Environment CA by PMF IAS® – March 2024

Table of Contents

GS3 – Environment ...................................................................................................................................1

{GS3 – Envi – Air Pollution} Black Carbon ......................................................................................... 1

{GS3 – Envi – Air Pollution} World Air Quality Report ..................................................................... 2
{GS3 – Envi – CC Impact} Missing Spring in India ............................................................................. 2
{GS3 – Envi – CC Impacts} Declining Ice Levels in Great Lakes ........................................................ 3
{GS3 – Envi – CC} Carbon imperialism................................................................................................ 4
{GS3 – Envi – CC} Equity in Climate Action ........................................................................................ 5
{GS3 – Envi – CC} WMO's State of the Climate report ....................................................................... 5
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Captive Elephant Rules, 2024 .............................................................. 7
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Global Methane Tracker 2024 | Mitigating Methane Emissions ...... 7
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Graywater reuse: KC Valley project .................................................... 9
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Green Credits ....................................................................................... 10
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} International Big Cat Alliance........................................................... 11
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Kalkothy–Walayar Corridor .............................................................. 11
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary .............................................................. 12
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Push for Nuclear Energy as a clean power source ........................... 13
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Rajasthan’s Sacred Groves ................................................................. 16
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} SC restriction on Tiger Safaris ........................................................... 17
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Status of Leopards in India Report 2022 .......................................... 17
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Threats faced by Great Indian Bustard ............................................ 18
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Vantara ................................................................................................ 18
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Bengaluru Water Crisis ....................................................................... 19
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Increasing Natural disaster in the Himalayas .................................. 23
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Kerala declares Man-animal conflict as disaster ............................. 24
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Methane leak in Mangistau region, Kazakhstan .............................. 25
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Nuclear Waste Management .............................................................. 25
{GS3 – Envi – Degrdation} Sinking of Rubymar in Red Sea ............................................................ 26
{GS3 – Envi – Hazardous Waste} Solar Waste ................................................................................. 26
{GS3 – Envi – Issues} Netravati Riverfront Promenade Project ...................................................... 27
{GS3 – Envi – Pollution} Arsenic Contamination in Rice ................................................................. 27
{GS3 – Envi – Pollution} Fashion Industry & the Environmental Challenges ................................ 28
{GS3 – Envi – Pollution} Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2024 ........................ 28
{GS3 – Envi – Species} Long-billed Vultures ..................................................................................... 30

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 {GS3 – Envi – Species} New Species in Kaziranga National Park .................................................. 30
{GS3 – Envi – Water} World Water Day | UN WWD Report ........................................................... 31

Prelims Specific Topics ......................................................................................................................... 32

{Prelims – Envi – Species} Cycas circinalis (Eenthu Pana) .............................................................. 32

{Prelims – Envi – Species} Gangetic River Dolphin .......................................................................... 32
{Prelims – Envi – Species} Lianas....................................................................................................... 34
{Prelims – Envi – Species} Melanochlamys droupadi ...................................................................... 34
{Prelims – Envi – Species} New species of deep-sea isopod discovered......................................... 34
{Prelims – Envi – Species} New Species Of Parasitoid Wasp Discovered ...................................... 34
{Prelims – Envi – Species} Vechur Cow ............................................................................................. 35

Colour Codes

Important for Prelims

Colour 1 | Colour 2 | Colour 3 (Negative Connotation)

Very Important for Prelims

Colour 1 (Positive Connotation) | Colour 2 (Neutral Connotation) | Colour 3 (Neutral
Connotation) | Colour4 (Negative Connotation) | Colour 5 (Important for Upcoming
Prelims)

Important for Prelims/Mains

Colour 1

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 GS3 – Environment
{GS3 – Envi – Air Pollution} Black Carbon
❖ Context (TH): A look at Black Carbon and the role
played by Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)
in curbing black carbon emissions.
• Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a solid
particle or aerosol (though not a gas) that
contributes to the warming of the atmosphere.
❖ Soot is a form of particulate air pollutant,
produced from incomplete combustion.
• According to a 2016 study, the residential sector
contributes 47% of India’s total black carbon
emissions.
• Industries contribute 22%, diesel vehicles 17%,
open-burning 12%, and other sources 2%.
Impact of Black Carbon on the Environment
• Black carbon warms the earth by absorbing heat
in the atmosphere and by reducing albedo (the
ability to reflect sunlight) when deposited on snow
and ice.
• BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats
the air directly.
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• It emits infrared radiation that increases the
temperature.
• In addition, it darkens snowpack and glaciers
through deposition and leads to the melting of ice
and snow (black carbon is contributing to the
melting of Himalayan Glaciers).
• Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon
rainfall.
• Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only
several days to weeks.
• Studies have found a direct link between exposure
to black carbon and a higher risk of heart disease,
birth complications, and premature death.
• Most black carbon emissions in India arise from
burning biomass, such as cow dung or straw, in
traditional cookstoves.
• Recent estimates have indicated that mitigating
residential emissions will avoid more than 6.1
lakh deaths per year from indoor exposure to air
pollution.
Role of PMUY in curbing black carbon
emissions
• The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) is a
government scheme launched in 2016.
• The primary objective was to make clean cooking
fuel available to rural and poor households and
reduce their dependence on traditional cooking
fuels.
• The PMUY has established infrastructure for LPG
connections, including free gas stoves, deposits for
LPG cylinders, and a distribution network.
• The programme has thus played a vital role in
reducing black carbon emissions, as it offers a
cleaner alternative to traditional fuel
consumption.
• The programme has provided connections to over
10 crore households as of January 2024.
Challenges faced
• However, in 2022-2023, according to RTI data, 25%
of all PMUY beneficiaries, i.e. 2.69 crore people,
availed either zero LPG refill or only one LPG refill,
meaning they still relied entirely on traditional
biomass for cooking.
• Further, The Hindu found that the average PMUY
beneficiary household consumes only 3.5-4 LPG
cylinders per year instead of the six or seven a
regular non-PMUY household uses. This means up
to half of a PMUY beneficiary household's energy
needs are still met by traditional fuels.
• Further, with the rapid increase in LPG prices over
the last five years, the cost of a 14.2-kg LPG
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 cylinder, even with an additional subsidy, is still
about ₹600 per cylinder.
• Another big hurdle to the PMUY’s success is the
lack of last-mile connectivity in the LPG
distribution network, resulting in remote rural
areas depending mostly on biomass.
❖ One potential solution to this issue is the local
production of coal-bed methane (CBM) gas
by composting biomass.
❖ Panchayats can take the initiative to produce
CBM gas locally at the village level, ensuring
every rural household can access clean
cooking fuel.
Key Findings
• Only 10 countries or territories last year had air
quality that met the World Health Organization’s
standard for clean air.
• French Polynesia, Mauritius, and Iceland had the
least air pollution.
• All but one of the 100 cities with the most polluted
air in the world are located in Asia. Each of these
cities had PM2.5 levels that exceeded the WHO’s
standard by 10 times or more.
• India was the third most polluted country in 2023
after Pakistan and Bangladesh.
• IQAir cited several reasons for Asia’s air pollution
problem:
❖ Large amount of greenhouse gas emissions
from coal-fired power plants and peatbog
burning;
❖ El Niño weather phenomenon’s delay of the
onset of the rainy season, etc.
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{GS3 – Envi – Air Pollution} World Air Quality
Report
❖ Context (HT): India was the 3rd most polluted
country in 2023 according to the World Air Quality
Report.
• Released by: IQAir, a Swiss air quality technology
company that collects air-sensor data around the
world.
• The report is based on data from over 30,000 air
quality monitoring stations across 7,812 locations
in 134 countries, territories, and regions.
• Europe is the most improved region. Of the 43
nations monitored in Europe, the annual average
PM2.5 levels fell in 36 of them.
• 42 of world’s most polluted 50 cities are in India.
New Delhi was most polluted capital city globally.
To learn more, visit >Air Quality Report, NAAQS.
{GS3 – Envi – CC Impact} Missing Spring in
India
❖ Context (TH): Indian states have been experiencing
a gradual withdrawal from spring.
• Spring, characterized by weather between the
winter of January and the scorching summers of
April, is showing signs of disappearing.
• The analysis of meteorological records spanning 50
years reveals that every region in India has
witnessed a net warming during winter.
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• This warming trend during the winter months is
impacting traditional seasons and potentially
leading to the disappearance of spring.
• Human-caused climate change is a significant
factor behind the dramatic warmer temperatures
observed in February.
• Global mean temperatures have risen by more
than 1.3 degrees Celsius since 1850, setting a new
record in 2023.
• This warming trend affects the timing and
characteristics of seasons, including spring.
What are the effects of missing spring?
• Ecological Disruptions: The missing spring disrupts
the natural cycles of plants, animals, and insects.
❖ Flowering Plants: Many flowering plants rely
on spring for pollination and seed production.
The absence of spring affects their
reproductive success.
❖ Bird Migration: Spring is when migratory birds
return to their breeding grounds. The missing
spring can impact their arrival timing and
availability of food.
❖ Insects and Pollinators: Insects, including
bees and butterflies, depend on spring for
their life cycles. Delayed or absent spring
affects their survival.
• Agricultural Challenges:
❖ Crop Timing: Spring is crucial for planting
crops. Delayed spring affects sowing
schedules, leading to yield losses.
❖ Pests and Diseases: Spring warmth helps
control pests and diseases. Without it, farmers
face increased challenges in pest
management.
• Human Health Implications:
❖ Allergies: Spring is associated with pollen
release. Missing spring may alter pollen
patterns, affecting allergy sufferers.
• Cultural and Social Impact:
❖ Festivals and Traditions: Spring festivals
celebrate renewal, growth, and new
beginnings. Their absence affects cultural
practices.
How does this affect global climate change?
• Feedback Loops: The disruption of spring affects
natural feedback loops. For example:
❖ Snow and Ice Albedo: Delayed spring leads to
prolonged snow cover. Reduced albedo
(reflectivity) due to snow and ice amplifies
warming by absorbing more sunlight.
❖ Vegetation Changes: Altered spring timing
affects vegetation growth and carbon
sequestration. Delayed greening can impact
the global carbon cycle.
• Regional Climate Patterns:
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❖ Indian Monsoon: Spring influences the onset
of the Indian monsoon. Changes in spring
dynamics can alter monsoon patterns,
affecting agriculture and water availability.
❖ Temperature Extremes: The absence of spring
contributes to more extreme temperature
shifts, impacting weather events globally.
• Ocean Circulation and Heat Transport:
❖ Thermohaline Circulation: Spring affects
ocean currents. Disrupted spring patterns may
impact the thermohaline circulation, which
plays a crucial role in heat transport
worldwide.
• Shifts in Phenology and Biodiversity:
❖ Mismatched Timing: Spring cues various
biological events (flowering, migration,
breeding). Disruptions can lead to mismatches
(e.g., flowers blooming before pollinators
arrive).
❖ Species Vulnerability: Some species may
struggle to adapt to altered spring conditions,
affecting biodiversity.
• Permafrost Thaw and Methane Release:
❖ Warmer Winters: Prolonged winter warmth
accelerates permafrost thaw. Thawed
permafrost releases stored methane, a potent
greenhouse gas.
{GS3 – Envi – CC Impacts} Declining Ice Levels
in Great Lakes
❖ Context (DTE): For the second consecutive year,
the Great Lakes, Earth's largest freshwater
ecosystem, have experienced historically low ice
levels.
• Above-average temperatures and reduced Arctic
air blasts contribute to diminishing ice cover.
• Great Lakes of North America are a series of large
interconnected freshwater lakes in North America
that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint
Lawrence River.
• The five lakes are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,
and Ontario, and they are generally on or near the
Canada–United States border.
• Hydrologically, Michigan and Huron are a single
body of water joined at the Straits of Mackinac.
• The Great Lakes are the largest group of
freshwater lakes on Earth by total area and are
second-largest by total volume, containing 21% of
the world's surface freshwater by volume.
• Because of their sea-like characteristics, such as
rolling waves, sustained winds, strong currents,
great depths, and distant horizons, the five Great
Lakes have long been called inland seas.
• Lake Michigan is the largest lake in the entire
country.
3 March 2024 CA

{GS3 – Envi – CC} Carbon imperialism
• However, it has been contended that it would lead
to 2 billion tons of Carbon emissions.
• The debate reflects discussions on carbon
imperialism, in which developing economies feel
the West lectures them on carbon emissions.
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❖ Context (News18): Guyana's President and BBC
journalist clashed over climate change and oil
drilling from its recently discovered oil reserves
worth 150 billion dollars.
What is carbon imperialism?
• Carbon imperialism describes the unequal sharing
of the blame for carbon emissions and
environmental harm.
4 March 2024 CA
• Developed countries, having emitted more carbon
historically, pressure developing nations to adopt
environmental policies.
• This occurs despite developed nations having their
own substantial carbon footprints.
❖ The U.S. produces at least 35 per cent more
coal than India, even though India’s
population of 1.2 billion is roughly four times
that of the U.S.
• This influence can hinder the economic growth of
developing nations.
• Example: The pressure from affluent nations to
abandon hydrocarbons and oppose fossil fuel
projects in developing countries illustrates this
pattern.
 Carbon colonialism is the system by which the
Global North outsources carbon emissions by
moving dirty industry and waste to the Global
South.
{GS3 – Envi – CC} Equity in Climate Action
❖ Context (TH): Researchers argue that current
climate action scenarios overlook the historical
responsibility of developed countries and lack
equity prioritisation.
• For e.g, Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs)
used for mitigation pathways often neglect equity
principles.
• They advocate for models and scenarios that
prioritise equity and climate justice.
• A recent study provides evidence supporting the
aforementioned assertions.
About Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Reports
• The reports by the UN IPCC are currently in its
Seventh Assessment cycle (AR7).
• These reports assess climate-related scientific
literature to provide insights into the state of
knowledge on climate change.
• The UN IPCC utilises Integrated Assessment
Models (IAMs) to develop "modelled pathways"
to estimate global warming. For example, its
energy models can project future consumption.
• IAMs are sophisticated models that analyse
human and earth systems to forecast potential
futures for energy, climate, and economies.
• These models integrate various disciplines,
including macroeconomics, energy consumption,
land use changes, and climate dynamics, to offer
policy-relevant insights on climate action.
• However, IAMs have limitations.
❖ Firstly, it prioritises least-cost assessments.
For e.g, the absolute cost of setting up a solar
plant or undertaking afforestation in India is
lower than in the U.S.
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❖ Secondly, it neglects equitable burden-
sharing among nations (Equity).
• Despite these shortcomings, IAMs play a crucial
role in informing climate policy decisions.
Findings of the new study
• Researchers from the National Institute of
Advanced Studies, Bengaluru, and M.S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai,
conducted the study. They assessed 556 out of 700
scenarios in IPCC’s AR6 report.
• They found that Global scenarios projected in
IPCC's AR6 report indicate more carbon
sequestration and CCS deployment in developing
nations.
• This implies that developing countries may bear
the responsibility for both mitigation and carbon
dioxide removal.
• The scenarios overlook the historical
responsibility of Global North for climate issues.
Way forward
✓ The UNFCCC emphasises equity and differentiated
responsibilities, urging developed nations to take
the lead in fighting climate change.
✓ Equity suggests that developed areas should aim
for net negative emissions and share the
remaining carbon budget with less developed
regions.
✓ Developed regions should take more
responsibility for reducing emissions and
supporting less developed areas in their climate
efforts.
✓ This approach aims to ensure fairness and equal
participation in addressing climate change across
regions.
{GS3 – Envi – CC} WMO's State of the Climate
report
❖ Context (IE | DTE | DTE): On March 19, the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) released its
annual State of the Climate report, which
highlights significant climate trends and events.
• 2023 was reported as the hottest year on record,
with multiple records broken across various
climate indicators.
• These indicators include greenhouse gas levels
(GHGs), surface temperatures, ocean heat, sea
level rise, Antarctic Sea ice cover, and glacier
retreat.
Greenhouse Gases
• GHG concentrations reached record-high levels in
2022, based on data from 1984 to 2022.
❖ Greenhouse gases such as Carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide trap solar
radiation, contributing to global warming.
5 March 2024 CA
• Among these gases, the rate of increase of
methane was the second highest on record and
the highest on record for nitrous oxide.
Surface Temperature
• In 2023, the global average temperature was 1.45
degrees Celsius higher than pre-industrial levels,
marking a record high.
• Higher GHG levels, along with El Nio occurrences,
contributed to the rise in temperature.
 El Nino and La Nina are the warm and cool
phases of a recurring climate pattern across the
tropical Pacific—the El Nino-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO). The year 2023 marked the
end of the three-year-long run of La Nina and
the beginning of El Nino.
Ocean Heat Content
• Oceans have absorbed about 90% of the additional
heat trapped by GHGs since 1971.
• This led to a steady increase in ocean temperatures
and heat content.
• In 2023, ocean heat content reached its highest
level in the 65-year observational record.
Marine Heat Waves
• Warmer temperatures caused a significant
increase in global ocean heatwaves, with coverage
reaching 32%.
• Marine heatwaves occur when surface
temperatures of a particular region of a sea rise 3
or 4 degrees Celsius above average for at least five
consecutive days.
Antarctic Sea-Ice Extent
Ocean acidification
• It refers to a reduction in the ocean's pH over an extended period of time, caused primarily by the uptake of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
• When CO2 is absorbed by seawater, a series of chemical reactions occur.
❖ 1. This results in an increased concentration of hydrogen ions. This increase causes the seawater to become
more acidic.
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• Antarctic sea-ice extent hit a record low of 1.79
million km2 in February 2023, the lowest since
satellite records began. The extent remained at a
record low from June to early November.
• In September, the annual maximum sea-ice extent
was 16.96 million km2, which is 1.5 million km2,
well below the average from 1991 to 2020.
Glacier
• During the hydrological year 2022-2023, the
world's reference glaciers experienced
unprecedented ice loss. Glaciers in North America
and Europe were severely affected.
• The annual mass balance of reference glaciers
reached a new low of -1.2 m w.e. in 2022-2023.
Sea-level rise
• It also reached a record high in 2023 since 1993.
This is due to continued ocean warming as well as
the melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
• The rate of increase went up from 2.13 millimetres
per year (mm/yr) from 1993 to 2002 to 4.77 mm/yr
from 2014 to 2023.
Ocean Acidification
• The ocean absorbs approximately 25% of the
yearly emissions of human-produced CO2.
• leading to ocean acidification, which harms marine
life and ecosystems.
• The UN IPCC reported that ocean acidity is at its
lowest in 26,000 years, but regional variations
exist.
• The WMO emphasises that long-term, detailed
observations are crucial for understanding and
addressing ocean acidification's impact.
6 March 2024 CA
 ❖ 2. This causes carbonate ions to be relatively less abundant. Carbonate ions are an important building
block of structures such as seashells and coral skeletons. Decreases in carbonate ions can make building
and maintaining shells difficult for calcifying organisms such as oysters, clams, sea urchins, shallow water &
deep-sea corals.
pH scale
• It runs from 0 to 14, with 7 being a neutral pH.
• Anything higher than 7 is basic (or alkaline).
• Anything lower than 7 is acidic.
• The pH scale is inversely proportional to hydrogen ion concentration, so more hydrogen ions translate to a
lower pH i.e. higher acidity.
• The ocean’s average pH is now around 8.1, which is basic (or alkaline)
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Captive Elephant
Rules, 2024
❖ Context (TH | TH): The Centre has notified Captive
Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules, 2024,
which liberalises the conditions under which
elephants may be transferred within or between
States.
What are the rules around the transfer and
transport of elephants?
• According to the provisions of the Wildlife
Protection Act, elephants are a Schedule 1 species
and, therefore, cannot be captured or traded,
whether wild or captive.
• Section 12 of the Act allows Schedule I animals to
be translocated for ‘special purposes’ such as
education and scientific research.
• They can also be translocated to manage wildlife
populations without harming wild animals and to
collect specimens for recognised zoos/museums.
• Captive elephants, because of their historical role
in forest management, timber transport, presence
in estates of erstwhile royal families, and in temple
precincts for religious purposes, can be owned
and, therefore, come under a special category.
However, strict rules guide the transfer of such
elephants.
• Section 40 (2) of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972,
prohibits the acquisition, possession, and transfer
of a captive elephant without the written
permission of the state's Chief Wildlife Warden.
• Until 2021, however, these laws explicitly
prohibited such transactions from being of a
‘commercial nature’.
• In 2021, the Environment Ministry introduced an
amendment that allowed the transfer of elephants
for ‘religious or any other purposes’.
What do the updated rules say?
• These rules provide new relaxations under which
captive elephants can change owners or be
transferred.
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• These include, for instance, circumstances under
which captive elephants can be transferred:
1. When an owner is no longer in a position to
maintain the elephant,
2. The elephant will likely have better upkeep
than in the present circumstances,
3. When a state’s Chief Wildlife Warden “deems
it fit and proper” in the circumstances of the
case for better upkeep of the elephant.
• Before a transfer within the State, a veterinarian
must ratify an elephant’s health, and the Deputy
Conservator of Forests has to establish that the
animal’s current and prospective habitats are
suitable.
• The Chief Wildlife Warden may reject or approve
the transfer upon receipt of such documents.
• If the transfer involves moving the elephant
outside of a State, similar conditions apply.
• Before a transfer is affected, the elephant's
“genetic profile” must be registered with the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change.
• Earlier rules required that an elephant being
transferred from, say, Assam to Gujarat get
permission from the Chief Wildlife Wardens of
every State it passes through while being ferried
by road.
• Now, only the originating and recipient States’
permissions are required.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Global Methane
Tracker 2024 | Mitigating Methane Emissions
❖ Context (DTE): As per Global Methane Tracker
2024, Methane emissions from fossil fuels remain
high despite progress with USA being on the top
list of emitters.
• The Global Methane Tracker is released by the
International Energy Agency (IEA) annually.
• It is based on the most recently available data on
methane emissions from the energy sector and
incorporates new scientific studies, measurement
campaigns, & information collected from satellites.
7 March 2024 CA
Key Findings
• USA is the largest emitter of methane from oil and
gas operations, closely followed by Russia.
• The energy sector — including oil, natural gas, coal
and bioenergy — accounts for more than one third
of total methane emissions attributable to human
activity.
• Bioenergy — largely from biomass use —
contributed a further 10 Mt emissions.
• Of the nearly 120 Mt of emissions, we estimate
were tied to fossil fuels in 2023, around 80 Mt
came from countries that are among the top 10
emitters of methane globally.
• More than 5 million tons of methane emissions
were traced back to major fossil fuel leaks around
the world.
o A major oil well blowout in Kazakhstan, which
began in June 2023 and continued for more
than 200 days.
• The world needs to slash methane emissions from
fossil fuels by 75% by 2030 to achieve the Paris
Agreement goal of limiting warming to 1.5°C.
Steps taken to mitigate Methane Emissions
Oil and Gas Decarbonisation Charter (OGDC)
• It is a global industry Charter dedicated to
speeding up climate action and achieving high-
scale impact across the oil and gas sectors.
• To date, 50 companies, representing more than 40
percent of global oil production have signed on to
the OGDC, with National Oil Companies
representing over 60 percent of signatories - the
largest-ever number of NOCs to commit to a
decarbonization initiative.
• The OGDC is a key initiative under the Global
Decarbonization Accelerator (GDA).
Global Decarbonization Accelerator (GDA)
• It was launched at the World Climate Action
Summit.
• It is focused on three key pillars:
1. Rapidly scaling the energy system of
tomorrow;
2. Decarbonizing the energy system of today;
and
3. Targeting methane and other non-CO2
greenhouse gases.
• It is a comprehensive plan for system-wide
change, addressing the demand and the supply of
energy at the same time.
• Concern: It only focuses on upstream emissions
from oil and gas production, leaving out the need
for phasing out fossil fuels, where emissions are at
least five times greater.
o It omits key countries and shows strong
overlaps with Nationally Determined
Contributions.
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Oil and Gas Climate Initiative
• It is a CEO-led organization bringing together 12 of
the largest oil and gas companies worldwide to
lead the industry’s response to climate change.
• It aims to accelerate action towards a net zero
emissions future consistent with the Paris
Agreement.
• Together, OGCI member companies represent
about 30% of global oil and gas production.
• Achievement: Since 2017, OGCI’s member
companies have collectively reduced their
upstream methane emissions by 50% and
upstream carbon intensity by 21%.
• Concern: Several companies focus solely on
methane intensity targets, that do not consider
absolute emission levels, which can increase even
with declining methane intensity if production
volumes rise.
Oil and Gas Methane Partnership 2.0 (OGMP 2.0)
• It is the flagship oil and gas reporting and
mitigation programme of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
• It is the only comprehensive, measurement-based
reporting framework for the oil and gas industry
that improves the accuracy and transparency of
methane emissions reporting.
• Over 130 companies with assets in more than 70
countries, representing nearly 40% of the world’s
oil and gas production, over 80% of LNG flows,
nearly 25% of global natural gas transmission and
distribution pipelines and over 10% of global gas
storage capacity, have joined OGMP 2.0.
• OGMP 2.0’s data is one of the key components of
UNEP’s International Methane Emissions
Observatory’s solution to the methane data
problem.
International Methane Emissions Observatory
(IMEO)
• It was launched at the G20 Summit, on the eve of
the COP26 UN climate conference in Glasgow.
• It will initially focus on methane emissions from
the fossil fuel sector, and then expand to other
major emitting sectors like agriculture and waste.
• IMEO is a core implementing partner of the Global
Methane Pledge.
Global Methane Pledge
• It was launched at COP26 by the European Union
and the United States.
• Participants joining the Pledge agree to take
voluntary actions to contribute to a collective
effort to reduce global methane emissions at least
30 percent from 2020 levels by 2030.
• The Climate and Clean Air Coalition provides
secretariat services to the GMP.
8 March 2024 CA
• Significance: Meeting the GMP would reduce
methane emissions to a level consistent with 1.5°C
pathways, reduce warming by at least 0.2 °C by
2050 and prevent annually 26 million tons of crop
losses, 255,000 premature deaths, 775 thousand
asthma-related hospitalizations and 73 billion
hours of lost labour due to extreme heat.
Global Methane Initiative
• It is a voluntary, international public-private
initiative that aims to reduce global methane
emissions and to advance the abatement,
recovery, and use of methane as a valuable clean
energy source.
• It focusses on four sectors: agriculture, coal
mines, municipal solid waste, oil and gas systems,
and wastewater.
Methane Alert and Response System (MARS)
• It was launched at COP27 by UNEP’s International
Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO).
• It is the first-ever global system that uses satellite
data to monitor major emission events and notify
governments and companies who can address
them.
• It works in partnership with the Climate and Clean
Air Coalition & International Energy Agency.
• It brings together four critical components to drive
transparency and enable emission reductions:
1. Detection of large sources of human-caused
methane emissions.
2. Notification of relevant countries and
companies about these detected emissions.
3. Response from notified stakeholders to
address the emissions.
4. Tracking progress of actions taken to reduce
emissions and collaboration to prevent future
methane.
Lowering Organic Waste Methane Initiative
(LOW-Methane)
• It is a coalition of international partners launched
at COP 28.
• Objective: To deliver at least 1 million metric tons
of annual waste sector methane reductions well
before 2030 and to unlock over $10 billion in
public and private investment.
• It will support action across the waste value chain,
from reducing food loss and waste to diverting and
treating organics in the waste stream to cutting
emissions from disposal sites, in line with waste
management hierarchies.
MethaneSAT
• It is a satellite project led by the Environmental
Defense Fund (EDF), a US nonprofit organisation.
• EDF collaborated with Harvard University, the
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and the
New Zealand Space Agency for its development.
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• The satellite will orbit the Earth 15 times daily,
focusing on monitoring the oil and gas sector.
• Objective: To collect data revealing methane
emissions’ sources, intensity, and changes over
time.
Methane
• While methane has a much shorter lifetime than
carbon dioxide (CO2), it is much more efficient at
trapping radiation.
• Per unit of mass, methane has a warming effect
about 80 times more potent than CO2 over 20
years.
• Methane has been responsible for 30% of total
warming since the Industrial Revolution and is the
second largest contributor to global warming after
carbon dioxide (CO2).
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Graywater reuse:
KC Valley project
❖ Context (TH | DH): The Centre plans to replicate
Karnataka's KC Valley project nationwide to
accelerate wastewater reuse.
• The KC Valley project supplies treated water from
Bengaluru to fill lakes in dry districts like Bengaluru
Rural, Kolar, and Chikkballapura.
• The project's success in recharging groundwater
prompted the Ministry to consider its
implementation in other states for lake
rejuvenation with recycled treated water.
• The Ministry agreed to provide partial funding to
the KC Valley project under the Atal Bhujal Yojana
to address groundwater depletion nationwide.
• It suggests upgrading the project for better tertiary
treatment and bio-remedial treatment of water.
 India generates 72,368 MLD of wastewater
daily, according to the Central Pollution Control
Board.
 The Sujalam 2.0 greywater recycling project
was recently launched to reuse kitchen,
bathing, and laundry runoff.
Concerns
➢ Some farmers in Kolar oppose using this treated
water, citing concerns about groundwater quality
and crop health.
➢ Farmers blame treated sewage water for reduced
yields and pest infestations. They claim increased
resistance to pests and fungi since the project's
inception.
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ATAL JAL)
• It is a Central Sector Scheme for facilitating
sustainable groundwater management.
• Budget Rs. 6000 crore. Of this, Rs. 3,000 is a loan
from the World Bank, and Rs. 3,000 crore is a
matching contribution from (GoI).
9 March 2024 CA
• The World Bank financing is done under a new • The program, introduced in October 2023, aims to
lending instrument, the Program for Results incentivise environmental action through market
(PforR), wherein Funds under the scheme are mechanisms.
disbursed from the World Bank to the GoI for • Companies or individuals can buy green credits by
disbursement to participating States based on the taking actions like tree plantation.
achievement of pre-agreed results. • The group alleges that the government aims to
• Funds under the scheme shall be provided to the facilitate entrepreneurs' and industrialists'
States as grants-in-aid. acquisition of forest land by allowing them to buy
• The scheme is being implemented in 8220 water- green credits instead of providing land.
stressed Gram Panchayats in Haryana, Gujarat, • They believe that the government's intention
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, behind these rules is to divert forest lands quickly
Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. and easily to user agencies.
• The scheme emphasises community participation About Green credits
and demand-side interventions for sustainable
groundwater management in identified water- • They are similar to carbon credits used
stressed areas in seven States of the Country. internationally to offset emissions.
• They allow individuals or companies to plant trees
Greywater vs. Blackwater
or carry out afforestation on degraded land.
• Companies can then use these credits to offset
deforestation or non-forest use of land.
• Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
is the authority to provide green credits.
• Activities eligible for green credits include tree
plantation, water management, sustainable
agriculture, and air pollution reduction.
• The methodology incentivises tree plantation, with
one green credit awarded for every tree planted.
• State governments (state forest departments)
must identify degraded land parcels, including
open forest and wasteland, for tree plantation.
• These parcels must be free from encumbrances
Attributes Greywater Blackwater and have a size of five hectares or more.
Washing Major concerns
Toilet, kitchen
machine, ➢ Experts argue that the program makes it easier for
Source sink,
shower, corporations to get environmental clearances
dishwasher
bathroom sink rather than fulfilling environmental obligations.
Contact with ❖ According to the Compensatory Afforestation
No contact with
Contact urine and fecal Fund Management and Planning Authority
fecal matter
matter (CAMPA) Act 2016, any forest land diversion
Household must be compensated by afforestation on an
Origin Sewage
activities equal amount of land.
High risk of ❖ However, the new policy allows companies to
Minimal risk of
contamination, offset deforestation by purchasing green
contamination,
Contamination contains credits instead of providing land for
easier to filter
harmful afforestation.
and clean
bacteria ➢ Another major concern is how "degraded land" is
Can be filtered Extremely defined, as it's not mentioned in official forest
and cleaned for difficult to filter reports. This could lead to confusion about which
Reusability
reuse in the and clean for areas are suitable for tree plantation.
garden reuse ➢ The proposal could also affect tribal and pastoral
communities that rely on these lands for survival.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Green Credits Allowing the forest department to allocate
degraded forests may impact land use diversity
❖ Context (TP): The Constitutional Conduct Group,
and community resources.
a group of 91 former civil servants, wrote an open
➢ The policy is criticised for being unscientific and
letter to the environment ministry, strongly
opposing its Green Credit program. not considering different ecologies' biodiversity

PMF IAS – Learn Smart 10 March 2024 CA

 needs. Uniform afforestation may harm many
species in Indian forests.
Way forward
✓ Instead of depending on the private sector, the
letter suggests using government funds to restore
lands.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} International Big
Cat Alliance
❖ Context (IE | DTE | PIB): Union Cabinet approved
the creation of International Big Cat Alliance
(IBCA) to set up a global network for the
conservation of tigers and other big cats.
• The Union Cabinet has also allocated a one-time
budgetary support of Rs 150 crore for IBCA for a
five-year period — 2023-24 to 2027-28.
• International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) is a multi-
country, multi-agency coalition of 96 big cat range
countries, non-range countries interested in big
cat conservation, conservation partners and
scientific organizations working in the field of big
cat conservation besides business groups and
corporates, to establish networks and develop
synergies in a focused manner.
• Its idea was 1st floated by India’s Prime Minister in
2019. It was launched in April 2023 to celebrate
the 50th anniversary of Project Tiger.
• It aims at conservation of seven big cats namely
Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah,
Jaguar, and Puma.
• Objectives of IBCA:
o To stop the illegal wildlife trade of the seven
big cats.
o To work towards the conservation of natural
habitats of the seven big cats.
o Mobilisation of financial and technical
resources for implementing the conservation
and protection agenda.
Governing structure
• It will consist of an Assembly of Members,
Standing Committee and a Secretariat, with its
headquarters in India.
• Its Framework of Agreement (statute) has been
drafted largely on the pattern of the International
Solar Alliance.
• The statute of IBCA will be finalised by an
International Steering Committee.
• A Steering Committee will be constituted with
nominated national focal points of founding
member countries.
• Appointment of DG by MoEFCC as Interim Head of
IBCA Secretariat till IBCA appoints its own DG
during Assembly meeting.
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• IBCA Assembly at Ministerial level to be chaired by
President, HMEFCC, Gol.
Big Cats
• ‘Big Cat’ is a term that is used to apply to any large
species of the family Felidae. Usually, it applies to
the members of the genus Panthera. These
include:
1. Tiger (Panthera tigris)
2. Lion (Panthera leo)
3. Jaguar (Panthera onca)
4. Leopard (Panthera pardus)
5. Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)
• Two other cats, i.e. Puma (Puma concolor) and
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), are not part of
Panthera. But they are usually included in most
listings of ‘big cats’.
• All these cats can usually make vocalisations
known as ‘roars’.
• The Indian subcontinent has been historically
home to the Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, Indian
leopard, Indian/Asiatic cheetah as well as Snow
leopard.
• The cheetah was declared extinct in 1952. In 2022,
the Government of India embarked on an
ambitious programme to introduce African
cheetahs to the Kuno National Park in MP.
To learn in details about Big Cats, refer to PMF IAS
Current Affairs August 06, 2023.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Kalkothy–
Walayar Corridor
❖ Context (TH): Disturbances in the proposed
Kalkothy–Walayar corridor force elephants to
enter villages.
• Conservationists are concerned about
disturbances and infrastructural developments
along the proposed Kalkothy – Walayar elephant
corridor.
• This has led to increasing incidents of wild
elephants entering villages in the Madukkarai
region of Coimbatore.
• Coimbatore Forest Division acts as a major
connecting link between Nilambur- Silent Valley
areas in Kerala with Sathyamangalam, the Nilgiris
and the Eastern Ghats.
Kalkothy–Walayar Corridor
• It is a critical route for elephants to move between
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• It is one of the 42 corridors identified by the State
government appointed Elephant Corridor
Committee.
• Major reasons for the bottleneck in the corridor:
Land use change, construction site of Tamil Nadu
Slum Clearance Board and constructions of several
private educational institutions.
11 March 2024 CA

{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Pobitora Wildlife
Sanctuary
❖ Context (TH): SC stops Assam’s move to withdraw
notification of Pobitora wildlife sanctuary.
What is the Issue?
• The Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary was notified by the
Assam forest department in March 1998.
• On March 10, the Assam Cabinet withdrew the
notification issued by the State Forest Department.
Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary
• It is located on the southern banks of the
Brahmaputra River of Assam and it is located at
around 40 km from the heart of Guwahati city.
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• The Cabinet claimed the notification was issued
without consulting Revenue Department or CM.
• The government also argued that the sanctuary
declaration was made without addressing the
rights of villagers who lived in the area before
Independence.
• SC stated that withdrawals like this need
permission from the National Board of Wildlife.
• It has to be noted that the SC also previously issued
an order preventing the reversal of the status of
national parks, sanctuaries, and forests.
• A UNESCO World Heritage Site, it is home to the
highest population density of the Indian One
Horned Rhinoceros species.
12 March 2024 CA
• Other fauna: Asiatic Wild Water Buffaloes,
leopards, jungle fowls, Civet cats, Wild boars, Wild
Bears.
• It is often called ‘Mini Kaziranga’ because of the
similar landscape.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Push for Nuclear
Energy as a clean power source
❖ Context (IE): Brussels hosted a first-of-its-kind
Nuclear Energy Summit that was billed as the
most high-profile international meeting on nuclear
energy ever.
• The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
called it a “landmark” and a “turning point” in the
efforts to expand the use of nuclear energy to
generate clean electricity.
• It was an attempt to build momentum for greater
acceptance of nuclear energy which many
countries continue to have apprehensions about.
Benefits of Nuclear Energy
✓ Clean source of energy with a minimal carbon
footprint. Greenhouse gas emissions are only in
the range of 5 to 6 grams per kilowatt hour. This is
100 times lower than coal-fired electricity and
about half the average of solar and wind
generation.
✓ Perennial availability: Unlike renewable energy
sources such as wind or solar, nuclear power is not
dependent on weather conditions and can
provide a stable electricity supply regardless of
external factors.
✓ Nuclear power generation results in avoiding
emissions of more than 1 billion tonnes of CO2
equivalent every year. In the last five decades, this
has resulted in a cumulative avoidance of about 70
billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
✓ Environmental benefits: Unlike fossil fuels,
nuclear power emits no fine particles, nitrogen
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o Such apprehensions were aggravated by the
Fukushima accident in 2011.
o The continuing crisis at the Zaporizhzhya
nuclear power plant in Ukraine, the first
nuclear facility to have been caught in a
dangerous armed conflict, has also been a
source of grave concern.
Nuclear Energy
• It is the second largest source of low-carbon
electricity production globally (after hydropower)
and provided about 30% of all low-carbon
electricity generated in 2019.
• Nuclear power accounted for 9.8% of total
electricity production in 2021, a decrease of 0.4
percentage points from the previous year.
• The share of nuclear grew rapidly from 1980 to
1990, almost doubling, but has declined since
2000.
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrates or phosphates into
the atmosphere.
Challenges associated with adoption of nuclear
energy
Nuclear Waste
• Radioactive waste management is challenging due
to extended half-lives and high-level waste
generated by nuclear power plants.
• Further, there are no long-term storage solutions
for radioactive waste, and most are stored in
temporary, above-ground facilities.
• These facilities are running out of storage space,
so the nuclear industry is turning to other types of
storage that are more costly and potentially less
safe.
Costlier source
• Nuclear reactors require high investments and a
technology base, take years to build, and operate
13 March 2024 CA
 under a variety of regulations and constraints,
making them unattractive for countries wanting to
ramp up their electricity generation quickly and
affordably.
• Initial capital costs, fuel, and maintenance costs
are much higher for nuclear plants than wind and
solar, and nuclear projects tend to suffer cost
overruns and construction delays.
Longer life of nuclear reactors
• The average life of operational nuclear reactors is
more than 31 years, which highlights the fact that
few new reactors have come on board in the last
decade.
• IAEA data shows that the number of operational
nuclear reactors has actually decreased in the last
twenty years, from 437 in 2003 to 411 now.
Declining energy generation
• Nuclear energy accounts for less than 10 per cent
of global commercial electricity generation, and
its share has been declining for almost three
decades now.
• The total installed electricity generation capacity
has shown only a marginal increase from about
360 GW in 2003 to 371 GW now.
Accidents
• The 1986 Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine led to the
deaths of 30 employees in the initial explosion.
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• A massive tsunami bypassed the safety
mechanisms of several power plants in 2011,
causing three nuclear meltdowns at a power plant
in Fukushima, Japan, resulting in the release of
radioactive materials into the surrounding area.
Cancer risk
• Studies show an increased risk of cancer for those
who reside near a nuclear power plant, especially
for childhood cancers such as leukaemia.
• Workers in the nuclear industry are also exposed
to higher-than-normal levels of radiation and, as
a result, are at a higher risk of death from cancer.
Steps taken at the global level to expand
nuclear energy
• The IAEA has launched an ‘Atoms4Climate’
initiative and has begun an engagement with the
climate community, especially at the COPs or the
annual year-ending climate conferences.
• At COP27 in Sharm el-Sheikh, IAEA set up a
pavilion for the first time.
• At COP28 in Dubai, about 20 countries pledged to
work towards tripling global nuclear energy
installed capacity by 2050.
India’s position on nuclear energy
• India currently has 23 operational nuclear
reactors.
• The currently operational reactors have a
combined installed electricity generating capacity
of 7,480 MW (about 7.5 GW).
• At least ten more reactors are under construction,
and the capacity is supposed to triple to 22,480
MW by 2031-32.
• The share of nuclear energy in total electricity
generation capacity is just about 3.1 per cent,
among the lowest in countries that do use nuclear
energy.
• In April 2023, the government announced plans to
increase nuclear capacity from 6780 MWe to
22,480 MWe by 2031, with nuclear accounting for
nearly 9% of India's electricity by 2047.
Challenges limiting the growth of Nuclear Power
in India
➢ Limited domestic uranium resources: India’s
uranium resources are mostly low-grade and
uneconomic to mine. Thus, they are insufficient to
meet the demand for nuclear power plants.
➢ Nuclear liability: India’s Civil Liability for Nuclear
Damage Act (CLNDA) allows the operator of a
nuclear plant to seek compensation from the
supplier in case of an accident caused by defective
equipment or services.
❖ This provision has deterred many foreign
suppliers from entering the Indian nuclear
market, as they fear legal and financial risks.
14 March 2024 CA
➢ Public Opposition due to safety concerns. This
opposition has made it challenging for the
Important Terminologies Related to Nuclear
Energy
• Yellowcake: It is the refined form of uranium
ore, a type of rock mined from the Earth's crust.
If processed, yellowcake becomes enriched
uranium and can be used in the manufacture of
nuclear fuel.
• Fertile (of an isotope): It is capable of becoming
fissile by capturing neutrons, possibly followed
by radioactive decay, e.g., U-238, Pu-240.
• Fissile (of an isotope): Capable of capturing a
slow (thermal) neutron and undergoing nuclear
fission, e.g. U-235, U-233, Pu-239.
• Becquerel: The SI unit of intrinsic radioactivity
in a material.
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government to build new nuclear power plants
and expand existing ones.
• Heavy water: Heavy water is water that
contains heavy hydrogen, also known as
deuterium in place of regular hydrogen. It can
also be written as 2H2O or D2O.
❖ Deuterium: Heavy hydrogen, a stable
isotope having one proton and one
neutron in the nucleus. Hydrogen atoms
contain one proton and no neutrons.
• Light water: Ordinary water (H2O) as distinct
from heavy water.
• Closed fuel cycle approach: If spent fuel is
reprocessed and partly reused, it is referred to
as a closed nuclear fuel cycle. For example, in
India, the useful Pu239 and U233 isotopes are
separated from U238 and Th232.
15 March 2024 CA
 ❖ Spent fuel: Used fuel assemblies removed
from a reactor after several years of use and
treated as waste. Often, it is another term
for fuel that is used.
• Criticality is the state of a nuclear reactor when
enough neutrons are created by fission to make
up for those lost by leakage or absorption so
that the number of neutrons produced in fission
remains constant. It is the condition of being
able to sustain a nuclear chain reaction.
• Reprocessing: Chemical treatment of used
reactor fuel to separate uranium and plutonium
and possibly transuranic elements from the
small quantity of fission products.
• Vitrification: This process converts liquid
radioactive and chemical waste into solid,
stable glass, eliminating environmental risks.
• Core loading is the process of placing nuclear
fuel assemblies inside the core of a nuclear
reactor.
• Uranium Enrichment:
❖ When uranium is mined, it consists of
approximately 99.3% uranium-238 (U238),
0.7% uranium-235 (U235), and < 0.01%
uranium-234 (U234).
❖ Only the U-235 isotope (0.7%) is
fissionable. The remaining 99.3% is mostly
the U-238 isotope, which does not
contribute directly to the fission process.
❖ However, it is possible to increase or enrich
the percentage of U-235.
❖ Methods used for Enrichment: The
Gaseous Diffusion process, Gas centrifuge
enrichment process and laser separation
technology.
❖ Low-enriched uranium (LEU): Uranium
enriched to less than 20% U-235. (That in
power reactors is usually 3.5 - 5.0% U-235.)
❖ High-enriched uranium (HEU): Uranium
enriched to 20% U-235 or more.
❖ For nuclear weapons Uranium enriched to
at least 90% U-235
• Plutonium
❖ Plutonium has occurred naturally, but
except for trace quantities, it is not now
found in the Earth's crust.
❖ Plutonium is formed in nuclear power
reactors from uranium-238 by neutron
capture and from dismantled nuclear
weapons.
❖ All plutonium isotopes are fissionable with
fast neutrons, though only two are fissile
(with slow neutrons). For this reason, all are
significant in a fast neutron reactor (FNR),
but only one – Pu-239 – has a major role in
a conventional light-water power reactor.
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❖ Plutonium-238 is a vital power source for
deep space missions.
• Zirconium
❖ It is a rare metal with amazing corrosion
resistance, high melting point, high
hardness, and strength.
❖ It is widely used in aerospace, military,
nuclear reaction, and atomic energy fields.
❖ Zirconium alloys have a small thermal
neutron capture cross-section and used in
fission reactors.
• Placer deposit
❖ It is a natural concentration of heavier
minerals created by the action of gravity on
moving particles.
❖ These concentrations are typically found
along streams, rivers, beaches, and
stretches of residual gravel where they are
washed up.
❖ Besides thorium (from monazite ore), gold,
platinum, titanium, uranium, and rare earth
elements are commercially mined from
placer deposits.
❖ Thorium reserves are found in coastal and
inland placer sands on the beaches of
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, and in
the inland riverine sands of Jharkhand and
West Bengal.
Other Facts
• The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) aims to
increase nuclear power's share of the energy
mix by 2032 by producing 22,400 MWe from its
nuclear power plants.
• Dr Vikram Sarabhai recognised the need to
develop Fast Breeder Reactors, as these
reactors generate more nuclear fuel than they
consume.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Rajasthan’s
Sacred Groves
❖ Context (DTE): Villagers in Rajasthan oppose
declaring orans as deemed forests, fearing loss of
access and livelihood.
❖ Communities believe that once the oran is
declared as deemed forest, they will be deprived
of forest produce and access for herds and sheep
in the forest area.
About Orans
• Orans are sacred spaces, which are rich in
biodiversity and usually include a water body.
• These are community forests, preserved and
managed by rural communities through
institutions.
16 March 2024 CA
• Orans also sustain traditional water resources
found in village forests in the form of johad, nadi,
talab, baori etc.
• Orans are also spaces where herders take their
livestock for grazing and are places for communal
congregations, festivals, and other social events.
• The villagers use gum, timber, forest produce and
wild vegetables from orans for their daily use.
 Godavarman judgment (1996): The SC eld that
the power of the central government under the
Forest Conservation Act was not only limited to
the declared reserved forests or protected
forests. Rather, it extends to all forests in India,
whether on public or private land.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} SC restriction on
Tiger Safaris
❖ Context (ET | DTE | TH): The Supreme Court
strongly criticized the illicit cutting down of 6,000
trees for constructing buildings, supposedly for
ecotourism in Jim Corbett National Park.
• It described the incident as a classic case revealing
a corrupt alliance between politicians and officials
exploiting the environment for immediate
commercial gains.
• The SC directed the formation of a committee
comprising of representatives from Central
Empowered Committee, NTCA, WII and UNF&CC.
• The committee will consider and submit
recommendations on whether tiger safaris can be
permitted in the fringe area of the forests.
• The state shall recover the quantified cost from the
people and delinquent officers responsible for the
damage.
• The committee was also tasked with specifying the
utilisation of the collected funds for active
restoration of the ecological damage.
Central Empowered Committee (CEC)
• It is a panel of experts, created by the Indian
Supreme Court in 2002.
• It was constituted in the famous T.N.
Godavarman case to monitor SC’s orders in
forest and wildlife cases since 2002.
• The passage of the Forest Conservation
(Amendment) Bill, 2023 has restructured the
Composition of Central Empowered Committee
(CEC).
Composition of the newly restructured Central
Empowered Committee (CEC)
• Members: chairperson, a member secretary
and three expert members.
• Selected by All the members are selected by the
Union government (MoEFCC).
• Chairperson criteria: minimum of 25 years of
experience in environmental, forestry, or
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wildlife fields or substantial administrative
expertise in government.
❖ Maximum term of chairperson: three
years.
• Member secretary criteria: must hold a rank
not lower than deputy inspector general or
director in the government and possess at least
12 years of experience in environmental,
forestry, or wildlife matters.
• Experts criteria: The three expert members,
one each from the environment, forest, and
wildlife sectors, should have a minimum of 20
years of expertise.
• Non-governmental members: Not a part of the
committee.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Status of
Leopards in India Report 2022
❖ Context (IE | DTE | TH | PIB): India’s leopard
numbers rose by 8% from 12,852 in 2018 to 13,874
in 2022, according to a report by the Environment
Ministry.
• The estimation (5th cycle) was carried out by
National Tiger Conservation Authority and
Wildlife Institute of India, in collaboration with
State Forest Departments, as part of the
quadrennial “Monitoring of Tiger, Co-predators,
prey and their habitat” exercise in tiger range
States.
• The fifth cycle focused on forested habitats within
18 tiger states, covering four major tiger
conservation landscapes.
• Non-forested habitats, arid, and high Himalayas
above 2000 mean sea level were not sampled.
• The survey covered 20 States of India & focussed
on about 70% of animals’ expected habitat.
Leopard Count in States
17 March 2024 CA
• There has been a 1.08% annum growth in leopard
numbers.
• About a third of the leopards are within protected
areas.
• Madhya Pradesh, located in Central India, houses
more leopards than any other Indian state at 3,907
followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil
Nadu.
• Among the country’s physiographic regions,
Central India and the Eastern Ghats, the Western
Ghats and the hills of the northeast, and the
Brahmaputra flood plains recorded growth of
1.5%, 1% and 1.3% per annum respectively.
• Shivalik hills and Gangetic plains showed a -3.4
per cent decline per annum.
• Tiger Reserves or sites with highest leopard
population: Nagarajunasagar Srisailam (Andhra
Pradesh), followed by Panna (Madhya Pradesh),
and Satpura (Madhya Pradesh).
• About 65% of the leopard population is present
outside protected areas in Shivalik landscape.
To learn in detail about Leopards, refer to PMF IAS
Current Affairs August 06, 2023.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Threats faced by
Great Indian Bustard
❖ Context (IE): SC will review its April 2021 order to
bury underground all power lines in the habitat of
the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) after the Centre
submitted its affidavit.
❖ In its 2021 order, the SC listed two types of power
lines — those that would install bird diverters, and
those that would be converted to underground
lines, if feasible, within a year.
❖ A summary cost estimate put the total expenses of
installing bird diverters across 1,342 km and
undergrounding 104 km at approx Rs 150 crore.
Centre’s Arguments
• As per the GoI, taking lines of 66 KV and higher
voltage underground was not feasible for the
evacuation of bulk power due to constraints such
as transmission losses, maintenance challenges,
multiple cable joints, increased time
requirements, and concerns of safety.
• Further, harnessing renewable power from high-
potential areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat was
“essential for meeting rising power demand and
India’s international commitments on climate
change”.
Impact of power lines on GIB
• In 2020, a study carried out by the Wildlife
Institute of India in and around Desert National
Park in Rajasthan estimated that power lines killed
around 84,000 birds of multiple species every
year.
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• GIBs are especially vulnerable because of their
narrow frontal vision and large size.
• Unlike some birds that have a panoramic vision
around the head, species like raptors and bustards
have extensive blind areas above their heads.
• They cannot detect power lines ahead of them
from far. As they are heavy birds, they are unable
to manoeuvre across power lines within close
distances.
Other threats faced by GIB
➢ Free-ranging dogs
➢ Hunting.
➢ Widespread use of pesticides in farmlands.
➢ Loss of grassland, particularly nesting sites.
➢ Erosion of support from local communities.
{GS3 – Envi – Conservation} Vantara
❖ Context (NM): Vantara has been in the news, and
some concerns are being raised.
• Vantara is run by Radhe Krishna Temple Elephant
Welfare Trust, Greens Zoological and Reliance.
• Location: Reliance refinery complex, Jamnagar
(Gujarat).
• It is a global initiative to 'rescue' and shelter
'traumatised' wild fauna, especially elephants.
• It is like a massive open zoo with 200 elephants,
over 300 large cats, including lions, tigers, and
jaguars, and hundreds of herbivores.
• Vantara, which means star of the forest, is spread
across 3000 acres and is also home to several rare
and endangered species, including the Spix's
macaws, of which only 200 remain in the world.
Spix's macaw (little blue macaw)
• Endemic to Brazil. IUCN status: EW (Extinct in
the wild) | CITES: Appendix I
• However, after over 20 years of conservation
efforts, 200 macaws have been bred from just
two parent birds, and 52 individual birds have
since been reintroduced into their natural
environment.
Concerns
➢ Alleged illegal sourcing of elephants, aided by the
recent dilution of wildlife laws after the Wildlife
Protection Act 2022 amendment.
18 March 2024 CA
➢ The allegation that three protections against the
trafficking of wild elephants - mandated proof of
heredity through DNA profiling, microchipping,
and the ban on wild captures now stand diluted.
➢ Greens Zoological has argued that all transfers up
to 1 April 2023 have been scrutinised and upheld
by a Supreme Court High Powered Committee.
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Bengaluru Water
Crisis
Areas severely affected
• Notably, Bengaluru is regarded as one of the most
water-stressed cities globally, comparable to Cape
Town, South Africa, which nearly faced a day zero
scenario.
• A BBC report, based on UN projections, listed
Bengaluru as second after Brazil’s São Paulo among
the 11 global cities that are likely to run out of
drinking water.
• Historically, inhabitants obtained water from
‘tanks’, which are excavations or dams designed to
capture and store monsoonal rainfall.
• With rapid growth, the city has increasingly relied
on water pumped from the river Cauvery.
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❖ Context (ET | ToI | BT | IE | TH): Bengaluru, home
to over 13 million people and a global IT centre, is
facing a severe water shortage.
• According to India Today, there is no shortage of
water in areas serviced by Cauvery Water. Those
areas dependent on borewells have been facing a
crisis as borewells have dried up.
❖ Of the nearly 13,900 borewells in Bengaluru,
nearly 7,000 have dried up.
• Despite receiving over 900 mm of rainfall annually,
the city struggles to store an adequate amount of
water.
• Also, Shallow wells are being replaced by deeper
boreholes.
Water Sources for Bengaluru
• Bengaluru has two main sources of water.
❖ The river Kaveri (Cauvery).
❖ Groundwater (replenished by rainfall).
• Around half of the city's water comes from its
underground aquifer, but this has been so over-
extracted that the city is sinking at a frightening
rate.
• The remaining half of Bengaluru's needs come
from the Cauvery River, a reservoir 90 km away,
which costs Rs 3 crore daily for pumping.
19 March 2024 CA
Cauvery Water
• Bengaluru has three pipelines connecting with the
wider rural region:
❖ The Hesaraghatta pipeline (1890s).
❖ The TG Halli pipeline (1929-33).
❖ The Cauvery pipeline (1970s).
• The two ageing reservoirs, the 120-year-old
Heseraghatta and 83-year-old Thippegondanahalli
of Cauvery’s Arkavathi tributary is unreliable. Now
Bengaluru is almost entirely dependent on the
Cauvery River.
The Hesaraghatta pipeline
• In 1896, for the first time, water was drawn from
the Arkavathi river (tributary of the Kaveri) and
supplied to Bengaluru via the reservoir in
Hesaraghatta.
• The design capacity of the reservoir was 21 MLD.
Today, it does not supply even a drop of water.
The TG Halli Pipeline
• In 1933, water from the same tributary of the
Cauvery was drawn to the TG Halli reservoir. This
reservoir has a capacity of 149 MLD, but it no
longer supplies water.
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The Cauvery Pipeline
• 27 years after Independence, water was for the
first time drawn from outside the city. The Cauvery
Stage-I project was born.
• Since then, five more projects to bring water from
Cauvery have been commissioned.
• Water Distribution from Cauvery River
❖ Water from the Cauvery is collected in the
Krishna Raja Sagar Dam (KRS) in Mysore.
❖ From KRS reservoir, Water is transported to
T.K. Halli water treatment plant.
❖ After being treated, from T.K. Halli it flows to
Tataguni via three pumping stations.
❖ From here, after checking the water for
contamination, the BWSSB (Bangalore Water
Supply and Sewerage Board) pumps water and
transports it to over 660,355 BWSSB
connections.
• Bangalore draws 1450 MLD of water per day from
Cauvery.
Groundwater
20 March 2024 CA
• Groundwater is water collected in fissures
between rocks deep underground, formed by
rainwater trickling through soil and rocks.
• Aquifers Interconnected fissures in the rocks that
create a single body of underground water.
• There are two types of aquifers from where water
can be extracted: unconfined and confined
aquifers.
❖ Unconfined aquifers are found in the second
layer of the earth.
❖ This is just below the soil and is made up of
crushed rocks that can hold water. Open bore
wells that go up to a depth of 80 feet can
access this water.
❖ Confined aquifers are found below the
weathered layer in hard rock fissures. The
water here is stored under high pressure.
• The aquifers contain a limited amount of water.
Hence, they dry out over time. As the shallow
borewells dry out, deeper borewells are dug to
access water from confined aquifers.
Bengaluru’s Water Demand & Supply
✓ Total water demand: Bengaluru requires about
2,632 million litres per day (MLD), with residential
use accounting for 72 per cent, industrial use 17
per cent, commercial/institutional use eight per
cent, and construction two per cent.
✓ Total Supply:
❖ Cauvery water: The city receives 1,460 MLD
from the Cauvery River.
❖ Groundwater: The city draws an estimated
1,392 MLD from groundwater but naturally
replenishes only 148 MLD through green
spaces and water bodies.
Reasons for the Depletion of Ground Water
resources
Natural
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• Current scenario: The groundwater is depleted in
Bangalore.
• Rainfall: Close to 60% of the rainfall on average
occurs during the southwest monsoon from June
to September. The retreating, northeast monsoon
also brings rain from October to December.
❖ The annual rainfall since 2020 has been over
1,200mm.
❖ However, in 2022, the city received 1,957mm
of rainfall; the highest in 122 years.
Other Sources – Treated Water
• Used water may also be treated so that it can be
re-used. Bengaluru has 14 Sewage Treatment
Plants (STP) that can collectively treat about 721
million liters of water per day.
• STPs are mandatory for all apartment buildings
constructed post-2007.
• Treated water can be used for gardening and
landscaping, flushing toilets, cleaning, and many
other ways.
Geology: Bengaluru is situated on a fractured
hard rock aquifer
• The granitic and gneissic bedrock has relatively
low storage capacity. Also, the recharge rates are
meagre, roughly 10 per cent of the rainfall.
• This is very different from the aquifers in north
India, which have a much better capacity to hold
water.
• This is why Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which got
even less rainfall last year than Karnataka, have not
seen similar water scarcity.
Poor Rainfall in 2023
• Bengaluru has received just 24 mm of rain in
August 2023, an 80 per cent deficit against the
month's average of 123 mm and the worst since at
least 1971, (according to data from the Karnataka
21 March 2024 CA
 State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre
(KSNDMC)).
• The previous low was in 2012, when the deficit was
around 36 per cent.
• Direct consequence of low rainfall is low level of
water in reservoirs.
❖ Latest data from the Central Water
Commission shows that Karnataka reservoirs
are currently holding water at only 26 per cent
of their full capacity.
❖ Instead of the nearly 8.8 billion cubic meters
of water that is expected in Karnataka’s
reservoirs at this time of the year, only 6.5
billion cubic meters is currently available.
Man made
Source: Well labs
Over Exploitation
• According to the Central government’s
groundwater assessment 2023, all groundwater
units in Bangalore (Urban) and Bangalore (Rural)
are over-exploited.
• In Bangalore (Urban), the aquifers in Anekal,
Yelahanka, Bangalore East, Bangalore North, and
Bangalore South have been dug up much more
than they are recharged.
Groundwater pollution due to Over Exploitation
• Groundwater is exploited by the tanker and
packaged water mafia in Bengaluru.
• In areas like KR Puram, Whitefield, RT Nagar and JP
Nagar, borewells are sunk almost 1,500 ft deep.
Geologists say this is a major reason for pollution.
• As per the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)
assessment, 81% of the groundwater samples
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Rapid urbanisation & population growth
• Since 1990, the city's population has tripled to 13.6
million.
• Bengaluru’s population could reach 20.3 million by
2031 and is growing by 3.5% annually.
Remarkable decrease in the water spread area
• This decline is considered the main reason for the
decreasing groundwater level in the city.
• Study by the IISC's Centre for Ecological Sciences
says that water spread area has fallen from 2,324
hectares in 1973 to just about 696 hectares in
2023, a 70 per cent drop.
90% of its rainfall water is lost to runoff and
evaporation
collected from rural Bengaluru were found to have
nitrate levels above the permissible limits
(>45ml/l).
• To add to this, 60% of the samples from rural
districts had uranium levels higher than the
permissible limit (>30 micrograms/litre).
 Nitrate is a naturally occurring compound and
considered relatively non-toxic when ingested
in higher concentrations though under certain
conditions, it increases the risk of specific
cancers and birth defects.
 Uranium in drinking water above 300
micrograms/litre can lead to kidney damage.
Significant growth in concrete structures and
paved surfaces
22 March 2024 CA
Inefficient Distribution System
• Bengaluru wastes half the water it receives,
making it the second highest among Indian metros
in terms of water loss, according to an IndiaSpend
analysis of water-use data. Kolkata leads at 50%.
• The ISEC paper attributed the wastage to two
types of distributional losses: damage and
leakages in the water supply system and
unauthorised water connections.
Neglect of Lakes & Wetlands
• Bengaluru was once known as the city of a
thousand lakes.
• An inter-connected lake system was created by
Hiriya Kempegowda (a feudal lord under the
Vijayanagara Empire) to supply water for drinking
and irrigation in the region.
• A survey by the district administration in 2015
identified 1,600-odd lakes in the region.
• Unfortunately, more than 85% of them have
disappeared since 1800. A 1986 census counted
389 lakes, which have fallen to 81 now.
• The report by the Ministry of Water Resources
states Karnataka has lost 14,918 water bodies to
pollution and encroachment.
• 98% of lakes are encroached upon, and 90% are
fed with untreated sewage or industrial effluents.
E.g, Froths & Fire accidents in Bellandur lake.
• Native rivers like Vrushabhavathi have been
reduced to mere drains.
Climate change
• Temperatures have risen more frequently in the
previous 20 years. Warmer temperatures can lead
to higher water bodies and soil evaporation rates,
exacerbating water scarcity.
• Rapid urbanisation has caused the average
temperature in Bengaluru to increase by about 1.5
degrees Celsius according to the director of
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), ISRO.
Way Forward
Mandatory water harvesting and groundwater
recharging along with Lake Rejuvenation
✓ Efficient RWH systems promotes groundwater
recharge when the unutilised water is directed to
a recharge pit.
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✓ Lakes helped manage the city’s water needs
greatly. They need to be redeveloped to ensure
water security.
❖ According to experts, at least 32% of the total
runoff volume of water from heavy rains can
be diverted to rainwater harvesting.
❖ Also, existing open lakes and tanks can take in
5% of such water.
❖ Together, rainwater harvesting and proper
lake management can result in almost 37% of
flood water being converted into a sustainable
water source.
Moving towards a circular decentralised model of
water supply
✓ It involves reusing treated wastewater,
rejuvenating urban wetlands using stormwater
(and not wastewater or sewer water) and adopting
aquifer recharge which is critical for addressing
water security.
 Civic authorities in Bengaluru have decided to
fill the drying lakes with 1,300 million litres of
treated water per day to replenish groundwater
sources in the city.
Construction of recharge structures to promote
water percolation
✓ According to experts, for a city like Bengaluru, we
need at least a million recharge structures with a
diameter of at least three feet and a depth of 20-
30 feet.
❖ But, estimates suggest we have only created
around 2.5 lakh recharge structures across the
city
Creation of Satellite Towns & Cities
✓ To address the issues caused by urban sprawl,
which involves the disorganized and unplanned
growth of urban areas.
Other Steps
✓ Green Infrastructure: Increase the city's green
spaces by planting more trees, creating parks, and
preserving natural areas.
✓ Permeable Surfaces: Encourage the use of
permeable materials for roads, sidewalks, and
parking lots to allow rainwater to infiltrate into the
ground rather than running off into storm drains.
❖ Need changes to building code to enable open
spaces to be more permeable to water can
help promote groundwater recharge.
✓ Water Reuse: Developing infrastructure for
treating and reusing wastewater can reduce the
demand for freshwater and alleviate pressure on
existing water sources.
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Increasing Natural
disaster in the Himalayas
23 March 2024 CA
❖ Context (DTE | DTE | DTE): The Himalayan region
accounted for 44 per cent of all the disasters
reported in India.
• Of the 687 disasters that the country experienced
between 1900-2022, 240 were in the Himalayas.
• An analysis of data available on the EM-DAT
international disaster database shows that the
Himalayan states and UTs account for 18% of the
country’s geographical area but have experienced
35% of the major disasters over the last 110 years.
• Sikkim saw the highest number of landslide
incidents.
• In recent decades, these disasters have occurred
more frequently and are getting more severe,
causing a significant loss of life and damage to
property.
Indian Himalayan states
Reasons why Himalayas are prone to natural
disasters?
Natural
• Being the youngest mountain range in the world,
they are highly prone to erosion.
• They are tectonically active leading to the
continuous upliftment of the mountain, the region
falls in a very high seismic zone.
• Cloud bursts are frequent in Himalayas due to its
unique topography and steep slopes. This results
in floods & landslides.
❖ For example, the most devastating landslide
took place in Uttarakhand in 2013.
• In some areas, soil has extremely low water
retention ability. This makes the region conducive
for landslides during periods of high rainfall. For
example, Darjeeling.
• Bank erosion is also extensive wherever the rivers
take a sinuous course.
• Together, these factors make the Himalayas
extremely susceptible to natural disasters like
earthquakes, landslides, subsidence, floods, snow
avalanches, cloud bursts and forest fires.
Man-made
Climate Change
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• The Himalayas are warming faster than the global
average (IPCC). Under this scenario, the Himalayan
glaciers would lose 10-30% of their mass by 2030.
This change in glacial mass in the Himalayas could
trigger more earthquakes.
• Further melting up of glaciers and unpredicted
heavy rainfalls in the Himalayas can induce Flash
floods.
Ecological Stress
• Population growth, tourism and industrial activity
strain the fragile Himalayan ecology.
• Common threats include deforestation, soil
erosion, and pressure on limited land.
Unplanned construction
• The construction of large-scale hydropower dams
can induce earthquakes (reservoir-induced
seismicity (RIS)).
• Unplanned construction and hydroelectric
projects also make Himalayan slopes highly
unstable, leading to landslides.
• Permitting construction beyond the carrying
capacity of the region. This has led to the
submergence of land.
❖ For example, evidence of land submergence
has been found in Joshimath up to a depth of
20 to 50 metres.
• Forest conversion for agriculture and Construction.
❖ For example, In Shimla, by frequently changing
the by-laws through amendments, the
authorities have allowed constructions in the
17 locations identified as forest areas or green
belts, which is in direct conflict with the
National Forest Policy, 1988 (NGT).
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Kerala declares
Man-animal conflict as disaster
❖ Context (IE): Kerala became the 1st state to declare
man-animal conflict a state-specific disaster.
❖ This decision was made due to repeated deaths
from animal attacks and the growing anger
surrounding such incidents.
Significance of the declaration
• Firstly, the forest department is in charge of
managing man-animal conflict under the Wildlife
Protection Act currently.
❖ However, with Kerala declaring it a state-
specific disaster, the responsibility shifts to the
state disaster management authority.
❖ This allows for quicker and more decisive
action in dealing with the issue.
• Secondly, it also allows district collectors to
directly intervene in their capacity as the chairman
of the district disaster body.
❖ CM serves as the ex officio chairman of the
state disaster management authority.
24 March 2024 CA
 ❖ At the district level, the district disaster
management authority is led by the district
collector. He also holds the position of
executive magistrate.
• Thirdly, once the issue is under the disaster
management authority, it can take actions
overriding other norms.
❖ According to section 71 of the Disaster
Management Act, only the SC or a HC has
jurisdiction to entertain suits related to actions
taken by relevant authorities under the Act.
❖ Section 72 specifies that the Act's provisions
will override any other law during the
declared period of a disaster.
 In 2015, Odisha declared snakebite as a state-
specific disaster.
 Additionally, the Kerala government has
declared heat waves, sunburn, and sunstroke in
2019, soil piping in 2017, and lightning, coastal
erosion & Covid in 2015 as a state-specific
disaster.
 Soil piping (tunnel erosion) is the formation of
underground tunnels due to subsurface soil
erosion. When the tunnel grows bigger and
bigger, the roof collapses, and subsidence
occurs. In the Western Ghats, it usually occurs
in the lateritic terrains.
{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Methane leak in
Mangistau region, Kazakhstan
❖ Context (IE): Last year, a drilling mishap caused
methane leaks in Mangistau region, southwestern
Kazakhstan. Scientists say it might have been the
second-largest man-made leak ever.
Mangystau region
• According to the International Energy Agency,
methane is responsible for about 30% of the rise
in global temperatures since the Industrial
Revolution.
• Notably, 2023 witnessed the highest levels of
greenhouse gas concentrations ever in the
atmosphere. Methane concentrations increased
by 11 parts per billion (ppb).
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{GS3 – Envi – Degradation} Nuclear Waste
Management
❖ Context (TH): The widespread adoption of nuclear
power in India presents a challenging issue of
waste management.
How nuclear waste are produced?
By products
• In a fission reactor, neutrons collide with the nuclei
of specific atoms.
• When a nucleus absorbs a neutron, it becomes
unstable and splits, releasing energy and forming
nuclei of other elements.
❖ For instance, uranium-235 can split into
barium-144, krypton-89, and three neutrons
when it absorbs a neutron.
• If the resulting elements cannot undergo further
fission, they become nuclear waste.
Spent fuel
• Nuclear waste also includes the spent fuel which is
extremely radioactive and requires secure storage
to prevent environmental contamination.
• Fuel used in a nuclear reactor becomes irradiated
and is known as spent fuel when removed.
How nuclear waste is managed?
Spent fuel
• It is challenging to handle due to its high
temperature and radioactivity, often requiring
underwater storage for several decades.
• Once cooled, spent fuel can be transferred to dry
casks for long-term storage.
• Storage periods for spent fuel can extend for
millennia, requiring isolation from human contact.
• Countries with established nuclear power
programs have accumulated significant amounts
of spent fuel.
Liquid waste
• Liquid waste treatment facilities in nuclear power
plants manage aqueous wastes containing short-
lived radionuclides.
❖ Japan, for example, treats and discharges such
water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into
the Pacific Ocean.
• Other liquid wastes can be evaporated, chemically
precipitated into sludge, absorbed on solid
matrices, or incinerated depending on their
hazard.
• Liquid high-level waste, containing most fission
products, is vitrified into glass for storage.
• In India, fission products from pressurized heavy-
water reactors must be stored as liquid waste due
to reprocessing, posing accident hazards.
 Vitrification: It is the full or partial
transformation of a substance into a glass.
25 March 2024 CA
Different methods to manage nuclear waste?
Dry-Cask Storage Process
• After spending at least, a year in a spent-fuel pool,
cooled spent fuel can be moved to dry-cask
storage.
• In dry-cask storage, spent fuel is placed inside large
steel cylinders and surrounded by inert gas before
being sealed shut and placed in larger steel or
concrete chambers.
Geological disposal
• Some experts advocate for geological disposal,
where waste is sealed in special containers and
buried underground in granite or clay.
• Geological disposal offers long-term storage away
from human activity, but there are concerns about
potential exposure if containers are disturbed.
• The emplacement of waste can affect the
properties of surrounding rock, creating increased
fracture zones and thermal pulses.
Reprocessing
• It is a method to separate fissile from non-fissile
material in spent fuel.
• Material is chemically treated to separate fissile
material left behind from non-fissile material.
• Reprocessing facilities require specialized
protection and personnel due to the hazardous
nature of spent fuel.
• Reprocessing offers higher fuel efficiency but is
expensive and yields weapons-usable plutonium
(different from weapons-grade).
• The IAEA regulates reprocessing facilities tightly,
specifying thresholds for plutonium content to
ensure safeguards.
 The Trombay facility reprocesses 50 tonnes of
heavy metal per year (tHM/y) as spent fuel from
two research reactors to produce plutonium for
stage II reactors as well as nuclear weapons.
{GS3 – Envi – Degrdation} Sinking of
Rubymar in Red Sea
❖ Context (DTE): The US military has issued a
warning about environmental risks in the Red Sea
after the Rubymar, a UK-owned bulk carrier, sank
on March 2.
• The vessel was carrying around 21,000 metric tons
of ammonium phosphate sulfate fertilizer.
• The attacks were carried out in support of
Palestinians in Gaza who were under attack by
Israel in retaliation for the October 7, 2023, attacks
by Hamas (the group controlling the Gaza Strip).
Rich Biodiversity in the Red Sea
• UNESCO Natural Heritage Sites in Red Sea:
Socotra Archipelago, Dungonab Bay and
Senganeeb Atoll.
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• Other distinctive features of the region: Farsan
and Dahlak Archipelagos (southern Red Sea) and
the flourishing coral reefs (northern and central
parts of the Red Sea).
• 14.7% of the Red Sea fishes are of endemic
species.
❖ 90% of the Red Sea dotty backs and triple fins
and 50% of the Red Sea butterfly fishes are
endemic species.
• Potential climate refuge for coral reefs because of
the relatively higher resilience of its corals
compared to other parts of the world.
• In addition, the region also supports extensive
seagrass beds and mangroves.
• The biological productivity in the Gulf of Aden is
amongst the highest in the world.
{GS3 – Envi – Hazardous Waste} Solar Waste
❖ Context (IE): A new study found that India
produced about 100 kilotonnes (kt) of solar waste
in FY 2022-2023.
❖ The analysis was conducted by the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and
researchers from the Council on Energy,
Environment and Water (CEEW).
❖ India's current solar capacity is 66.7 GW as of
March 2023, and it is projected to reach 292 GW
by 2030.
❖ Proper management of solar waste is essential for
environmental, economic, and social reasons.
What is Solar Waste?
• Solar waste includes waste from manufacturing
solar modules and waste generated during the
lifetime of solar projects.
• Manufacturing waste includes scrap and waste
from defective PV modules.
• Waste from the field includes waste from
transportation and handling, damage during the
module's lifetime, and end-of-life disposal.
• The study specifically examined waste from the
field category and did not consider manufacturing
waste.
26 March 2024 CA
Findings of the study? Sulthan Bathery to Tannirbavi, refurbishment of
water jetties at Tannirbavi and Sulthan Bathery,
• By 2030, India's installed solar capacity will
and creating infrastructure for water sports
generate about 340 kt of waste, three times more
activities.
than the present.
• Other additions will be a ghat, outdoor gym, cycle
• Five states, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil
stand, pet park, etc.
Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh are expected to
• It intends to connect the city to the river and the
produce around 67% of this waste.
sea through proposed landmarks and nodes.
• The cumulative waste from existing and new
capacity deployed between FY24 and FY30 will
reach about 600 kt by 2030.
• It will increase to about 19,000 kt by 2050, with
77% of it generated from new capacities.
• Discarded solar modules contain critical minerals
such as silicon, copper, tellurium, and cadmium.
These minerals are classified as critical for India's
economic development and national security.
• The 340 kt of waste expected by 2030 will include
10 kt of silicon, 12-18 tonnes of silver, and 16
tonnes of cadmium and tellurium.
How to treat Solar Waste? Netravati River
• Policymakers need to maintain a comprehensive • Origin: Bangrabalige Valley, Yelaneeru Ghat in
database of installed solar capacity to estimate Kudremukh (Chikkamagaluru, Karnataka).
future solar waste. • Joins the Kumaradhara River at Uppinangadi,
• Need to incentivise recyclers and encourage which flows to the Arabian Sea.
stakeholders to manage solar waste effectively. • Provides water to Bantwal and Mangalore.
• Need to create a market for solar recycling. Issues raised
• Recycling solar panels:
➢ Environmental concerns: The destruction of
❖ Conventional recycling involves mechanical
mangroves, heavy earthwork at estuarine edges,
processes like crushing and shearing, which
and construction of artificial embankments,
mainly recovers materials like glass,
among others, raise concerns.
aluminium, and copper.
➢ Alleged violations of the conditional CRZ
❖ High-value recycling uses mechanical,
clearance: MSCL allegedly violated clearances
chemical, and thermal processes to recover
given by the Karnataka Coastal Zone Management
valuable materials like silver and silicon in
Authority.
addition to conventional recyclables.
➢ High economic cost: The exorbitant cost of Rs 70
{GS3 – Envi – Issues} Netravati Riverfront crore for just 2.1 km raises concerns.
Promenade Project ➢ No environmental impact assessment: Despite
the estuary being 1km away, EIA is not carried out.
❖ Context (DTE): The National Green Tribunal For more details, visit > CRZ regulation
principal bench in New Delhi has initiated action
on the Netravati Riverfront Promenade project. {GS3 – Envi – Pollution} Arsenic
• It will be inspected by a joint committee consisting Contamination in Rice
of representatives from the Central Pollution
❖ Context (DTE): A new study underlines the risk of
Control Board, Ministry of Environment and
using water contaminated with arsenic to cook
Forest, and National Centre for Coastal Research.
rice.
About the Project
Arsenic in Rice
• It is being carried out by Mangaluru Smart City Ltd
❖ Rice acquires essential micronutrients from soil
(MSCL).
and groundwater through transporters.
• Promenade development will include setting up a ❖ However, during this process, other non-essential
biodiversity park, a bird-watching area, a elements like arsenic are absorbed by the plant
pathway, and a cycle track from the bridge to the with the help of several phosphate transporter
Bolar Sea face. genes and proteins.
• It will also include construction of a hanging bridge ❖ Form and concentration of arsenic depends on
across the Phalguni (or Gurupura river) from several factors:
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 27 March 2024 CA
 1. Whether the water is oxygenated (for
example, arsenites predominate under
reducing conditions such as those found in
deep well waters);
2. The degree of biological activity (which is
associated with the conversion of inorganic
arsenic to methylated arsenic acids);
3. The type of water source (for example, open-
ocean seawater, surface freshwater, or
groundwater);
4. The proximity of the water source to arsenic-
rich geological formations and other
anthropogenic sources.
❖ Brown rice contains higher concentrations of
arsenic than white rice.
❖ Most of the inorganic arsenic in rice is
concentrated in the bran layers that contain 10 to
20 times higher concentrations than whole grain.
❖ Therefore, the risk from consumption of products
made from rice bran such as rice drinks is much
higher than that from raw, but polished (white)
rice.
❖ According to the recent study, conducted by the
University of Sheffield’s Institute for Sustainable
Food and the Department of Geography (United
Kingdom), some countries still follow the
outdated WHO standard of 50 parts per billion as
a safe threshold for arsenic in drinking water.
❖ Rice contains more arsenic in comparison to other
cereals. It contains inorganic arsenic (iAs) — a
Group 1 carcinogen according to the International
Agency for Research on Cancer, a part of WHO.
❖ This poses a significant health concern when rice is
cooked with water that has unhealthy amounts of
arsenic.
❖ Prolonged exposure can lead to even diabetes and
cardiovascular diseases.
❖ White and parboiled rice absorbs more arsenic
than brown rice, demonstrating that the
population in Western countries and Asia is more
at risk of suffering health consequences.
Arsenic
❖ Arsenic is an element with the chemical symbol As.
❖ It is also a known metalloid and classified as a
Group-A carcinogen.
❖ Chronic arsenic poisoning causes melanosis and
keratosis (dark spots on the upper chest, back and
arms are known as melanosis; the next stage is
keratosis, in which palms become hard), leading to
loss of appetite and skin cancer, long-term
exposure to arsenic may also cause cancers of the
bladder and lungs.
❖ The International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) has classified arsenic and arsenic
compounds as carcinogenic to humans, also when
present in drinking water.
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{GS3 – Envi – Pollution} Fashion Industry &
the Environmental Challenges
❖ Context (DTE): The textile industry generates a
significant amount of waste, contributing to
pollution and landfill overflow.
Fashion Industry: The Challenges to
Environment
➢ The textile industry globally releases 1.2 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) annually
contributing 3% of global CO2 emissions, with
future predictions to rise to over 10% by 2050.
➢ Fast fashion brands’ increased production has led
to a surge in textile waste, with over 55% of
discarded clothing ending up in landfills.
➢ Chemicals used during textile manufacturing pose
risks to both the environment and human health.
➢ Polyester and synthetic materials contribute to
non-biodegradable waste in oceans.
➢ Pesticides and herbicides used in fibre production
affect soil fertility and biodiversity, impacting crop
productivity in the agriculture value chain.
➢ The textile and fashion industries consume a
staggering 93 billion cubic meters of water.
➢ This has led to a nearly 7% decline in drinking
water and groundwater globally.
➢ Mismanaged fashion production and use have
severely impacted places like the Atacama Desert
in Chile, known as the “Great Fashion Garbage
Patch.”
Circular Fashion Solutions
✓ Rental Services: Borrowing clothes through rental
services reduces the need for new purchases.
✓ Resale Platforms: Buying and selling preloved
fashion items extends their lifespan.
✓ Clothing Repair and Alteration Services: These
services help maintain garments.
✓ Clothing Recycling Programs: Repurposing old
clothes into new products.
✓ Upcycled Materials: Transforming surplus
materials into new fashion pieces.
{GS3 – Envi – Pollution} Plastic Waste
Management (Amendment) Rules, 2024
❖ Context (TH): Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change has notified an amendment to the
Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, titled the
Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules,
2024.
• The amendments aim to enhance plastic waste
management practices in the country.
Key Takeaways
Expanded Definitions
Producer
28 March 2024 CA
• Producer now includes entities engaged in
manufacturing plastic packaging, and includes a
person engaged in manufacture of intermediate
material to be used for manufacturing plastic
packaging.
• It is also the person engaged in contract
manufacturing of products using plastic packaging
or through other similar arrangements for a brand
owner.
• Earlier it was limited to people engaged in
manufacturing of plastic packaging only.
Manufacturer
• Manufacturer” means and includes a person
engaged in production of plastic raw material,
including compostable plastics and biodegradable
plastics.
• Earlier, Compostable and Biodegradable plastic
were not included.
 Biodegradable plastics are defined as materials
capable of “degradation by biological
processes in specific environment such as soil,
landfill” without leaving “any microplastics.
 Compostable plastics, on the other hand, do
degrade, but require industrial or large
municipal waste management facilities to do
so.
Importer
• It includes various plastic resins/ Pellets/
intermediate material used for manufacturing
plastic packaging/films/ preforms for commercial
use.
• Earlier definition was only for plastic packaging/
carry bags or MLP.
Responsibility of Local Bodies
• The local body shall undertake assessment of
plastic waste generated, including plastic waste
existing in dump sites, by 30th June of every year
and also estimate the quantity of plastic waste to
be generated in following five year period.
• The local body shall take necessary measures to
prevent stocking, distribution, sale and usage of
prohibited single use plastic items in their
jurisdiction.
Selling of Plastic Raw Materials
• Manufacturer and Importer shall sell plastic raw
material only to Producer or Seller registered
under these rules and not sell plastic raw material
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to any entity or units engaged in manufacturing of
prohibited single use plastic items.
Registration and Reporting Obligations for
Manufacturers and Importers
• Manufacturers and importers of plastic raw
material are required to apply for registration with
the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB).
• Additionally, they must submit quarterly and
annual reports, as specified, by the respective
deadlines (last day of month following the quarter
and an annual report by 30th June of every year).
Introduction of Sellers
• Sellers are defined as entities who sell plastic raw
material such as resins or pellets or intermediate
material used for producing plastic packaging.
• Sellers are mandated to submit an annual report
detailing transactions to the relevant pollution
control authorities by June 30th each year.
Introduction of New Biodegradable Plastics
Category (V)
• A new category for biodegradable plastics
(Category V) has been introduced, with specific
labelling requirements and separate markings to
be designated by the BIS.
Thickness Requirement Exemption for
compostable/biodegradable Carry Bags
• “Carry bags made of virgin or recycled plastic shall
not be less than fifty microns in thickness,” while
compostable/biodegradable carry bags are
exempted from this requirement.
 Microplastics are defined as any solid plastic
particle insoluble in water, with dimensions
between 1 µm and 1,000 µm (1 µm is one-
thousandth of a millimetre).
Pre-consumer Waste Processing Obligations
• Manufacturers are obligated to process pre-
consumer plastic waste generated in the form of
reject or discard material at the stage of
manufacturing and report these activities to the
SPCB/CPCB.
Minimum Recycling Target Introduction
• Manufacturers/importers must meet minimum
recycling levels for plastic packaging waste as
specified in the Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR) targets.
29 March 2024 CA

Micro and Small Enterprise Exemption from EPR
Obligations
• Micro and small enterprises, as per the MSME
Development Act, 2006, are exempted from direct
EPR obligations.
Price Cap Implementation
• The CPCB is tasked with establishing high and low
price caps for EPR certificates, ensuring a
standardized pricing mechanism.
Annual Filing Deadline Extension
• The deadline for filing annual returns for the
financial year 2022-2023 has been extended until
March 31st, 2024.
{GS3 – Envi – Species} Long-billed Vultures
❖ Context (TH): The Nilgiris region hosts nesting sites
of critically endangered long-billed vultures, but
human interventions, particularly tourism
activities, threaten these sites.
• The Indian Vulture, also known as the long-billed
vulture (Gyps indicus), is a bird of prey native to
the Indian subcontinent.
• Physical Characteristics:
❖ Large, heavy-bodied bird with a bald head and
long, broad wings.
❖ Prominent, hooked beak adapted for tearing
flesh and scavenging.
❖ Feathers are dark brown to black, with a
whitish neck ruff.
❖ Adults have long, slender bills, while juveniles
have shorter bills that gradually lengthen with
age
• Distribution: Historically widespread across the
Indian subcontinent, including India, Nepal,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
• Habitat: Grasslands, open forests, agricultural
areas, and urban areas with access to carrion.
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• These obligations are shifted to the manufacturer
or importer of plastic raw materials supplying to
such entities.
• Target for the use of recycled plastic content are:
• Diet: Scavenger, feeding primarily on carrion,
particularly large mammal carcasses
• Threats: use of the veterinary drug diclofenac,
which is toxic to vultures and causes kidney failure,
poisoning from consuming carcasses
contaminated with pesticides and other toxic
substances.
• Conservation status: IUCN Status: Critically
Endangered
{GS3 – Envi – Species} New Species in
Kaziranga National Park
❖ Context (Scroll): Kaziranga National Park recently
identified two new species: the Binturong and
small-clawed otter.
• This elevated the count of mammal species in the
park to 37.
Binturong
• The Binturong, also known as the bearcat, is a
viverrid native to South and Southeast Asia.
 Viverridae is a family of small to medium-sized,
feliform mammals.
• Physical Characteristics:
❖ Long and heavy body with short, stout legs
❖ A thick coat of coarse black hair
❖ Prehensile tail used for balance and
communication
❖ Large eyes and short, pointed muzzle covered
with bristly hairs
• Distribution: Found across South and Southeast
Asia, including India, Nepal, Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the
Philippines
• It inhabits tall forests, both primary and
secondary, with good tree cover.
• Diet: Omnivorous, feeding on small mammals,
birds, fish, insects, fruits, and occasionally preying
on rodents.
• Threats: Habitat loss and degradation due to
logging, conversion of forests to non-forest land
uses, and habitat fragmentation.
30 March 2024 CA
• Conservation status: IUCN Status: Vulnerable |
CITES: Appendix III | WPA: Schedule I
Small-Clawed Otter
• The Asian small-clawed otter, also known as the
oriental small-clawed otter or the small-clawed
otter, is an otter species native to South and
Southeast Asia.
• Physical Characteristics:
❖ Slender body with short legs and a long,
muscular tail.
❖ Small, rounded ears and short, blunt snout.
❖ Webbed feet with reduced claws, giving them
their name.
❖ Thick, water-repellent fur that ranges in colour
from brown to grey.
• Distribution: Found in freshwater habitats across
South and Southeast Asia, including India, Nepal,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia, and the Philippines.
• It inhabits rivers, streams, marshes, and mangrove
swamps with dense vegetation for cover and
hunting.
• Diet: Carnivorous, feeding primarily on fish,
crustaceans, molluscs, and occasionally small
mammals and birds.
• Threats: Hunting and poaching for their fur, meat,
and use in traditional medicine, human-wildlife
conflict, including accidental entanglement in
fishing gear and conflicts with aquaculture
operations.
• Conservation status: IUCN Status: Vulnerable |
CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I
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{GS3 – Envi – Water} World Water Day | UN
WWD Report
❖ Context (TH): 31st World Water Day was observed
on March 22, 2024.
• Theme: Leveraging water for peace.
United Nations World Water Development
• The 2024 edition of the United Nations World
Water Development (UN WWD) Report was also
released under the ‘World Water Assessment
Programme’.
• Titled “Water for Prosperity and Peace”, it was
developed by UNESCO and UN-Water.
• The report emphasises Water diplomacy to
address meteorological extremities (like monsoon
uncertainty and floods), climate change pressures,
and transboundary river issues.
• This year’s report also highlights a general
shortage of water quality data globally and points
to the urban-rural divide.
❖ Four out of five people lacking at least basic
drinking water services live in rural areas.
• Role of indigenous communities: Report observes
extensive cross-border networks, civil society and
academic networks can help in preventing,
mitigating, and resolving water-related disputes.
Issue of transboundary waters
• 153 countries can be classified as water-sharing
nations, and all transboundary waters account for
60% of the world’s freshwater flows.
• Of these 153 countries, just 24 have managed to
reach a 100% cooperation agreement on their
shared waters, as per a 2021 UNESCO progress
report on Sustainable Development Goal indicator
6.5.2 titled “Progress on transboundary water
cooperation.”
• Need of a sophisticated form of cross-border
water governance: To ensure promote effective
and equitable water allocation among nations that
share water resources.
31 March 2024 CA
 Prelims Specific Topics
{Prelims – Envi – Species} Cycas circinalis
(Eenthu Pana)
❖ Context(TH): Cycas circinalis, popularly known as
Eenthu Pana in Kerala, is on the verge of extinction
in the northern part of Kerala after being hit by an
unknown plant disease.
• Cycas Circinalis, also known as the Queen Sago
Palm, is actually a species of cycad, not a palm.
 Cycads are seed plants with woody trunks and
large, stiff, evergreen leaves.
• Native to southern India and Sri Lanka. Among the
nine cycad species identified in India, six are native
to the country.
• Distribution: It is found exclusively in the Western
Ghats region, spanning the states of Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and southern
Maharashtra.
• It is an evergreen tree reaching heights of up to 25
feet.
 Echolocation is a technique used by bats, dolphins and other animals to determine the location of objects using
reflected sound.
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• It is commonly found in dense, scrubby woodlands
in hilly regions that experience seasonal dryness.
• Cycas are known to be the oldest living species on
Earth. These plants originated 300 million years
ago during the Carboniferous period.
• It is a valuable plant used for nutrition by many
local communities in the Western Ghats.
• They bear fruit after 40 to 50 years.
{Prelims – Envi – Species} Gangetic River
Dolphin
❖ Context (DTE): Bihar Chief Minister inaugurated
India's first research center for the Gangetic river
dolphin, the National Dolphin Research Centre
(NDRC).
• Gangetic River Dolphin is India’s national aquatic
animal.
• Conservation Status: IUCN: Endangered | WPA,
1972: Schedule I | CITES: Appendix I
• Distribution: India, Bangladesh and Nepal.
• 4 freshwater dolphin species in the world: The
Gangetic River dolphin, Irrawaddy dolphin in
Myanmar (both marine and freshwater), Indus
River dolphin in Pakistan and Amazon River
dolphin in South America.
• Bihar is home to around half of the estimated
3,000 Gangetic dolphins in India.
• It is blind and finds its way and prey in river waters
through echolocation.
• They are usually found in turbulent waters, where
there are enough fish for them to feed on.
• Gangetic dolphins live in a zone where there is
little or no current, helping them save energy.
32 March 2024 CA
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 33 March 2024 CA

{Prelims – Envi – Species} Lianas
❖ Context (DTE): A study led by the University of the
Sunshine Coast, Australia, reveals that lianas,
woody vining plants, are posing a threat to forests.
• Lianas are also known as vines, climbing plants or
climbers. They are a group of woody climbers.
• They are rooted in the soil at ground level and use
other trees to ascend to the canopy in the forests.
• Lianas are characteristic of tropical moist
broadleaf forests (especially seasonal forests) but
may be found in temperate rainforests and
temperate deciduous forests.
• Their diversity and abundance increase with
decreasing latitude, and they appear to flourish
better in warm, lowland tropical forests.
• Lianas thrive in disturbed forest areas and harm
trees by competing for sunlight in the canopy.
• They suppress trees and have lower carbon
sequestering capacity compared to trees,
worsening the threat to carbon storage.
• This could exacerbate global warming by reducing
forests' effectiveness as carbon sinks and altering
carbon cycles.
{Prelims – Envi – Species} Melanochlamys
droupadi
❖ Context (TH): A newly discovered marine slug
mollusc, Melanochlamys droupadi, found in
Odisha and Bengal beaches, named after President
Droupadi Murmu by Zoological Survey of India.
 Molluscs are a group of invertebrate animals
characterized by soft bodies often protected by
a hard shell.
• Physical Characteristics:
❖ Short, blunt, cylindrical body with a flat and
broad structure.
❖ Smooth dorsal surface with two dorsal shields.
❖ Maximum length up to 7 mm.
❖ Brownish-black with a distinctive ruby red
spot.
❖ Hermaphrodite (possessing both male and
female reproductive organs, structures, and
tissue).
• Habitat: Found in the intertidal zone.
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• Behaviour: They leave crawl marks on sandy
beaches and prefer hiding beneath the sand.
• Distribution: In temperate regions of the Indo-
Pacific Oceanic realm.
Sea slugs
• These are a group of molluscs primarily
inhabiting marine environments characterized
by their slug-like appearance.
• They are distributed from the shallow intertidal
zones to the depths of the ocean, spanning
from polar regions to the tropics.
• These creatures are known for their agility as
hunters, preying upon organisms like shelled
and unshelled sea slugs, roundworms, marine
worms, and small fishes.
• A total of 18 species of sea slugs have been
discovered worldwide.
{Prelims – Envi – Species} New species of
deep-sea isopod discovered
❖ Context (TH): Researchers have identified a new
species of deep-sea isopod, Brucethoa isro off the
Kollam coast.
• Isopods, an order of crustaceans, encompasses
both terrestrial and aquatic species.
• Isopods possess rigid, segmented
exoskeletons, 2 pairs of antennae, 7pairs of
jointed limbs on the thorax, and 5 pairs of
branching appendages on the abdomen, which
are used for respiration.
• Females brood their young in a pouch located
under their thorax.
• This tiny crustacean, belonging to the genus
Brucethoa, was found at the base of the gill cavity
of the Spinyjaw greeneye, a marine fish found at
depths of 250-450 meters off the Kerala coast.
• It is named in tribute to the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO), acknowledging its
achievements in space exploration.
• The dedication honours explicitly ISRO's successful
space missions, including the recent Chandrayaan-
3 lunar mission.
• The same researcher’s team had previously
described Brucethoa as a new genus from India in
2020.
• The species' females (19 mm in length and 6 mm
in width) are larger than its males (half the size of
females).
{Prelims – Envi – Species} New Species Of
Parasitoid Wasp Discovered
❖ Context (TH): A new genus and species of
parasitoid wasp called Indopria angulata has
been discovered by researchers at the Zoological
Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata.
34 March 2024 CA

• A parasitoid is an insect that hosts another
organism, leading to the death of the host.
• Parasitoids rely on the host’s death for
reproduction.
• The name “Indopria” combines “Indo”
(representing India) and “pria” (meaning “little
wasp”).
• The inclusion of “Indo” signifies the country, and
the species name “angulata" (Latin) refers to the
specialised characteristic of its wings.
• Distinctive Features:
❖ Semi-abrupt 3-segmented Clava
❖ Paddle-shaped forewings with angular frenal
gutters
❖ Elongated marginal fringes
❖ Its specialised wing morphology suggests
adaptation to aquatic habitats.
• Indopria wasps, including Diapriid, play a crucial
role in maintaining ecological balance.
• Initial research indicates the distribution of
Indopria angulata in Odisha, West Bengal, and the
Andaman Islands.
{Prelims – Envi – Species} Vechur Cow
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❖ Context (TH): Dr. Sosamma Iype, along with her
students, played a key role in saving the Vechur
breed from extinction through conservation
efforts.
❖ Dr. Sosamma Iype won the Padma Shri in 2022 for
saving and resurrecting the indigenous Vechur
cow breed.
• Vechur Cow, named after Vechoor village in
Kerala, is a rare breed of Bos indicus cattle.
• It holds the Guinness World Record for being the
smallest cattle breed.
• Size and Weight: Averages about 90 cm in height
and weight around 130 kg.
• It is known for its high milk production relative to
its lower food intake and maintenance compared
to hybrid varieties.
• It yields up to 3 litres of milk a day, which is lower
compared to hybrid varieties.
• Recent studies suggest that Vechur cow's milk
contains more of the beta-casein variety A2.
• The lactoferrin protein in Vechur cow's milk has
been found to have enhanced antimicrobial,
antiviral, antitumor, immunodeficiency, and anti-
inflammatory properties compared to other
mammals.
• It thrives in local conditions, making it well-suited
for traditional farming practices.
• Unlike many other breeds, the Vechur cow has
maintained its genetic purity over centuries.
• It has not undergone extensive crossbreeding
with larger commercial cattle.
• The popularity of Vechur cows declined after the
1960s due to crossbreeding with exotic varieties.
35 March 2024 CA