

2.3 Copper

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable,

and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface

of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity,

as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used

in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain

gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement. Copper is one of the few metals that

can occur in nature in a directly usable metallic form (native metals). This led to very early

human use in several regions, from c. 8000 BC. Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to

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be smelted from sulfide ores, c. 5000 BC; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c.

4000 BC; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal, tin, to create bronze, c.

3500 BC (Okazawad et al., 2014).

2.3.1 Physical properties

Copper, silver, and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table; these three metals have one s-

orbital electron on top of a filled d-electron shell and are characterized by high ductility, and

electrical and thermal conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to

interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds. Unlike

metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and

are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single

crystals of copper (Romano et al., 2007). At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended

defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied

stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine

grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms. The

softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity (59.6×10 6 S/m) and high

thermal conductivity, second highest (second only to silver) among pure metals at room

temperature. This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature

originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are

relatively weak in a soft metal (Schwarz, 2010). The maximum permissible current density of

copper in open air is approximately 3.1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, above which it begins

to heat excessively.

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2.3.2 Chemical properties

Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a

layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects

the underlying metal from further corrosion (passivation) ((Lu et al., 2016). A green layer

of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper structures, such as the roofing of

many older buildings and the Statue of Liberty. Copper tarnishes when exposed to

some sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides (Wallwork, 2016).

Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands. In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists

as [Cu(H2O)6]2+. This complex exhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands

attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex. Adding aqueous sodium

hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper (II) hydroxide. A simplified

equation is: Cu2+ + 2 OH− → Cu(OH)2

2.3.3 Sources of copper

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry

copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Copper can also be recovered through the in-situ

leach process (Birck et al., 2009). An alternative source of copper for collection currently being

researched are polymetallic nodules, which are located at the depths of the Pacific

Ocean approximately 3000–6500 meters below sea level (Frei et al., 2009). These nodules

contain other valuable metals such as cobalt and nickel.

2.3.4 Health effect of copper

Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute

copper toxicity in humans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen

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species that damage DNA (Kotaś and Stasicka, 2000). Chronic copper toxicity does not normally

occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion. Autosomal

recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson's

disease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two

defective genes. Elevated copper levels have also been linked to worsening symptoms

of Alzheimer's disease (Ram and Bernath, 2003).

2.3.5 Metabolism of copper

Copper is absorbed in the gut, then transported to the liver bound to albumin. After processing in

the liver, copper is distributed to other tissues in a second phase, which involves the

protein ceruloplasmin, carrying the majority of copper in blood. Ceruloplasmin also carries the

copper that is excreted in milk, and is particularly well-absorbed as a copper source (Lu et al.,

2016). Copper in the body normally undergoes enterohepatic circulation (about 5 mg a day, vs.

about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body), and the body is able to

excrete some excess copper, if needed, via bile, which carries some copper out of the liver that is

not then reabsorbed by the intestine (Demazeau et al., 2012).

2.4 Chromium

Chromium is a chemical element with the symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first

element in group 6. It is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard, and brittle transition metal. Chromium is

the main additive in stainless steel, to which it adds anti-corrosive properties. Chromium is also

highly valued as a metal that is able to be highly polished while resisting tarnishing. Polished

chromium reflects almost 70% of the visible spectrum, and almost 90% of infrared light (Hirose

and Tateno, 2010). Chromium metal is valued for its high corrosion resistance and hardness. A

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major development in steel production was the discovery that steel could be made highly

resistant to corrosion and discoloration by adding metallic chromium to form stainless steel

(Chamati and Gaminchev, 2014).

2.4.1 Physical properties

Chromium is extremely hard, and is the third hardest element behind carbon (diamond)

and boron. Its Mohs hardness is 8.5, which means that it can scratch samples of quartz and topaz,

but can be scratched by corundum. Chromium is highly resistant to tarnishing, which makes it

useful as a metal that preserves its outermost layer from corroding, unlike other metals such

as copper, magnesium, and aluminium (Stixrude et al., 2007). Chromium has a melting point of

1907 °C (3465 °F), which is relatively low compared to the majority of transition metals.

However, it still has the second highest melting point out of all the Period 4 elements, being

topped by vanadium by 3 °C (5 °F) at 1910 °C (3470 °F). The boiling point of 2671 °C

(4840 °F), however, is comparatively lower, having the third lowest boiling point out of

the Period 4 transition metals alone behind manganese and zinc (Boehler and Reinhard, 2000).

The electrical resistivity of chromium at 20 °C is 125 nanoohm-meters. Chromium has a

high specular reflection in comparison to other transition metals. In infrared, at 425 μm,

chromium has a maximum reflectance of about 72%, reducing to a minimum of 62% at 750 μm

before rising again to 90% at 4000 μm.

2.4.2 Chemical properties

Chromium metal left standing in air is passivated - it forms a thin, protective, surface layer of

oxide. This layer has a spinel structure a few atomic layers thick; it is very dense and inhibits the

diffusion of oxygen into the underlying metal. In contrast, iron forms a more porous oxide

21
through which oxygen can migrate, causing continued rusting (Galloway et al., 2010).

Passivation can be enhanced by short contact with oxidizing acids like nitric acid. Passivated

chromium is stable against acids. Passivation can be removed with a strong reducing agent that

destroys the protective oxide layer on the metal. Chromium metal treated in this way readily

dissolves in weak acids. Chromium, unlike iron and nickel, does not suffer from hydrogen

embrittlement. However, it does suffer from nitrogen embrittlement, reacting with nitrogen from

air and forming brittle nitrides at the high temperatures necessary to work the metal parts (Pate et

al., 2011). Chromium(VI) compounds are oxidants at low or neutral pH. Chromate anions

(CrO2−4) and dichromate (Cr2O72−) anions are the principal ions at this oxidation state. They exist

at an equilibrium, determined by pH: 2 [CrO4]2− + 2 H+ ⇌ [Cr2O7]2− + H2O

2.4.3 Sources of chromium

The two main products of chromium ore refining are ferrochromium and metallic chromium. For

those products the ore smelter process differs considerably. For the production of

ferrochromium, the chromite ore (FeCr2O4) is reduced in large scale in electric arc furnace or in

smaller smelters with either aluminium or silicon in an aluminothermic reaction (Fthenakis,

2004). For the production of pure chromium, the iron must be separated from the chromium in a

two step roasting and leaching process. The chromite ore is heated with a mixture of calcium

carbonate and sodium carbonate in the presence of air. The chromium is oxidized to the

hexavalent form, while the iron forms the stable Fe 2O3. The subsequent leaching at higher

elevated temperatures dissolves the chromates and leaves the insoluble iron oxide. The chromate

is converted by sulfuric acid into the dichromate (Ram and Bernath, 2003).

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2.4.4 Health effect of chromium

The biologically beneficial effects of chromium (III) are debated. Chromium is accepted by the

U.S. National Institutes of Health as a trace element for its roles in the action of insulin, a

hormone that mediates the metabolism and storage of carbohydrate, fat, and protein. The

mechanism of its actions in the body, however, have not been defined, leaving in question the

essentiality of chromium. In contrast, hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI) or Cr6+) is highly toxic

and mutagenic. Ingestion of chromium(VI) in water has been linked to stomach tumors, and it

may also cause allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) (Opaluwa and Umar, 2010). "Chromium

deficiency", involving a lack of Cr(III) in the body, or perhaps some complex of it, such

as glucose tolerance factor, is controversial. Some studies suggest that the biologically active

form of chromium (III) is transported in the body via an oligopeptide called low-molecular-

weight chromium-binding substance (LMWCr), which might play a role in the insulin signaling

pathway. The chromium content of common foods is generally low (1-13 micrograms per

serving). The chromium content of food varies widely, due to differences in soil mineral content,

growing season, plant cultivar, and contamination during processing. Chromium (and nickel)

leach into food cooked in stainless steel, with the effect being largest when the cookware is new.

Acidic foods that are cooked for many hours also exacerbate this effect (Ibok et al., 2009).

2.4.5 Metabolism of chromium

Water-insoluble chromium(III) compounds and chromium metal are not considered a health

hazard, while the toxicity and carcinogenic properties nhof chromium(VI) have been known for a

long time (Pate et al., 2011). Because of the specific transport mechanisms, only limited amounts

of chromium(III) enter the cells. Acute oral toxicity ranges between 50 and 150 mg/kg.[135] A

2008 review suggested that moderate uptake of chromium(III) through dietary supplements

23
poses no genetic-toxic risk. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) has designated an air permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace

as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 1 mg/m3. The National Institute for Occupational Safety

and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.5 mg/m3, time-weighted

average. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 250 mg/m3 (Hutton and

Symon, 2016).

2.5 Iron

Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to

the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common

element on Earth, right in front of oxygen (32.1% and 30.1%, respectively), forming much of

Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust. In

the modern world, iron alloys, such as steel, stainless steel, cast iron and special steels are by far

the most common industrial metals, because of their mechanical properties and low cost.

The iron and steel industry is thus very important economically. However, iron reacts readily

with oxygen and water to give brown to black hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust.

Unlike the oxides of some other metals, that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume

than the metal and thus flakes off, exposing fresh surfaces for corrosion. Although iron readily

reacts, high purity iron, called electrolytic iron, has better corrosion resistance (Grant and

Sheppard, 2008).

2.5.1 Physical properties

The physical properties of iron at very high pressures and temperatures have also been studied

extensively, because of their relevance to theories about the cores of the Earth and other planets

(Romano et al., 2007). Iron, like other metals, conducts heat and electricity, has a luster, and

24
forms positive ions in its chemical reactions. Pure iron is fairly soft and can easily be shaped and

formed when hot. Its color is silvery white. Iron is easily magnetized. When combined with

small amounts of carbon, it becomes steel (Schwarz, 2010).

2.5.2 Chemical properties

Important iron compounds are of two types ferrous, in which the iron ions that form the

compound have a valence (a measurement of combining power) of +2, and ferric, in which the

ions have a valence of +3. The element has four stable isotopes, or forms. The crystal structure

and magnetism of iron undergo changes when it is heated. If an iron magnet is heated red hot, it

loses its magnetism but regains it when it is cooled (Wallwork, 2016). In the presence of

moisture, iron rusts quickly because it combines easily with oxygen in the air. Iron can be

protected against rusting by coating it with a phosphate solution. Coating iron with zinc to make

galvanized iron also prevents rusting. The melting and boiling points of iron, along with

its enthalpy of atomization, are lower than those of the earlier 3d elements

from scandium to chromium, showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic

bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by the nucleus; however, they are

higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled

3d sub-shell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized (Stixrude et al., 2007).

The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known. The ferrous halides typically arise from

treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated

salts (Ram and Bernath, 2003). Fe + 2 HX → FeX2 + H2 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)

2.5.3 Source of iron

Prehistoric societies used laterite as a source of iron ore. Historically, much of the iron ore

utilized by industrialized societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with

25
grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are commonly referred to as "direct shipping ores" or

"natural ores". (Chamati and Gaminchev, 2014).

2.5.4 Health effect of iron

Iron is required for life. The iron–sulfur clusters are pervasive and include nitrogenase, the

enzymes responsible for biological nitrogen fixation. Iron-containing proteins participate in

transport, storage and used of oxygen. Iron proteins are involved in electron transfer. Examples

of iron-containing proteins in higher organisms include hemoglobin, cytochrome (see high-

valent iron), and catalase. The average adult human contains about 0.005% body weight of iron,

or about four grams, of which three quarters is in hemoglobin a level that remains constant

despite only about one milligram of iron being absorbed each day, because the human body

recycles its hemoglobin for the iron content (Birck et al., 2009).

2.5.5 Metabolism of iron

Iron uptake is tightly regulated by the human body, which has no regulated physiological means

of excreting iron. Only small amounts of iron are lost daily due to mucosal and skin epithelial

cell sloughing, so control of iron levels is primarily accomplished by regulating uptake (Jiao et

al., 2018). Regulation of iron uptake is impaired in some people as a result of a genetic

defect that maps to the HLA-H gene region on chromosome 6 and leads to abnormally low levels

of hepcidin, a key regulator of the entry of iron into the circulatory system in mammals. In these

people, excessive iron intake can result in iron overload disorders, known medically

as hemochromatosis (Rickett and Payer, 2015). Overdoses of ingested iron can cause excessive

levels of free iron in the blood. High blood levels of free ferrous iron react with peroxides to

produce highly reactive free radicals that can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular

26
components. Iron toxicity occurs when the cell contains free iron, which generally occurs when

iron levels exceed the availability of transferrin to bind the iron. Damage to the cells of

the gastrointestinal tract can also prevent them from regulating iron absorption, leading to further

increases in blood levels. Iron typically damages cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, causing

adverse effects that include coma, metabolic acidosis, shock, liver failure, coagulopathy, adult

respiratory distress syndrome, long-term organ damage, and even death (Okazawad et al., 2014).

2.6 Water pollution

Water pollution occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or microorganisms contaminate

a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and

rendering it toxic to humans or the environment (Demazeau et al., 2012). Industrialization,

climate change, and expansion of urban areas produce a variety of water pollutants. In this work,

we discuss some of the most recent and relevant findings related to the release of heavy metals,

the possible risks for the environment and human health, the materials and technologies available

for their removal. Anthropogenic activities are identified as the main source of the increasing

amounts of heavy metals found in aquatic environments. Some of the health hazards derived

from repeated exposure to traces of heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, mercury, and

arsenic, are outlined. We also give some perspectives about several techniques used to detect

heavy metals, as well as about the factors that could affect the contaminant removal. The

advantages and drawbacks of conventional and non-conventional heavy metal removal methods

are critically discussed, given particular attention to those related to adsorption, nanostructured

materials and plant-mediated remediation. Some of the commercial products currently used to

eliminate heavy metals from water are also listed (Kotaś and Stasicka, 2000). Finally, we point

27
out some the requirements and opportunities linked to developing efficient methods for heavy

metal removal, such as the ones that exploit nanotechnologies.

2.6.1 Sources/causes of water pollution

The release of substances into subsurface groundwater or into lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries,

and oceans to the point where the substances interfere with beneficial use of the water or with the

natural functioning of ecosystems (Romano et al., 2007). In addition to the release of substances,

such as chemicals or microorganisms, water pollution may also include the release of energy, in

the form of radioactivity or heat, into bodies of water. Water bodies can be polluted by a wide

variety of substances, including pathogenic microorganisms, putrescible organic

waste, plant nutrients, toxic chemicals, sediments, heat, petroleum (oil), and radioactive

substances (Pate et al., 2011). Several types of water pollutants are considered below. (For a

discussion of the handling of sewage and other forms of waste produced by human activities

(Chamati and Gaminchev, 2014)

2.6.2 Effect of water pollution by heavy metals

However, the predominant source resulting in measurable human exposure to heavy metals is the

consumption of contaminated drinking water and the resulting health issues may include

cardiovascular disorders, neuronal damage, renal injuries, and risk of cancer and diabetes. ven in

the current era of growing technology, the concentration of heavy metals present in drinking

water is still not within the recommended limits as set by the regulatory authorities in different

countries of the world (Ayejuyo et al., 2013). Drinking water contaminated with heavy metals

namely; arsenic, cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, zinc, and lead is becoming a major

health concern for public and health care professionals. Occupational exposure to heavy metals is

28
known to occur by the utilization of these metals in various industrial processes and/or contents

including color pigments and alloys. However, the predominant source resulting in measurable

human exposure to heavy metals is the consumption of contaminated drinking water and the

resulting health issues may include cardiovascular disorders, neuronal damage, renal injuries,

and risk of cancer and diabetes. The general mechanism involved in heavy metal-induced

toxicity is recognized to be the production of reactive oxygen species resulting oxidative damage

and health related adverse effects. Thus utilization of heavy metal-contaminated water is

resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates all over the world (Collison and Shrimp, 2012).

Thereby, feeling the need to raise the concerns about contribution of different heavy metals in

various health related issues, this article has discussed the global contamination of drinking water

with heavy metals to assess the health hazards associated with consumption of heavy metal-

contaminated water (Lu et al., 2016).

2.7 Bioaccumulation, biomagnifications and bioconcentration

2.7.1 Bioaccumulation

Bioaccumulation is the process of the building of chemicals in an organism that take place if the

rate rate of intake exceeds the rate of excretion (Kemdrin, 2017). Chemicals are introduced to the

organism through exposure to the abiotic environment or as dietary intake (Okazawad et al.,

2014). Bioaccumulation also refers to how pollutants enters the food chain and relates to the

accumulation of contaminants (Opaluwa and Umar, 2010).

2.7.2 Biomagnifications

Biomagnification is a process by which contaminants increase in the tissue of higher species of

the food chain. As contaminated smaller organisms are consumed, chemicals are accumulated

29
and magnified in the tissue and organs of larger animals. Animals at the top of food chain

including humans, have a risk of gathering significant concentrations of chemicals through

biomagnified food chain (Kalay et al., 2019).

2.7.3 Bioconcentration

Bioconcentration is the concentration of a chemical that is higher within the organism composed

to its surroundings (air or water) bioconcentration is the accumulation of a substance resulting

from passage from one phase into another phase (Okazawad et al., 2014).

2.8 Bioconcentration factor, biomagnification factor and their significance

2.8.1Bioconcentration factor

This is ratio of equilibrium concentrations of specific chemical between two phases. It is also

define as the uptake of contaminants from the dissolved phase, it can be calculated by the

following equation:

BCF=C/Cw

C is the contaminant concentration in the organisms (µg/kg) under equilibrium conditions.

Cw is the contaminant concentration in the water (µg/kg). An important assumption of the

calculation of BCF is that of equilibrium between the contaminant and organisms with growth

rate, but difficult for fish is as its large (Ibok et al., 2009).

2.8.1 Biomagnification factor and their importance

Biomgnification factor have several ways for calculation. A method where the TLS are directly

taken into accounts in the calculation is the method used by () who calculates the trophic

30
magnification factors as the antilog of the empirical slope m from the log. Linear regression

between the concentration in brota and TLS for which specifically 15N, measurement are used

BMF= CB

CD ,

Log CB=CmxTL)+b with TMF = 10m

(Kemdrin, 2017)

This is important in toxicology because it provides data regarding the amount of pollutants in an

area and can give clues of distruption to pollution and ecological communities (Oluyemi et al.,

2008)

2.9 Ufam River

The ufam river is found in the Enugu State of Nigeria. The River originates from a town called

ozalla and flows through several others across the state. The river, which crisscrossed five

communities of Ishi-Ozalla, Obeagwu-Ozalla, Umuanne, Okoruba and Etiti-Ozalla is the only

source of potable water for the communities. Although it is less than 10 minutes drive from

Enugu town, it has neither seen nor had pipe-borne water.It has an average depth and width

of 0.2m and 1.9m respectively. The river is about more than 15km long. The ufam river is a river

of outstanding beauty. It is one of the best River in Enugu state. It is home to a great biodiversity

of plants and animals. The river provides ecosystem services such as flood control, climate

change regulation, recreation, spiritual homage, water supply, food, research and education,

medicine, building materials etc to many communities through which it passes. However, the

ability of Ufam River to continue to provide these ecosystem services to man and other living

things is being seriously hampered as result of development pressure and consequences of

31
climate change driven by poverty, ignorance and corruption. . Its center of attraction is the

uniqueness and its unnatural purity.

Plate 1: Location 1 of Ufam River

32
Plate 2: Location 2 of Ufam River

33
2.9.1 Description of sample collection area

The ufam river is covered by vegetations. The vegetation cover here includes Dryopteris spp. and

Bambusa vulgaris. The River currently acts as host to numerous tourist sites and is expected to

help with irrigation of the more than 10,000 hectares of land sited at nearby for the

community/town cassava bread and high quality Cassava Flour Development Initiative for a

mechanized cassava farm.

34
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and Methods

3.1 Equipment

i. pH Meter (Hanna Instruments, Italy)

ii. Analytical balance (OHAUS, U.S.A)

iii. Thermostatically controlled oven (TEI, India)

iv. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (LabX, Canada)

v. Filteration equipment, fritted with porosity

vi. Reservoir bottles (Pyrex, France)

vii. High form crucibles and caps (Fallen Kemp)

viii. Stock bottles of extraction acid of 10ml respipettior (Pyrex, France)

ix. Cotton wool

x. Refrigerator (Thermacool)

xi. Beakers

xii. Heaith and safety instruments

3.2 Chemicals and Reagents

The chemical and reagents used in this study with their manufacturers in parenthesis are:

i. Acetylene (Air liquid Port Hacourt)

ii. Double distilled water (Springboard laboratory, Awka)

iii. Barium chlorinate

iv. Iron standard solution (BDH, England)

35
 v. Colbalt standard solution (BDH, England)

vi. Cadmium standard solution (BDH, England)

vii. Iron standard solution (BDH, England)

viii. Copper standard solution (BDH, England)

ix. Zinc stock solution (BDH, England)

x. Alcoholic lead stock solution (Qualikem, England)

xi. Hydrogentrioxonitrate (v) acid (HNO3) (May and Baker, England)

xii. Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid (BDH, England)

xiii. Copper stock solution

xiv. Mercury stock solution (Qualikem), England)

xv. Aqua riga extraction acid (sharlab, Spain)

3.3 Methology

3.3.1 Collection of the Water and Sediment Samples

Water and sediment samples was collected from the sampling location submerged at about 0.5m

below the water surface and was filtered in a pre cleared liter of bottle and kept for analysis.

Then the sediment was collected in a polythene bag while wearing protective gloves and was

being transported to the laboratory air dried temperature.

3.3.2 Collection of fish sample

The fish sample were collected using cast nets which were thrown by the fisherman and

withdrawn by the means of line attached to its opening. When it was caught, ity was washed,

weighed and preserved in the refrigerator for a day before analysis.

36
3.4 Water parameters

3.4.1 Determination of pH

pH was measured by Electrometric Method using Laboratory pH Meter Hanna model H1991300

(APHA, 1998).The pH electrode was rinsed with distilled water and blotted dry.The pH

electrode was then rinsed in a small beaker with a portion of the sample.Sufficient amount of the

sample was poured into a small beaker to allow the tip of the pH electrode to be immersed to a

depth of about 2cm. The pH electrode was at least 1cm away from the sides and bottom of the

beaker.The temperature adjustment dial was adjusted accordingly.The pH meter was turned on

and the pH of sample was recorded.

3.4.2 Conductivity

Conductivity is measured with a probe and a meter. Voltage is applied between two electrodes in

a probe immersed in the sample water. The drop in the voltage caused by the resistance of the

water is used to calculate the conductivity per centimeter. The meter converts the probe

measurement to microsiemens per centimeter and displays the result (APHA, 1998).

3.4.3 Determination of Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids was determined by conventional method using filter paper and weighing

scale (SMARTLIST, 2020).The evapourating dish was weighed on an analytical balance. The

evapourating dish was completely dry and free from extraneous particulate matter and reading

was recorded in mg.The water sample was poured into a sterilized beaker and vigorously stirred

to ensure that particulate matters, if any, was distributed evenly.A volume of50ml of the sample

was collected using the pipette. The liquid was continuously stirred while the sample was

37
collected to ensure particulate matter did not settle at the bottom of the beaker.The sample was

poured through the filter paper into another beaker. The procedure was repeated at least three

times to ensure the collection of the entire particulate matter in the filter paper.The filtrate was

transferred from the beaker into the weighed evapourating dish and was allowed to dry using a

hot air oven at temperature 104 OC. To prevent splattering the oven temperature was initially

lowered to 0OC and was gradually raised to 104OC for one hour.The dried evapourating dish was

weighed along with the filtrate and reading was recorded in mg.

Calculation: Total Dissolved Solids is expressed in terms of milligrams per litre

(Weight of evapourating dish and the filtrate - Weight of evapourating dish alone
Total Dissolved Solids(TDS) =
(ml of water sample)

3.4.4 Determination of chlorine in water (Automatic Titrator model GT-200 (GT0EF-)

500ml of the water sample was collected using a measuring cylinder and was added into a 500ml

beaker. 1g of potassium iodide was added into the beaker and was dissolved by agitating the

content of the beaker. 5ml of sulfuric acid (Sulfuric acid : Water = 1:5) was added. It was titrated

with 0.01mol/L-sodium thiosulfate solution.

0.3545 (1000/S) Residual chlorine (Cl2 mg/L) = (A1 – f) A1 : Titration volume of

0.01mol/L-sodium thiosulfate solution until the end point (ml) F : Factor of 0.01mol/L-sodium

thiosulfate solution (1.000) S: Sample volume (ml).

3.4.5 Sulphate

The sulphate was determined by the methods described by American public health association

(APHA, 1998). In the spectrophotometric method sulphate is measured by the addition of barium

38
chloranilate, which reacts with sulphate ions to librate chloralinic acid. Sulphate concentration is

measured in terms of UV absorption by chloralinic acid at a specific wavelength.

3.4.6 Nitrate

The nitrate was determined by the methods described by American public health association

(APHA, 1998). The nitrate in the water and samples were determined using a nitrate electrode

(used with a meter) which is similar in function to a dissolved oxygen meter. It was made of a

probe with a sensor that measured the nitrate activity in the water, the activity affected the

electric potential of the solution in the probe. The change was then transmitted to the meter,

which converted the electric signal to a scale that was read in millivolts. The millivolts was then

converted to mg/L of nitrate by plotting them from a standard curve.

3.4.7 Determination of Dissolved Oxygen in Water

The stopper was carefully removed from the sample bottle and 1cm 3 manganese sulphate

solution followed by 1cm3 of alkaline– iodide– azide solution was added consecutively into the

sample bottle. The tip of the pipettes was placed below the surface of the liquid to introduce

various reagents into the full bottle of the sample. The stopper was replaced carefully after each

addition to avoid the inclusion of air bubbles. The content was thoroughly mixed by inversion

and rotation until clear supernatant water is obtained. 1cm 3 of concentrated sulphuric acid was

added with the tip of the pipette below the level of the solution and again, replaced with the

stopper. The solution was mixed well by rotation until the precipitation was completely

dissolved. 100cm3 of the sample was pipette into a 250cm3 conical flask and was immediately

titrated against standard sodium thiosulphate (0.0125 mol dm 3) using freshly prepared starch

39
solution as the indicator which was added when the solution became pale yellow. The titration

was then carried out in duplicate.

3.4.8 Determination of Heavy Metal Concentration

Heavy metal concentration was determined by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy using Varian

AA240 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (APHA, 1995).The water sample was placed on a

bench. The atomic absorption spectrophotometer was switched on and set to required wavelength

which was determined by the heavy metal being assayed.The appropriate lamp which was

determined by the heavy metal was in the appropriate place in the machine.A tube from the

machine was inserted into the water sample on the bench and water sample was aspirated into the

instrument through the tube.The machine was then set to take the absorbance as well as the

concentration which was displayed on the screen at the front of the machine. Concentration of

heavy metal in the sample was recorded.

3.5 Statistical Analysis

Data obtained were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). The result of were analysed

using one way analysis of variance ANOVA) using statistical products and service solution

(SPSS) and where a significant (p< 0.05) difference was obtained, turkey (multiple comparison

was used to detect the source of difference.

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Result

4.1 Water quality parameters

The pH was slightly alkaline and are within the who standard limit. The conductivity, total

dissolved solid (TDS), chloride, sulphate and nitrate were detected in the samples at a low varied

concentration and are also within the WHO standard limit. Dissolved oxygen (DO) was detected

at a very high concentration above the WHO standard limit.

Table 4.1-Water Quality Parameter of Ufam River

Parameters Location 1 Location 2 WHO STD

pH 6.47±0.11 6.32±0.11 6.5-8.5

Conductivity (µs/cm) 56.56±12.96 74.89±12.96 500

TDS (Mg/L) 12.78±2.04 15.67±2.04 200

Chloride (Mg/L) 89.50±2.26 92.70±2.26 250

Sulphate (Mg/L) 106.54±9.12 119.43±9.12 500

Nitrate (Mg/L) 9.56±0.83 8.39±0.83 10

DO (Mg/L) 87.56±13.90 67.90±13.90 5-14

41
4.2 Concentration of Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron (Fe) in the

water samples.

All the heavy metals were detected in all the locations except Cu and Fe were not detected in

location 2.

Table 4.2- For Concentration in Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron

(Fe) in water sample.

Metals Location 1 Location 2

Cd(Mg/L) 0.076±0.0347 0.024±0.0347

Cu(Mg/L) 0.016±0.011 Nil±0.011

Cr(Mg/L) 0.048±0.018 0.023±0.018

Fe(Mg/L) 0.010±0.007 Nill±0.007

42
4.3 Concentration in Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron (Fe) in

sediment sample.

In the (Table 4.3) All the heavy metals in study were detected in sediment sample of Ufam

River. Fe was found to have the highest concentration in both location with a value of

1.209±0.011 for location 1 and 1.193±0.011 for location 2.

Table 4.3- For Concentration in Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron

(Fe) in sediment sample.

Location 1 Location 2 Fish

Metals(mg/L)
Metals

Cd 0.019±0.003 0.023±0.003 0.016±0.00

Cu 0.012±0.001 0.013±0.001 0.00±0.00

Cr 0.056±0.002 0.059±0.002 0.090±0.00

Fe 1.209±0.011 1.193±0.011 0.018±0.00

43
4.4 Concentration in Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron (Fe) in fish

sample.

In the (Table 4.4) All the heavy metals under review were detected in fish sample of Ufam River

except Cu which was below detectable limit.

Table 4.4- For Concentration in Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron

(Fe) in sediment sample.

Metals (mg/L) Fish

Metals

Cd 0.016±0.00

Cu 0.00±0.00

Cr 0.090±0.00

Fe 0.018±0.00

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Discussion and conclusion

5.1 Discussion

Water quality parameters such as total dissolved solid, conductivity and pH are usually evaluated

in water because of their health related consequences (Doisy et al., 2006). The results of water

quality parameters are as in Tables 4.1. Extreme pH in water is not usually healthy for

consumption especially when the acidity is high (Streeten et al., 2004). Water with an elevated

pH above 11 can cause skin, eye and mucous membrane irritation (Singh et al., 2009). On the

opposite end of the scale, pH values below 4 also cause irritation due to the corrosive effects of

low pH levels (Freiberg et al., 2009). World health organization warns that extreme pH levels

can worsen existing skin conditions (WHO, 2009). pH for water lies between 6.5 and 8.5 (WHO,

2005). Results from this study showed the pH of the location 1 and 2 of the water sample to be

slightly (acidic) with location 1 showing a value of 6.47±0.11 while the location 2 gives value of

6.32±0.11 and are within the WHO acceptable limit (Table 4.1). However, the result indicates

that the water in Ufam river is acidic in nature (Chen et al., 2007), but it is not of a major health

concern because the acid concentration (acidity) is low. However, minimum level of treatment is

required to increase the pH to a fairly neutral and acceptable range. In location 1 water sample

there is a low concentration in conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride and sulphate

than in the location 2 that gives higher variable values of 74.89±12.96, 15.67±2.04, 92.70±2.26

and 119.43±9.12 respectively and did not exceed the WHO acceptable limits. Nitrate and

dissolved oxygen was found to have a higher concentration in upstream water sample with a

45
value of 9.56±0.83 and 87.5613.90 respectively, however dissolved oxygen exceeded the WHO

acceptable limit of 5-14 (Table 4.1).

Heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high density and

is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations (Danyal et al., 2006). Heavy metals are dangerous

because they tend to bio-accumulate in living organism over time without been eliminated

(Wallace et al., 2015). Heavy metal toxicity can result to damaged or reduced mental and central

nervous function, lower energy levels, blood composition and damage of the lungs, kidneys,

liver, and other vital organs (Godt et al., 2006). Allergies are not uncommon and repeated long-

term contact with some metals or their compounds may even cause cancer (Rubio et al., 2006).

In this study, cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron (Fe) were detectable with

high concentration in location 1 with a given value of 0.076±0.037mg/L, 0.016±0.011mg/L,

0.048±0.018 and 0.010±0.007mg/L respectively while Cu and Fe were not detected in location 2

(Table 4.2). The location 1 and 2 of sediment sample has a varied concentration of Cd), copper

(Cu), Chromium (Cr) and Iron (Fe), however Fe was detected in a very high concentration in

both samples with a given value of 1.209±0.011mg/L for location 1 and 1.193±0.011mg/L for

location 2. In fish sample Cu was below detectable limit while Cd, Cr and Fe have a

concentration of 0.016±0.00, 0.090±0.00 and 0.018±0.00 respectively.

5.2 Conclusion and recommendation

The results indicated that most of the parameters and heavy metals fell within the tolerable and

permissible levels recommended. From the results obtained on heavy metals, it was discernible

that the samples do not contain high concentration of heavy metals except in water sediment

where Fe was detected in a very high concentration.

46
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