RESEARCH PAPER 1

Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from

an Instructional Design Perspective" by M. David Merrill, Performance
Improvement Quarterly, 2002.

Summary

The paper "Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical

Features from an Instructional Design Perspective" by M. David Merrill,
published in Performance Improvement Quarterly in 2002, provides a
comprehensive comparison of three major learning theories: behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism, from the viewpoint of instructional design.
Here's a summary of its key points:
 Introduction to Learning Theories: Merrill introduces the three main
learning theories: behaviorism, which emphasizes observable behaviors
and stimuli-response associations; cognitivism, which focuses on
mental processes like memory, problem-solving, and information
processing; and constructivism, which highlights the role of learners'
active engagement in constructing knowledge through social interaction
and personal experiences.
 Critical Features Comparison: Merrill compares the critical features of
each theory, including the nature of learning, the role of memory, the
role of the learner, the role of the instructor, instructional strategies, and
evaluation methods.
 Nature of Learning: Behaviorism views learning as a change in
behavior due to external stimuli and reinforcement. Cognitivism sees
learning as the acquisition of mental structures and processes, while
constructivism views it as the construction of knowledge through active
engagement and social interaction.
 Role of Memory: Behaviorism focuses on rote memorization and
associative learning. Cognitivism emphasizes the encoding, storage,
and retrieval of information in memory. Constructivism highlights the
importance of meaningful learning and the organization of knowledge
structures in memory.
 Role of the Learner: In behaviorism, the learner is a passive recipient
of knowledge. In cognitivism, the learner actively processes information
and constructs mental models. In constructivism, the learner actively
constructs knowledge through exploration, reflection, and collaboration.
 Role of the Instructor: Behaviorist instructors provide stimuli and
reinforcement to shape behavior. Cognitivist instructors facilitate the
acquisition and organization of knowledge. Constructivist instructors act
as guides, facilitating learner exploration and providing scaffolding.
 Instructional Strategies: Behaviorist strategies include repetition,
reinforcement, and programmed instruction. Cognitivist strategies
involve problem-solving, modeling, and discovery learning.
 Constructivist strategies include authentic tasks, collaborative learning,
and scaffolding.
 Evaluation Methods: Behaviorism evaluates learning through
observable behaviors and performance outcomes. Cognitivism
assesses understanding through tests of memory, problem-solving, and
comprehension. Constructivism evaluates learning through authentic
assessments that reflect real-world applications and the construction of
knowledge.
Overall, Merrill's paper provides a comprehensive overview of behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism, highlighting their critical features and
implications for instructional design
 RESEARCH PAPER 2
An Overview of Learning Theories Relevant to Classroom Teaching and
Learning" by Sharon E. Smaldino et al., Educational Psychology Interactive, 2000

Summary
An Overview of Learning Theories Relevant to Classroom Teaching and
Learning" by Sharon E. Smaldino et al., published in Educational Psychology
Interactive in 2000, offers a comprehensive overview of various learning theories
and their implications for classroom teaching and learning. Here's a summary of
the key points covered in the paper:
 Introduction to Learning Theories: The paper begins by introducing
several learning theories, including behaviorism, cognitivism,
constructivism, social learning theory, and humanism. It outlines the main
principles and concepts associated with each theory.
 Behaviorism: Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors and external
stimuli. It suggests that learning occurs through conditioning,
reinforcement, and punishment. In the classroom, behaviorist principles
can be applied through techniques such as shaping, positive
reinforcement, and token economies.
 Cognitivism: Cognitivism focuses on mental processes such as memory,
attention, and problem-solving. It suggests that learning involves the
acquisition, organization, and retrieval of information. In the classroom,
cognitivist strategies include providing opportunities for rehearsal,
chunking information, and using mnemonics to aid memory.
 Constructivism: Constructivism posits that learners actively construct
knowledge through interactions with their environment. It emphasizes the
importance of social interaction, inquiry-based learning, and authentic
experiences. In the classroom, constructivist approaches involve
collaborative learning, problem-based learning, and the use of real-world
contexts.
 Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory emphasizes the role of
social interaction and observation in learning. It suggests that individuals
learn by observing others and modeling their behavior. In the classroom,
social learning theory can be applied through cooperative learning
activities, peer tutoring, and role modeling.
 Humanism: Humanism focuses on the holistic development of the
individual and the fulfillment of their potential. It emphasizes self-directed
learning, intrinsic motivation, and the importance of personal growth. In
the classroom, humanistic approaches involve promoting autonomy,
providing choices, and fostering a supportive learning environment.
 Implications for Classroom Teaching and Learning: The paper
discusses how each learning theory can inform classroom practices and
instructional strategies. It highlights the importance of understanding
 individual differences, promoting active engagement, and creating
meaningful learning experiences for students.
Overall, "An Overview of Learning Theories Relevant to Classroom Teaching and
Learning" provides educators with valuable insights into different theoretical
perspectives on learning and practical strategies for enhancing teaching and
learning in the classroom
 RESEARCH PAPER 3

A Review of Adult Learning Theory and Critical Thinking in Online Distance

Education" by Daphne D. Lewis, Journal of Distance Learning Administration,
2016

Summary

The paper "A Review of Adult Learning Theory and Critical Thinking in Online
Distance Education" by Daphne D. Lewis, published in the Journal of Distance
Learning Administration in 2016, provides an in-depth examination of adult
learning theory and its relationship with critical thinking in the context of online
distance education. Here's a summary of the key points covered in the paper:
 Introduction to Adult Learning Theory: Lewis introduces various adult
learning theories, including andragogy (Malcolm Knowles),
transformational learning (Jack Mezirow), experiential learning (David
Kolb), and self-directed learning (Garrison, Long, & Archer). These
theories highlight the unique characteristics and needs of adult learners,
such as self-direction, prior experiences, and relevance to real-life
situations.
 Importance of Critical Thinking: The paper emphasizes the significance
of critical thinking skills in online distance education, where learners must
actively engage with course materials, analyze information, and apply
knowledge to solve problems. Critical thinking is essential for promoting
deep understanding, independent learning, and informed decision-making
among adult learners.
 Integration of Adult Learning Theory and Critical Thinking in Online
Education: Lewis discusses how adult learning theories can inform
instructional design strategies that foster critical thinking in online
distance education. This includes creating opportunities for reflection,
discussion, collaboration, and problem-solving, as well as providing
meaningful and relevant learning experiences that connect to learners'
prior knowledge and experiences.
 Challenges and Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking: The paper
addresses challenges associated with promoting critical thinking in online
distance education, such as the lack of face-to-face interaction,
technological barriers, and varying levels of digital literacy among adult
learners. Lewis suggests strategies for overcoming these challenges, such
as incorporating interactive multimedia, facilitating online discussions,
providing timely feedback, and scaffolding learning activities to support
critical thinking development.
 Assessment of Critical Thinking: Lewis explores different approaches to
assessing critical thinking skills in online distance education, including
authentic assessments, case studies, problem-based scenarios, and
 reflective journals. She emphasizes the importance of aligning assessment
tasks with learning objectives and providing clear criteria for evaluating
critical thinking abilities.
 Conclusion and Future Directions: The paper concludes by highlighting
the importance of integrating adult learning theory and critical thinking in
online distance education to enhance the quality of learning experiences
for adult learners. Lewis suggests future research directions, such as
investigating the effectiveness of specific instructional strategies and
assessment methods in promoting critical thinking skills in online learning
environments.
Overall, "A Review of Adult Learning Theory and Critical Thinking in Online
Distance Education" offers valuable insights into the intersection of adult
learning theory and critical thinking and provides practical guidance for
educators designing and facilitating online courses for adult learners.
 CONCLUSION

Drawing conclusions about all learning theories requires recognizing their

individual contributions and understanding their implications for education and
instructional design. Here's a synthesized conclusion:
Learning theories, including behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and
others, offer valuable insights into how individuals learn and the factors that
influence learning outcomes. Behaviorism highlights the role of external stimuli
and reinforcement in shaping behavior, while cognitivism focuses on mental
processes such as attention, memory, and problem-solving. Constructivism
emphasizes the active construction of knowledge through interaction with the
environment and social collaboration.
While each theory has its strengths and limitations, they collectively provide a
comprehensive framework for understanding learning across diverse contexts.
Behaviorism informs strategies for behavior modification and skill acquisition,
cognitivism informs instructional techniques for promoting understanding and
retention of information, and constructivism emphasizes the importance of
authentic, experiential learning experiences.
In practice, educators often draw from multiple learning theories to design
effective learning experiences that cater to the diverse needs and preferences of
learners. By incorporating principles from behaviorism, cognitivism, and
constructivism, educators can create dynamic learning environments that engage
learners, foster critical thinking, and promote meaningful learning outcomes.
Ultimately, the integration of various learning theories underscores the
complexity of the learning process and highlights the importance of adopting a
flexible and eclectic approach to education. By embracing the principles of
behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and other learning theories, educators
can empower learners to achieve their full potential and succeed in an ever-
evolving world.