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Chapter 6
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
6.1 Practice Problems

[ ][ ] [ ]
−2 −4 2 −2 6
1. Ax1 = −2 1 2 0 = 6 = ̸ λx1 for any λ, so x1 is not an eigenvector.
4 2 5 1 −3
[ ][ ] [ ]
−2 −4 2 −2 −6
Ax2 = −2 1 2 3 = 9 = 3x2 , so x2 is an eigenvector.
4 2 5 1 3
[ ][ ] [ ]
−2 −4 2 1 −8
Ax3 = −2 1 2 2 = 2 ̸= λx3 , for any λ, so x3 is not an eigenvector.
4 2 5 1 13
[ ] [ ]
−1 −4 1 4
2. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − 3I2 = ∼ . Solving, we obtain
−1 −4 0 0
[ ] {[ ]}
−4 −4
x=s . A basis for the λ = 3 eigenspace is .
1 1
([ ] [ ])
3 1 1 0
3. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI2 ) = det −λ
2 2 0 1
([ ])
3−λ 1
= det = λ2 − 5λ + 4.
2 2−λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 5λ + 4 = (λ − 1) (λ − 4) = 0 ⇒ λ = 1 and λ = 4.
Eigenspace of λ = 1: [ ] [ ]
2 1 2 1
A − (1) I2 = ∼ ,
2 1 0 0
{[ ]}
1
so a basis for this eigenspace is .
−2
−1 1 1 −1
A − 4I2 = ∼ ,
2 −2 0 0
{[ ]}
1
1
([ ] [ ])
1 0 0 1 0 0
4. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI3 ) = det 2 0 0 −λ 0 1 0
−2 1 1 0 0 1
([ ])
1−λ 0 0
= det 2 −λ 0 = −λ3 + 2λ2 − λ.
−2 1 1−λ
521
522 Chapter 6: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
2
Eigenvalues: −λ3 + 2λ2 − λ = −λ (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0 and λ = 1.
Eigenspace of λ = 0:
[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 1 0 0
A − (0) I3 = 2 0 0 ∼ 0 1 1 ,
−2 1 1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
0
so a basis for this eigenspace is 1 .
−1
[ ]  1 −1 0 
0 0 0 2
A − (1) I3 = 2 −1 0 ∼  0 0 0 ,
−2 1 0 0 0 0
{[ ] [ ]}
1 0
so a basis for this eigenspace is 2 , 0 .
0 1
[ ]
−2 0
5. For example, A = .
0 5
6. (a) False. The zero vector is not an eigenvector.

(b) True, because A (u1 + u2 ) = Au1 + Au2 = λu1 + λu2 = λ (u1 + u2 ) .
[ ]
1 0
(c) False. For example, A = has 0 as an eigenvalue, but the column space of A is
0 0
{[ ]}
1
span ̸= R 2 .
0
[ ] [ ]
2 0 1 0
(d) False. ∼ but these matrices have different eigenvalues.
0 2 0 1
6.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

[ ][ ] [
]
1 3 −3 3
1. Ax1 = = = (−1) x1 , so x1 is an eigenvector with associated eigenvalue
2 2 2 −2
λ = −1.[ ][ ] [ ]
1 3 1 −2
Ax2 = = ̸= λx2 for any λ, so x2 is not an eigenvector.
2 2 −1 0
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
1 3 −2 −8 −2
Ax3 = = = 4 = 4x3 , so x3 is an eigenvector with associated
2 2 −2 −8 −2
eigenvalue λ = 4.
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 0 4
2. Ax1 = = ̸= λx1 for any λ, so x1 is not an eigenvector.
0 3 2 6
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 1 5
Ax2 = = ̸= λx2 for any λ, so x2 is not an eigenvector.
0 3 3 9
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
−1 2 1 3 1
Ax3 = = =3 = 3x3 , so x3 is an eigenvector with associated eigenvalue
0 3 2 6 2
λ = 3.
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
2 7 2 −3 3 −3
3. Ax1 = 0 −1 0 1 = −1 = (−1) 1 = (−1) x1 ,
0 −2 1 1 −1 1
so x1 is an eigenvector with associated eigenvalue λ = −1.
Section 6.1: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 523
[ ][ ] [ ]
2 7 2 −2 −2
Ax2 = 0 −1 0 0 = 0 = 1x2 ,
0 −2 1 1 1
so x2 is[an eigenvector
] [with] associated
[ ] eigenvalue
[ ] λ = 1.
2 7 2 1 2 1
Ax3 = 0 −1 0 0 = 0 = 2 0 = 2x3 ,
0 −2 1 0 0 0
so x3 is an eigenvector with associated eigenvalue λ = 2.
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
3 −1 0 1 2 1
4. Ax1 = −1 3 0 1 = 2 = 2 1 = 2x1 ,
−1 1 2 1 2 1
so x1 is[an eigenvector]with
[ associated
] [ ] eigenvalue
[ ] λ = 2.
3 −1 0 1 2 1
Ax2 = −1 3 0 1 = 2 = 2 1 = 2x2 ,
−1 1 2 0 0 0
so x2 is[an eigenvector]with
[ associated
] [ eigenvalue
] λ = 2.
3 −1 0 1 1
Ax3 = −1 3 0 2 = 5 ̸= λx3 for any λ,
−1 1 2 −1 −1
so x3 is not an eigenvector.
      
6 −3 1 0 1 3 1
 0 3 1 0  1   3   1 
Ax1 = 
0 0  0   0 
5. = = 3   = 3x1 ,
−6 6 0
−3 3 −2 3 0 0 0
so x1 isan eigenvector withassociated
   eigenvalue  λ = 3.
6 −3 1 0 1 −1
 0 3 1 0  2   5 
Ax2 =  ̸= λx2 for any λ,
0 0   −1   6 
=
−6 6
−3 3 −2 3 0 5
so x2 isnot an eigenvector.       
6 −3 1 0 1 0 1
 0 3 1 0  1   0   1 
Ax3 = 
0 0   −3   0 
= 0
−3 
= = 0x3 ,
−6 6
−3 3 −2 3 −2 0 −2
so x3 is an eigenvector with associated eigenvalue λ = 0.
      
5 5 1 8 1 −6 1
 8 2 1 8   1   −6   1 
Ax1 = 
0  0   0 
= (−6) 
0 
6. = = (−6) x1 ,
−6 6 −9
−7 −1 −2 −10 −2 12 −2
so x1 isan eigenvector with associated
  eigenvalue  λ = − 6.
5 5 1 8 1 10
 8 2 1 8   1   10 
0  0   0 
=
−6 6 −9
−7 −1 −2 −10 0 −8
so x2 isnot an eigenvector.     
5 5 1 8 1 5
 8 2 1 8  2   2 
0   −2   24 
=
−6 6 −9
−7 −1 −2 −10 −1 5
so x3 is not an eigenvector.
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
2 7 1 0 −1 7
7. det (A − 3I2 ) = det −3 = det = 4 ̸= 0,
−1 6 0 1 −1 3
so λ = 3 is not an eigenvalue of A.
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 5 1 0 −5 5
8. det (A − 6I2 ) = det −6 = det = 0,
4 2 0 1 4 −4
so λ = 6 is an eigenvalue of A.
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
0 2 0 1 0 0 2 2 0
9. det (A − (−2) I3 ) = det 2 0 0 − (−2) 0 1 0 = det 2 2 0 = 0, so λ = −2
2 2 −2 0 0 1 2 2 0
is an eigenvalue of A.
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
6 3 −1 1 0 0 5 3 −1
10. det (A − 1I3 ) = det −4 −1 1 −1 0 1 0 = det −4 −2 1 = 2 ̸= 0, so
18 6 −4 0 0 1 18 6 −5
λ = 1 is not an eigenvalue of A.
[ ] [ ]
−3 −3 −3 −3
11. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − 4I2 = ˜ . Solving, we obtain
1 1 0 0
[ ] {[ ]}
−1 −1
x=s . A basis for the λ = 4 eigenspace is .
1 1
[ ] [ ]
3 4 3 4
12. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − (−5) I2 = ˜ . Solving, we obtain
3 4 0 0
[ 4 ] {[ 4 ]}
−3 −3
x=s . A basis for the λ = −5 eigenspace is .
1 1
[ ] [ ]
4 −10 4 −10
2 −5 0 0
[ 5 ] {[ 5 ]}
x = s 2 . A basis for the λ = 2 eigenspace is 2 .
1 1
[ ] [ ]
−8 12 −8 12
14. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A −(−3) I2 = ˜ . Solving, we obtain
−8 12 0 0
[ 3 ] {[ 3 ]}
x = s 2 . A basis for the λ = −3 eigenspace is 2 .
1 1
[ ] [ ]
2 −3 7 2 −3 7
15. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − 4I3 = 4 −3 5 ˜ 0 3 −9 . Solving, we
4 −3 5 0 0 0
[ ] {[ ]}
1 1
obtain x = s 3 . A basis for the λ = 4 eigenspace is 3 .
1 1
[ ] [ ]
2 5 −7 2 5 −7
16. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A−(−4) I3 = −2 15 −13 ˜ 0 20 −20 . Solving,
−2 5 −3 0 0 0
[ ] {[ ]}
1 1
we obtain x = s 1 . A basis for the λ = −4 eigenspace is 1 .
1 1
[ ] [ ]
−1 −1 2 −1 −1 2
17. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − 6I3 = 2 −4 2 ˜ 0 −6 6 . Solving,
2 −1 −1 0 0 0
[ ] {[ ]}
1 1
we obtain x = s 1 . A basis for the λ = 6 eigenspace is 1 .
1 1
[ ] [ ]
−10 2 −7 −10 2 −7
18. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A−9I3 = −10 −7 2 ˜ 0 −9 9 . Solving,
 1  −10 2 −7
 1  0 0 0
−2  − 2 
we obtain x = s  1 . A basis for the λ = 9 eigenspace is  1  .
 
1 1
19. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − (−4) I4 =
     
15 −3 −3 8 2 −2 2 0 −1
 13 −1 −5 8   0 12 −18 8   −3 
5
 2 −2 . Solving, we obtain x = s  
2 0   0 6 4 
˜  − 2 .
0 3
−3 3 3 4 0 0 0 0 1
 
 −1 

 − 5  
A basis for the eigenspace of A associated with λ = −4 is  
3
  − 2 .

 3 

1
20. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − (−8) I4 =
     
23 −3 −15 8 2 −2 2 0 −1
 21 −1 −17 8   0 20 −38 8   −3 
5
 2 −2  ˜  . Solving, we obtain x = s  
 − 2 .
2 0 0 0 18 12 3
−3 3 15 12 0 0 0 0 1
 
 −1 

 − 5  
A basis for the λ = −8 eigenspace is 
3 
 − .
2

 3 

1
([ ] [ ])
2 0 1 0
4 −3 0 1
([ ])
2−λ 0
= det = λ2 + λ − 6.
4 −λ − 3
Eigenvalues: λ2 + λ − 6 = (λ + 3) (λ − 2) = 0 ⇒ λ = −3 and λ = 2.
Eigenspace of λ = −3: [ ] [ ]
5 0 5 0
A − (−3) I2 = ˜ ,
4 0 0 0
{[ ]}
0
1
0 0 4 −5
A − 2I2 = ˜ ,
4 −5 0 0
{[ 5 ]}
1
([ ] [ ])
2 6 1 0
1 1 0 1
([ ])
2−λ 6
= det = λ2 − 3λ − 4.
1 1−λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 3λ − 4 = (λ + 1) (λ − 4) = 0 ⇒ λ = −1 and λ = 4.
3 6 3 6
A − (−1) I2 = ˜ ,
1 2 0 0
{[ ]}
−2
1
−2 6 −2 6
A − 4I2 = ˜ ,
1 −3 0 0
{[ ]}
3
1
([ ] [ ])
1 −2 1 0
2 −3 0 1
([ ])
1−λ −2
= det = λ2 + 2λ + 1.
2 −λ − 3
2
Eigenvalues: λ2 + 2λ + 1 = (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −1.
2 −2 2 −2
A − (−1) I2 = ˜ ,
2 −2 0 0
{[ ]}
1
1
([ ] [ ])
−2 8 1 0
1 −4 0 1
([ ])
−λ − 2 8
= det = λ2 + 6λ.
1 −λ − 4
Eigenvalues: λ2 + 6λ = λ (λ + 6) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0 and λ = −6.
−2 8 −2 8
A − 0I2 = ˜ ,
1 −4 0 0
{[ ]}
4
1
4 8 4 8
A − (−6) I2 = ˜ ,
1 2 0 0
{[ ]}
−2
1
([ ] [ ])
3 0 0 1 0 0
−4 5 −1 0 0 1
([ ])
3−λ 0 0
= det 1 2−λ 0 = − (λ − 2) (λ − 3) (λ + 1).
−4 5 −1 − λ
Eigenvalues: − (λ − 2) (λ − 3) (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 2, λ = 3, and λ = −1.
[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 1 0 0
A − 2I3 = 1 0 0 ˜ 0 5 −3 ,
−4 5 −3 0 0 0
 
 0 
so a basis for this eigenspace is  5  .
3
 
1
[ ] [ ]
0 0 0 1 −1 0
A − 3I3 = 1 −1 0 ˜ 0 1 −4 ,
−4 5 −4 0 0 0
{[ ]}
4
1
Eigenspace of λ = −1:
[ ] [ ]
4 0 0 4 0 0
A − (−1) I3 = 1 3 0 ˜ 0 3 0 ,
−4 5 0 0 0 0
{[ ]}
0
1
([ ] [ ])
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
([ ])
1−λ 0 1
= det 1 −λ 0 = λ2 − λ3 .
0 0 −λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − λ3 = −λ2 (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0 and λ = 1.
[ ] [ ]
1 0 1 1 0 0
A − (0) I3 = 1 0 0 ˜ 0 0 1 ,
0 0 0 0 0 0
{[ ]}
0
0
[ ] [ ]
0 0 1 1 −1 0
A − (1) I3 = 1 −1 0 ˜ 0 0 1 ,
0 0 −1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
1
0
([ ] [ ])
2 5 1 1 0 0
27. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI3 ) = det 0 −3 −1 −λ 0 1 0
2 14 4 0 0 1
([ ])
2−λ 5 1
= det 0 −λ − 3 −1 = −λ3 + 3λ2 − 2λ.
2 14 4−λ
Eigenvalues: −λ3 + 3λ2 − 2λ = −λ (λ − 1) (λ − 2) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, λ = 1, and λ = 2.
[ ] [ ]
2 5 1 2 5 1
A − 0I3 = 0 −3 −1 ˜ 0 −3 −1 ,
2 14 4 0 0 0
  


1
3


 1 
so a basis for this eigenspace is  − 3  .

 

1
1 5 1 1 5 1
A − (1) I3 = 0 −4 −1 ˜ 0 −4 −1 ,
2 14 3 0 0 0
 1 
 4 
 4 
1
0 5 1 2 14 2
A − 2I3 = 0 −5 −1 ˜ 0 −5 −1 ,
2 14 2 0 0 0
 


2
5


 

 

1
([ ] [ ])
0 −3 −1 1 0 0
28. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI3 ) = det −1 2 1 −λ 0 1 0
3 −9 −4 0 0 1
([ ])
−λ −3 −1
= det −1 2 − λ 1 = −λ3 − 2λ2 − λ.
3 −9 −λ − 4
2
Eigenvalues: −λ3 − 2λ2 − λ = −λ (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, and λ = −1.
[ ] [ ]
0 −3 −1 −1 2 1
A − 0I3 = −1 2 1 ˜ 0 −3 −1 ,
3 −9 −4 0 0 0
  


1
3


 1 

 

1
[ ] [ ]
1 −3 −1 1 −3 −1
A − (−1) I3 = −1 3 1 ˜ 0 0 0 ,
3 −9 −3 0 0 0
{[ ] [ ]}
3 1
0 1
   
−1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 5 −2 0 0   0 1 0 0 
29. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI4 ) = det  − λ
0 3 1 0  0 0 1 0 
2 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
 
−1 − λ 0 0 0
 5 −2 − λ 0 0  2
= det  = (λ + 2) (λ + 1) (λ − 1) .
0 3 1−λ 0 
2 0 1 1−λ
2
Eigenvalues: (λ + 2) (λ + 1) (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −2, λ = −1, and λ = 1.
   
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 5 0 0 0   0 3 3 0 
A − (−2) I4 = 
0 3 3 0   0 0 1 3 
˜
2 0 1 3 0 0 0 0
 


0 

 3 
so a basis for this eigenspace is   .
 −3 
 
1
   
0 0 0 0 5 −1 0 0
 5 −1 0 0   0 3 2 0 
A − (−1) I4 = 
2 0   0 2 
˜ 11
0 3 0 15
2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
 4 


 


 20 
11

 11 
so a basis for this eigenspace is  30  .

  − 11  

 

1
   
−2 0 0 0 −2 0 0 0
 5 −3 0 0   0 −3 0 0 
A − (1) I4 = 
0 0   0 0 1 0 
˜ ,
0 3
2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 


0 

 0 

 0  
1
   
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
30. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI4 ) = det  − λ
1 0 0 0  0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
 
−λ 0 1 0
 0 1 − λ 0 0 
= det  = λ4 − 2λ3 + 2λ − 1.
1 0 −λ 0 
0 0 0 1−λ
3
Eigenvalues: λ − 2λ + 2λ − 1 = (λ + 1) (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒
4 3
λ = −1 and λ = 1.
   
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
 0 2 0 0   0 2 0 0 
A − (−1) I4 = 
1 0 1 0   2 
˜ ,
0 0 0
0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
 
 −1 
 
 0 

 1  
0
   
−1 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0
 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 
A − (1) I4 = 
1 0 −1 0   0 0 0 0 
˜ ,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
     


0 1 0 

 1   0   0 
so a basis for this eigenspace is   ,   ,  .

 0 1 0 
0 0 1
[ ]
1 0
0 2
[ ]
−3 0
0 0
[ ]
1 0 0
33. For example, A = 0 −2 0 .
0 0 3
[ ]
−1 0 0
34. For example, A = 0 −1 0 .
0 0 4
[ ]
0 1
35. For example, A = , has characteristic polynomial λ2 + 1, so it has no real eigenvalues.
−1 0
 
0 1 0 0
 −1 0 0 0  ( )2
36. For example, A =   , has characteristic polynomial λ2 + 1 , so it has no real
0 0 0 1
0 0 −1 0
eigenvalues.
] [
1 0
37. (a) False. An eigenvalue may be 0, as with the matrix A = , which eigenvalues λ = 0 and
0 0
λ = 1. Moreover, by Definition 6.1, an eigenvector must be a nonzero vector.
(b) True, by Theorem 6.6.
38. (a) False. For example, if the corresponding eigenvalue is λ = 0, so that Au = 0u = 0, then because
u ̸= 0, u is not a multiple of Au.
[ ]
1 0
(b) False. For example, A = has eigenvalues λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 2, but λ1 + λ2 = 3 is not an
0 2
eigenvalue.
39. (a) True, since A − λI will be a diagonal matrix with aii − λ along the diagonal, so det (A − λI) have
have aii − λ as a factor.
(b) False. Since 0 is an eigenvalue, by the Unifying Theorem
[ ] A is not invertible, and therefore the
1 0
n
columns of A do not span R . For instance, A = has eigenvalue λ = 0 and col(A) ≠ R2 .
0 0
40. (a) True. Since 0 is an eigenvalue, by the Unifying Theorem there exists a nonzero vector x such that
Ax = 0, and thus nullity (A) > 0.
[ ]
1 0
(b) False. The eigenvalues of are 0 and 1. But upon interchanging rows, we have only λ = 0
0 0
[ ]
0 0
as an eigenvalue of .
1 0
[ ]
0 0
41. (a) False, has only the eigenvalue 0.
1 0
(b) True. The characteristic polynomial p (λ) = det (A − λI) satisfies p (0) = 0, because 0 is an
eigenvalue. So the constant term in characteristic polynomial must be 0.
42. (a) True. If D is diagonal and dj is the j th diagonal entry, then Dej = dj ej , where ej is the j th column
of the identity matrix.
[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 1 1 0
(b) False. For example, let A = 0 1 0 and B = 0 1 1 , then A and B have the same
0 0 1 0 0 1
eigenvalues, but A ̸= B.
([ ] [ ])
1 −4 1 0
43. The characteristic polynomial is det (A − λI) = det −λ = λ2 + 2λ + 17. We
5 −3 0 1
evaluate
[ [ ] ]2 [ ]
1 −41 −4 1 0
A2 + 2A + 17I = +2 + 17
5 −35 −3 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−19 8 2 −8 17 0
= + +
−10 −11 10 −6 0 17
[ ]
0 0
=
0 0
.
([ ] [ ])
5 2 1 0
44. The characteristic polynomial is det (A − λI) = det −λ = λ2 − 9λ + 18. We
1 4 0 1
evaluate
[ ]2 [ ] ][
5 2 5 2 1 0
A − 9A + 18I
2
= −9 + 18
1 4 1 4 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
27 18 −45 −18 18 0
= + +
9 18 −9 −36 0 18
[ ]
0 0
= .
0 0
45. The characteristic polynomial is det (A − λI) =

([ ] [ ])
3 −2 2 1 0 0
det 1 −3 4 − λ 0 1 0 = −λ3 + λ2 + 19λ − 49.
−4 5 1 0 0 1
We evaluate
[ ]3 [ ]2
3 −2 2 3 −2 2
−A + A + 19A − 49I
3 2
= − 1 −3 4 + 1 −3 4
−4 5 1 −4 5 1
[ ] [ ]
3 −2 2 1 0 0
+19 1 −3 4 − 49 0 1 0
−4 5 1 0 0 1
[ ] [ ]
−7 28 −38 −1 10 0
= −3 79 −70 + −16 27 −6
87 −93 17 −11 −2 13
[ ] [ ]
57 −38 38 −49 0 0
+ 19 −57 76 + 0 −49 0
−76 95 19 0 0 −49
[ ]
0 0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0
46. The characteristic polynomial is det (A − λI) =

([ ] [ ])
3 3 −2 1 0 0
det 1 −3 4 −λ 0 1 0 = −λ3 + λ2 + 40λ − 106. We evaluate
−4 5 1 0 0 1
[ ]3 [ ]2
3 3 −2 3 3 −2
−A + A + 40A − 106I
3 2
= − 1 −3 4
+ 1 −3 4
−4 5 1 −4 5 1
[ ] [ ]
3 3 −2 1 0 0
+40 1 −3 4 − 106 0 1 0
−4 5 1 0 0 1
[ ] [ ]
−34 −110 76 20 −10 4
= −24 194 −150 + −16 32 −10
171 −178 37 −11 −22 29
[ ] [ ]
120 120 −80 −106 0 0
+ 40 −120 160 + 0 −106 0
−160 200 40 0 0 −106
[ ]
0 0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0
47. (a) A is 6 × 6.
(b) λ = 3, λ = 2, and λ = −1.
(c) A is invertible, since 0 is not an eigenvalue.
(d) The largest possible dimension of an eigenspace is 3, corresponding to λ = 3.
48. (a) A is 7 × 7.
(b) λ = 0, λ = 1, and λ = −2.
(c) A is not invertible, since 0 is an eigenvalue.
(d) The largest possible dimension of an eigenspace is 3, corresponding to either (or both) λ = 1 or
λ = −2.
49. If 0 is not an eigenvalue, then T is onto, by The Unifying Theorem - Version 8, (m)→(d).
50. Since λ is an eigenvalue of A, there exists a nonzero vector u such that Au = λu. Multiply by 4 to
obtain (4A) u = (4λ) u, which shows that 4λ is an eigenvalue of 4A.
51. Since λ = 1 is an eigenvalue of A, det (A − λI) = det (A − I) = 0. Thus A − I is singular.
52. Let λ be the eigenvalue associated with u, Au = λu. Multiply by A to obtain A2 u = λ (Au) =
λ (λu) = λ2 u. Thus u is an eigenvector of A2 associated with eigenvalue λ2 .
53. If Au = λ1 u = λ2 u, then (λ1 − λ2 ) u = 0. Since u is an eigenvector, u ̸= 0, and hence λ1 − λ2 = 0.

So λ1 = λ2 , and u cannot be associated with distinct eigenvalues.
54. Since 5 is an eigenvalue of A, there exists a nonzero vector u such that Au = 5u. Multiply by A to
obtain A2 u = 5 (Au) = 5 (5u) = 25u, which shows that 25 is an eigenvalue of A2 .
55. Since Au = A0 = 0 = λ0 for every λ, we would have that every value λ would be an associated
eigenvalue of u.
56. Consider the case where A is upper triangular,

   
a11 a12 · · · a1n λ 0 ··· 0
 0 a22 · · · a2n   0 λ · · · 0 
A − λIn =  ... .. ..  −  . . .. .. 
.   .. .. . 
..
. . .
0 0 · · · ann 0 0 ··· λ
 
a11 − λ a12 ··· a1n
 0 a22 − λ · · · a2n 
= .. .. .. .. .

. . . .
0 0 · · · ann − λ
This is an upper triangular matrix, hence the determinant is the product along the diagonal, det (A − λIn ) =
(a11 − λ) (a22 − λ) · · · (ann − λ). Set this equal to zero to obtain that the eigenvalues of A are a11 , a22 ,
. . . ,ann - the diagonal terms of A. The
( case
) where A is lower triangular is established in the same way,
or by appealing to Exercise 63, det AT = det (A), and the result for upper triangular matrices.
) λ ̸= 0. (Let u be)an eigenvector of A associated with λ, so Au = λu. Multiply by

57. Since A is( invertible,
λ−1 A−1 , λ−1 A−1 (Au) = λ−1 A−1 (λu) ⇒ λ−1 u = A−1 u, from which we conclude that λ−1 is
an eigenvalue of A−1 with associated eigenvector u.
58. The characteristic polynomial is
([ ] [ ])
a b 1 0
det (A − λI2 ) = det −λ
c d 0 1
([ ])
a−λ b
= det = λ2 − (a + d)λ + ad − bc
c d−λ
By the quadratic formula, we have
√
2
a+d± (a + d) − 4 (ad − bc)
λ=
2
59. There exist λ1 and λ2 such that Au = λ1 u and Bu = λ2 u. Thus (AB) u = A (Bu) = A (λ2 u) =
λ2 (Au) = λ2 (λ1 u) = (λ1 λ2 ) u, and so u is an eigenvector of AB with associated eigenvalue λ1 λ2 .
60. We’ll show this by induction on k. We are given that Au = λu, and we assume Ak−1 u = λk−1 u. Now
multiply by A to obtain Ak u = λk−1 (Au) = λk−1 (λu) = λk u. Thus we conclude that Ak u = λk u for
all k, and hence Ak has eigenvalue λk and associated eigenvector u.
   
1 1
 1   1 
61. Since each row of A adds to zero, we have A    
 ...  = 0 = 0  ... . This implies that A is not invertible
1 1
since null (A) is not trivial. Also, we see directly that λ = 0 is an eigenvalue of A.
62. The condition a + b = c + d ⇒ d = a + b − c. Substitute into the characteristic polynomial from
Exercise 58,
det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 − (a + d)λ + ad − bc
= λ2 − (a + a + b − c)λ + a (a + b − c) − bc
= λ2 − ((a + b) + (a − c)) λ + a (a − c) + b(a − c)
= λ2 − ((a + b) + (a − c)) λ + (a + b) (a − c)
= (λ − (a + b)) (λ − (a − c))
Thus the eigenvalues are λ1 = a + b and λ2 = a − c.
( )
T
63. Since λ is an eigenvalue of A, det (A − λIn ) = 0. Thus 0 = det (A − λIn ) =
( T )
det A − λIn , and hence λ is an eigenvalue of A . T
64. We have Au = λu, and consider (A − cIn ) u = Au − cu = λu − cu = (λ − c) u. Thus λ − c is an

eigenvalue of A − cIn with associated eigenvector u.
     
1 c 1
 1   c   1 
65. Since each row of A adds to c, we obtain A   
 ...  =  ...
 = c  . . Thus λ = c is an eigenvalue of
  .. 
1 c 1
A.
66. (a) We prove this by induction on n. When n = 1, det (A − λI1 ) = a11 − λ is a polynomial of degree
1. By considering a cofactor expansion of det (A − λIn ) along row one, we obtain
det (A − λIn ) = (a11 − λ) C11 + a12 C12 + · · · + a1n C1n
Now
    
a22 − λ · · · a2n a22 ··· ann
C11 = det  ..
.
..
.
..
.
 = det  ..
.
..
.
..  − λI
. n−1

an2 ··· ann − λ an2 ··· ann
which by induction is a polynomial of degree n − 1. Hence the first term (a11 − λ) C11 is a
polynomial of degree n. Consider the cofactor C12 ,
 
a21 a23 ··· a2n
 a 31 a33 − λ ··· a3n 
det  
1+2
C12 = (−1)  ... .. .. .. 
. . .
an1 an3 · · · ann − λ
The degree of C12 cannot exceed n −1, since there are only n − 1 entries which contain λ. Similarly,
each C1i has degree less than n for each i > 1. As a result, the degree of det (A − λIn ) will match
the degree n of the first term (a11 − λ) C11 , as the other terms have degree less than n. We
conclude that the characteristic polynomial of an n × n matrix has degree n.
n
(b) The coefficient of λn is (−1) . (This can be proved by induction.)
(c) The constant term of the characteristic polynomial is the evaluation of det (A − λIn ) at λ = 0.
But this is also equal to det (A − (0) In ) = det (A).
(d) Write det (A − λIn ) = (λ1 − λ) (λ2 − λ) · · · (λn − λ). Evaluate this at λ = 0 to obtain det (A) =
λ1 λ2 · · · λn .
   
0 0 −2 −1 1 0 0 0
 1 1 6 5   0 1 0 0 
67. det  − λ = λ4 − 6λ3 + 13λ2 − 12λ + 4
2 0 4 1  0 0 1 0 
−2 0 −2 1 0 0 0 1
2 2
= (λ − 1) (λ − 2) = 0 ⇒ λ = 1 and λ = 2 are the eigenvalues, with bases for their eigenspaces:
       1 
 0 1   −1 −2 
   
 1   0   5   92 
λ=1⇒   ,  ,λ=2⇒   ,  .
 0
 −1  
 1 0 
0 1 0 1
Section 6.2: Diagonalization 535
   
−20 −9 14 18 1 0 0 0
 40 17 −18 −28   0 1 0 0 
68. det  − λ = λ4 − 2λ3 − 13λ2 + 14λ + 24
17 9 −10 −11  0 0 1 0 
−17 −9 14 15 0 0 0 1
= (λ − 2) (λ − 4) (λ + 3) (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 2, λ = 4, λ = −3, and λ = −1 are the eigenvalues, with
bases for their eigenspaces:
   
 1  
 1 
   −3  
 −2 
λ=2⇒   ,λ=4⇒  3 
 − 2  ,
 −1 
  

 

1 1
 1   

 
 
 1 
 1  2
 − 5  
λ = −3 ⇒  − 2  , λ = −1 ⇒   3  .
      −1 
 −1 
  
 
1 1
   
10 0 1 −3 3 1 0 0 0 0
 23 −1 6 −3 2   0 1 0 0 0 
   
69. det  −24 0 −1 9 −9  − λ  0 0 1 0 0  = −λ5 + 5λ3 − 4λ
 14 0 1 −5 5   0 0 0 1 0  
−10 0 −1 3 −3 0 0 0 0 1
= −λ (λ − 1) (λ − 2) (λ + 2) (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, λ = 1, λ = 2, λ = −2, and λ = −1 are the
eigenvalues, with bases for their eigenspaces:
     

 0   
 −1   
 −1 
 −1 
   0 
   −2 
 

     
λ=0⇒  0  ,λ=1⇒  3  ,λ=2⇒  2  ,

  1   
  −1  
  −1  

 
 
 
 
 

1 1 1
   

 −1   
 0  

 −3   
 1  
   
λ = −2 ⇒  3  , λ = −1 ⇒  0  .

  −2   
  0 

 
 
 

1 0
   
5 0 2 1 −1 1 0 0 0 0
 6 1 4 3 −3   0 1 0 0 0 
   
70. det  −6 0 −3 −3 3  − λ  0 0 1 0 0  = −λ5 + 8λ4 − 24λ3 + 34λ2 − 23λ + 6 =
 2 0 2 3 −2   0 0 0 1 0  
−4 0 − 2 − 1 2 0 0 0 0 1
3
− (λ − 2) (λ − 3) (λ − 1)
⇒ λ = 2, λ = 3, and λ = 1 are the eigenvalues, with bases for their eigenspaces:
       1   1  
 −1   −1  
 0 −2  

 −3   
 −2    1   0   0  
 2

         
     
λ = 2 ⇒  3  , λ = 3 ⇒  2  , λ = 1 ⇒  0 , − 3 , 3  .

  −2   
  −1   
  0   2  
 1   0 
2 


 
 
 
 
 

1 1  0 
0 1

[ ][ ]4 [ ]−1
4 4 1 2
−1 1 0 1 2
1. (a) A = P D P =
2 5 0 −1 2 5
[ ][ 4 ][ ] [ ]
1 2 1 0 5 −2 1 0
= =
2 5 0 (−1)
4
−2 1 0 1
[ ][ ]4 [ ]−1
1 2 1 −1 0 0 1 2 1
−1
4
(b) A = P D P 4
= 1 −1 0 0 1 0 1 −1 0
0 2 −1 0 0 2 0 2 −1
[ ] 4
 1 4 1  [ ]
1 2 1 (−1) 0 0 5 5 5 7 −6 −9
 1 1 
0  0   5 −5
1
= 1 −1 0 (1)
4
5 = 0 1 0
0 2 −1 0 0 2 4 2
− 25 −3 −6 6 10
5 5
[ ][ ][ ]−1 [ ]
1 1 2 0 1 1 5 −3
2. (a) We may obtain A as = .
1 2 0 −1 1 2 6 −4
 
[ ][ ][ ]−1 1 2 7
−1 1 1 −2 0 0 −1 1 1 3 3 3
 − 13 4
− 31 
(b) We may obtain A as 0 −1 1 0 2 0 0 −1 1 = 3 .
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 4
− 43 − 32
3
([ ] [ ])
−3 −2 1 0
3. (a) det −λ = λ2 − 3λ + 2 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1, and λ2 = 2.
10 6 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−3 −2 1 0 −4 −2
Because − (1) = , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 1 is
10 6 0 1 10 5
{[ ]} [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 −3 −2 1 0 −5 −2
. Because − (2) = , a basis for the eigenspace of
−2 10 6 0 1 10 4
{[ ]}
2
λ2 = 2 is .
−5
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
−3 −2 1 2 1 0 1 2
We therefore have = .
10 6 −2 −5 0 2 −2 −5
([ ] [ ])
−2 −8 2 1 0 0
(b) det 0 2 0 −λ 0 1 0 = −λ3 + λ2 + 2λ = −λ (λ + 1) (λ − 2) = 0 ⇒ λ1 =
−1 − 2 1 0 0 1
0, λ2 = −1, and λ3 = 2.
Because
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 −8 2 1 0 0 −2 −8 2 1 0 −1
0 2 0 − (0) 0 1 0 = 0 2 0 ∼ 0 1 0 ,
−1 −2 1 0 0 1 −1 −2 1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
1
a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 0 is 0 . Because
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 −8 2 1 0 0 −1 −8 2 1 0 −2
0 2 0 − (−1) 0 1 0 = 0 3 0 ∼ 0 1 0 ,
−1 −2 1 0 0 1 −1 −2 2 0 0 0
{[ ]}
2
a basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = −1 is 0 . Because
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 −8 2 1 0 0 −4 −8 2 1 2 0
0 2 0 −2 0 1 0 = 0 0 0 ∼ 0 0 1 ,
−1 −2 1 0 0 1 −1 −2 −1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
2
a basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = 2 is −1 . We therefore have
0
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
−2 −8 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 2
0 2 0 = 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 .
−1 −2 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0
[ ]
1 2 1
4. For example, A = 1 2 2 has eigenvalues 0, 2, and 8.
1 2 7
5. One of the eigenvalues must be a repeated eigenvalue, of multiplicity 2. Its eigenspace must have di-
mension 2, because the matrix is diagonalizable. The other 3 eigenvalues have eigenspaces of dimension
1.
6.2 Diagonalization
[ ][ ]5 [ ]−1
4 3 2 0 4 3
1. A5 = P D5 P −1 =
1 1 0 −1 1 1
[ ][ 5 ][ ] [ ]
4 3 2 0 1 −3 131 −396
= =
1 1 0 (−1)
5
−1 4 33 −100
[ ][ ]5 [ ]−1
2 1 1 0 2 1
2. A5 = P D5 P −1 =
7 3 0 −3 7 3
[ ][ 5 ][ ] [ ]
2 1 1 0 −3 1 −1707 488
= =
7 3 0 (−3)
5
7 −2 −5124 1465
[ ][ ]5 [ ]−1
1 3 1 1 0 0 1 3 1
3. A5 = P D5 P −1 = 0 −1 2 0 2 0 0 −1 2
0 0 −1 0 0 −1 0 0 −1
[ ]  15 0 [ ] [ ]
1 3 1 0 1 3 7 1 −93 −184
= 0 −1 2  0 25 0  0 −1 −2 = 0 32 66
0 0 −1 0 0 (−1)
5 0 0 −1 0 0 −1
[ ][ ]5 [ ]−1
1 1 −1 3 0 0 1 1 −1
4. A5 = P D5 P −1 = 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 2  [0 0 1 1 0 2
[ ] 5 ] [ ]
1 1 −1 3 0 0 0 2 −1 1 484 −242
= 1 0 1  0 15 0  1 −3 2 = 0 485 −242
1 0 2 0 0 15 0 −1 1 0 484 −241
[ ][ ][ ]−1
2 3 1 0 2 3
5. A = P DP −1 =
3 5 0 −1 3 5
[ ][ ][ ] [ ]
2 3 1 0 5 −3 19 −12
= =
3 5 0 −1 −3 2 30 −19
[ ][ ][ ]−1
4 1 3 0 4 1
6. A = P DP −1 =
7 2 0 1 7 2
[ ][ ][ ] [ ]
4 1 3 0 2 −1 17 −8
= =
7 2 0 1 −7 4 28 −13
[ ][ ][ ]−1
1 1 −1 −1 0 0 1 1 −1
7. A = P DP −1 = 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
[ ][ ][ ] [ ]
1 1 −1 −1 0 0 −1 2 −3 2 −3 4
= 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 −1 2 = 0 −1 2
0 1 1 0 0 1 −1 1 −1 −1 1 −1
[ ][ ][ ]−1
1 2 0 2 0 0 1 2 0
−1
8. A = P DP = 3 1 2 0 1 0 3 1 2
1 −1 1 0 0 1 1 −1 1
[ ][ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 0 2 0 0 3 −2 4 4 −2 4
= 3 1 2 0 1 0 −1 1 −2 = 9 −5 12
1 −1 1 0 0 1 −4 3 −5 3 −2 5
([ ] [ ])
1 −2 1 0 2
9. det −λ = λ2 − 2λ + 1 = (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 1.
0 1 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] {[ ]}
1 −2 1 0 0 −2 1
Since − (1) = , a basis for the eigenspace of λ = 1 is . The
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
multiplicity
[ ] of the eigenvalue λ = 1 is two, which exceeds the dimension of its eigenspace. Thus
1 −2
is not diagonalizable.
0 1
([ ] [ ])
−2 2 1 0
10. det −λ = λ2 + 2λ = λ (λ + 2) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 0 and λ2 = −2.
0 0 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] {[ ]}
−2 2 1 0 −2 2 1
Since − (0) = , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 0 is . Since
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] {[ ]}
−2 2 1 0 0 2 0 2 1
− (−2) = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = −2 is .
0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
−2 2 1 1 0 0 1 1
We thus have = .
0 0 1 0 0 −2 1 0
([ ] [ ])
7 −8 1 0
11. det −λ = λ2 − 2λ − 3 = : (λ + 1) (λ − 3) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = −1 and λ2 = 3.
4 −5 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
7 −8 1 0 8 −8 8 −8
Since − (−1) = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = −1
4 −5 0 1 4 −4 0 0
{[ ]} [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 7 −8 1 0 4 −8 4 −8
is . Since −3 = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of
1 4 −5 0 1 4 −8 0 0
{[ ]}
2
λ2 = 3 is .
1
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
7 −8 1 2 −1 0 1 2
We thus have = .
4 −5 1 1 0 3 1 1
([ ] [ ])
7 −10 1 0
12. det −λ = λ2 − 5λ + 6 = : (λ − 2) (λ − 3) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 2 and λ2 = 3.
2 −2 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
7 −10 1 0 5 −10 5 −10
Since −2 = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 2 is
2 −2 0 1 2 −4 0 0
{[ ]} [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2 7 −10 1 0 4 −10 4 −10
. Since −3 = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of
1 2 −2 0 1 2 −5 0 0
{[ ]}
5/2
λ2 = 3 is .
1
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
7 −10 2 5/2 2 0 2 5/2
We thus have = .
2 −2 1 1 0 3 1 1
([ ] [ ])
1 2 1 1 0 0
13. det 0 −3 −2 −λ 0 1 0 = λ − λ3 = −λ (λ − 1) (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 0, λ2 = 1,
2 4 2 0 0 1
and λ3 = −1.
 
[ ] [ ] [ ] 1 0 − 13
1 2 1 01 0 1 2 1
 2 ,
Since 0 −3 −2 − (0) 0 = 0 −3 −2 ˜  0 1
0 1 3 
2 4 2 10 0 2 4 2 0 0 0
 


1
3


 
a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 0 is  − 32  .

 

1
 
[ ] [ ] [ ] 1 0 − 12
1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1
 1 ,
Since 0 −3 −2 − 1 0 1 0 = 0 −4 −2 ˜  0 1 2 
2 4 2 0 0 1 2 4 1 0 0 0
 


1
2


 

 

1
[ ] [ ] [ ]  
1 2 1 1 0 0 2 2 1 1 0 − 12
Since 0 −3 −2 − (−1) 0 1 0 = 0 −2 −2 ˜  0 1 1 ,
2 4 2 0 0 1 2 4 3 0 0 0
 
 1
2

a basis for the eigenspace of λ3 = −1 is  −1  .
 1 
 1   1 −1
[ ] 1 1 [ ] 1 1
1 2 1 3 2 2 0 0 0 3 2 2
   
We thus have 0 −3 −2 =  − 2 − 1 −1  0 1 0  − 2 − 1 −1  .
2 4 2 3
1
2
1 1 0 0 −1 3
1
2
1 1
([ ] [ ])
4 −1 −2 1 0 0
14. det −6 3 4 −λ 0 1 0 = −λ3 + 3λ2 − 2λ = −λ (λ − 1) (λ − 2) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 0,
8 −2 −4 0 0 1
λ2 = 1, and λ3 = 2.  
[ ] [ ] [ ] 1 0 − 13
4 −1 −2 0 1 4 −1 −2
0
 2 ,
Since −6 3 4 − (0) 0 = −6
0 13 4 ˜ 0 1 3 
8 −2 −4 1 0 8 −2 −4
0 0 0 0
 


1
3


 

 

1
 
[ ] [ ] [ ] 1 0 − 12
4 −1 −2 1 0 0 3 −1 −2
 1 ,
Since −6 3 4 − 1 0 1 0 = −6 2 4 ˜ 0 1 2 
8 −2 −4 0 0 1 8 −2 −5 0 0 0
 


1
2


 

 

1
[ ] [ ] [ ]  1 0 −1 
4 −1 −2 1 0 0 2 −1 − 2 2
Since −6 3 4 − 2 0 1 0 = −6 1 4 ˜ 0 1 1 ,
8 −2 −4 0 0 1 8 −2 −6 0 0 0
 1 
 2 
a basis for the eigenspace of λ3 = 2 is  −1  .
 
1
   −1
[ ] 1 1 1 [ ] 1 1 1
4 −1 −2 3 2 2 0 0 0 3 2 2
   
We thus have −6 3=  − 2 − 1 −1 
4  − 2 − 1 −1  . 0 1 0
8 −2 −4 3
1
2
1 1
3
1
2
1 1 0 0 2
([ ] [ ])
0 1 −1 1 0 0
2
15. det 1 0 1 −λ 0 1 0 = −λ3 + 2λ2 − λ = −λ (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 0, and
1 −1 2 0 0 1
λ2 = 1.
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
0 1 −1 1 0 0 0 1 −1 1 0 1
Since 1 0 1 −0 0 1 0 = 1 0 1 ˜ 0 1 −1 ,
1 −1 2 0 0 1 1 −1 2 0 0 0
{[ ]}
−1
a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 0 is 1 .
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
0 1 −1 1 0 0 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1
Since 1 0 1 −1 0 1 0 = 1 −1 1 ˜ 0 0 0 ,
1 −1 2 0 0 1 1 −1 1 0 0 0
{[ ] [ ]}
1 −1
a basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = 1 is 1 , 0 .
0 1
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
1 −1
0 −1 1 −1 0 0 0 −1 1 −1
We thus have 0 1
1 = 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 .
−1 1
2 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
([ ] [ ])
3 5 3 1 0 0
2
16. det −5 −7 −3 − λ 0 1 0 = −λ3 − 3λ2 + 4 = − (λ − 1) (λ + 2) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1,
3 3 1 0 0 1
and λ2[ = −2. ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
3 5 3 1 0 0 5 5 3 1 1 0
Since −5 −7 −3 − (−2) 0 1 0 = −5 −5 −3 ˜ 0 0 1 ,
3 3 1 0 0 1 3 3 3 0 0 0
]} {[
−1
0
The
[ multiplicity ] of the eigenvalue λ2 = 1 is two, which exceeds the dimension of its eigenspace. Thus
3 5 3
−5 −7 −3 is not diagonalizable.
3 3 1
   
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
 0 2 0 0   0 1 0 0 
17. det  − λ = λ4 − 10λ3 + 35λ2 − 50λ + 24
0 0 3 0  0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1
= (λ −1) (λ − 2) (λ −3) (λ − 4) = 0 ⇒  λ1  = 1, λ2 = 2, λ3= 3,
 and λ4 = 4. 
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
 0 2 0 0   0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0   0 0 1 0 
Since  − 1
0 0 3 0  0 0 1 0   0 0 2 0   0 0 0 1 
= ˜ ,
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
 


1 

 0 
a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 1 is   .

 0  
0
       
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
 0 2 0 0   0 1 0 0   0 0 0 0   0 0 1 0 
Since  − 2
0 0 3 0  0 0 1 0   0 0 1 0   0 0 0 1 
= ˜ ,
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
 


0 

 1 

 0  
0
       
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 −2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
 0 2 0 0   0 1 0 0   0 −1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
Since  − 3
0 0 3 0  0 0 1 0   0 0 0 0   0 0 0 1 
= ˜ ,
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 


0 

 0 

 1  
0
       
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 −3 0 0 1 1 0 0 − 13
 0 2 0 0   0 1 0 0   0 −2 0 0   0 
Since   − 4  =  ˜

0 1 0 ,
0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 1  

 
 3  
a basis for the eigenspace of λ4 = 4 is   0  .

 0 
 
1
     −1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 31 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 13
 0 2 0 0   0 1 0 0   0 2 0 0  
We thus have   =      0 1 0 0  .

0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1
   
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 1 1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
18. det  − λ = λ4 − λ3 − λ2 + λ
1 0 0 0  0 0 1 0 
−1 0 1 −1 0 0 0 1
2
= λ (λ+ 1) (λ − 1) = 0  ⇒  λ1 = 0, λ2 =  −1, and
 λ3 = 1.   
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 1 1 0 0   0 1 0 0   1 0 0 0   0 0 1 0 
Since  −1 
0  0 0 1 0   1 0 −1 0   0 0 0 1 
= ˜ , a basis for
1 0 0
−1 0 1 −1  0  0 0 1 −1 0 1 −2 0 0 0 0


0 

 1 
the eigenspace of λ3 = 1 is   .

 0  
0
The
 multiplicity of the eigenvalue λ3 = 1 is two, which exceeds the dimension of its eigenspace. Thus
1 0 0 0
 1 1 0 0 
 1 0 0 0 
is not diagonalizable.
−1 0 1 −1
([ ] [ ])
−3 4 1 0
19. det −λ = (λ2 − 1) = (λ − 1) (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = −1 and λ2 = 1.
−2 3 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−3 4 1 0 −2 4 −1 2
Since − (−1) = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = −1 is
−2 3 0 1 −2 4 0 0
{[ ]}
2
.
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−3 4 1 0 −4 4 −1 1
−2 3 0 1 −2 2 0 0
{[ ]}
1
.
1
[ ][ ][ ]−1
2 1 −1 0 2 1
The matrix A is diagonalizable, with A = . Thus
1 1 0 1 1 1
[ ][ ]1000 [ ]−1
2 1 −1 0 2 1
A1000 =
1 1 0 1 1 1
[ ][ ][ ] [ ]
2 1 (−1) 1000
0 1 −1 1 0
= = .
1 1 0 11000 −1 2 0 1
([ ] [ ])
5 −4 1 0
20. det −λ = (λ − 1) (λ − 3) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 3.
2 −1 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
5 −4 1 0 4 −4 1 −1
2 −1 0 1 2 −2 0 0
{[ ]}
1
.
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
5 −4 1 0 2 −4 1 −2
2 −1 0 1 2 −4 0 0
{[ ]}
2
.
1
[ ][ ][ ]−1
1 2 1 0 1 2
1 1 0 3 1 1
[ ][ ]1000 [ ]−1
1 2 1 0 1 2
A1000 =
1 1 0 3 1 1
[ ] [ 1000 ][ ] [ ]
1 2 1 0 −1 2 (−1 + 2 · 31000 ) (2 − 2 · 31000 )
= = .
1 1 0 3 1000 1 −1 (−1 + 31000 ) (2 − 31000 )
([ ] [ ])
7 −8 1 0
21. det −λ = λ2 − 2λ − 3 = (λ + 1) (λ − 3) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = −1 and λ2 = 3.
4 −5 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
7 −8 1 0 8 −8 1 −1
Since − (−1) = ∼ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = −1
4 −5 0 1 4 −4 0 0
{[ ]}
1
is .
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
7 −8 1 0 4 −8 1 −2
4 −5 0 1 4 −8 0 0
{[ ]}
2
.
1
[ ][ ][ ]−1
1 2 −1 0 1 2
1 1 0 3 1 1
[ ][ ]1000 [ ]−1
1 2 −1 0 1 2
A1000 =
1 1 0 3 1 1
[ ][ ][ ] [ ( 1000 ) ( ) ]
1 2 1 0 −1 2 2 3 − 1 2 − 2 31000
= = .
1 1 0 31000 1 −1 31000 − 1 2 − 31000
([ ] [ ])
7 −10 1 0
22. det −λ = λ2 − 5λ + 6 = (λ − 2) (λ − 3) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 2 and λ2 = 3.
2 −2 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
7 −10 1 0 5 −10 1 −2
2 −2 0 1 2 −4 0 0
{[ ]}
2
.
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
7 −10 1 0 4 −10 2 −5
2 −2 0 1 2 −5 0 0
{[ ]}
5
.
2
[ ][ ][ ]−1
2 5 2 0 2 5
1 2 0 3 1 2
[ ][ ]1000 [ ]−1 [ ] [ 1000 ][ ]
1000 2 5 2 0 2 5 2 5 2 0 −2 5
A = =
1 2 0 3 1 2 1 2 0 31000 1 −2
[ ( 1000 ) ( 1000 ) ( 1000 ) ( 1000 ) ]
=
5 (3 ) − 4 (2 ) 10 (21000 ) − 10( 31000 ) .
2 31000 − 2 21000 5 2 −4 3
23. Since the matrix is diagonalizable, there is a basis of eigenvectors of R4 . The one eigenspace has
dimension 2, hence the other eigenspace must have dimension 4 − 2 = 2.
24. Since the matrix is diagonalizable, there is a basis of eigenvectors of R7 . The one eigenspace has
dimension 1, another has dimension 2. Hence the third eigenspace must have dimension 7 − 1 − 2 = 4.
[ ]
0 0
0 1
[ ]
0 0 0
26. For example, A = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
[ ]
1 1
0 1
[ ]
1 1 0
28. For example, A = 0 1 1 .
0 0 1
[ ]
0 1 0
29. For example, A = 0 1 0 has eigenvalues 0, 1, and 2.
0 0 2
[ ]
0 1 0
30. For example, A = 0 1 0 has eigenvalues 0 and 1, and
0 0 0
[ ][ ][ ]−1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
A= 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 .
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
31. (a) True, by Theorem 6.11.
(b) False. A needs a basis of eigenvectors. Being just distinct is not sufficient to guarantee A will be
diagonalizable.
[ ]
1 0
32. (a) False. For example is not invertible, but is diagonalizable.
0 0
( )−1 ( ) −1
(b) True. Suppose A = P DP −1 , then A2 = P 2 D P 2 , and in general Ak = P k D P k , so Ak
is diagonalizable for all k.
[ ] ([ ])
1 0 1 0
33. (a) False. For example is diagonalizable, but rank = 1 < 2.
0 0 0 0
[ ] [ ]
1 1 −1 2
(b) False. Let A = and B = . Then both A and B are diagonalizable, but
0 0 1 0
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 1 −1 2 0 2
AB = = is not diagonalizable.
0 0 1 0 0 0
[ ] [ ]
1 1 −1 1
34. (a) False. Let A = and B = . Then both A and B are diagonalizable, but
0 −1 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 1 −1 1 0 2
A+B = + = is not diagonalizable.
0 −1 0 1 0 0
(b) True, by Theorem 6.9.
35. By Theorem 6.10, u1 and u2 are linearly independent, as eigenvectors associated with distinct eigen-
values. Hence the matrix U = [ u1 u2 ] is invertible, and det (U ) = ̸ 0.
( )
36. If A is diagonalizable, then A = P DP −1 for some diagonal matrix D. Then cA = c P DP −1 =
P (cD) P −1 . Since cD is also a diagonal matrix, cA is diagonalizable.
37. By the proof of Theorem 6.9, the columns of P must be eigenvectors of A. By scaling these eigenvectors
by a non-zero scalar c we can form infinitely many matrices P . There are finitely many distinct matrices
D, determined by rearrangements on the diagonal.
−1
38. Since A has eigenvectors that form a basis for Rn , A is diagonalizable,
( ) and A = P DP for a diagonal
−1 −1 −1
matrix D and invertible matrix P . Hence P AP = P P DP P = D. Let Q = P −1 , then Q is
invertible, and QAQ−1 = P −1 AP = D is diagonal.
39. If A is diagonalizable, then A = P DP −1 for a diagonal matrix D and invertible matrix P . Thus
( )T ( )T ( )−1 ( T ) ( )− 1
AT = P DP −1 = P −1 DT P T = P T D P = QDQ−1 , where Q = P T is an invertible
T
matrix. This shows A is diagonalizable.
( ) ( )
40. If A = P DP −1 , then det (A) = det P DP −1 = det (P ) det (D) det P −1
1
= det (P ) det (D) = det (D).
det (P )
( )( )
41. We are (given that
) A = P D1 P −1 and B = P D2 P −1 . Thus
( AB =) (P D1 P −1 ) P D2 P −1
= P D1 (P −1 P ) D2 P −1 = P (D1 D2 ) P −1 . Also, BA = P D2 P −1 P D1 P −1
= P D2 P −1 P D1 P −1 = P (D2 D1 ) P −1 . Since both D1 and D2 are diagonal matrices, D1 D2 = D2 D1 ,
hence AB = P (D1 D2 ) P −1 = P (D2 D1 ) P −1 = BA.
42. Since A is diagonalizable, A = P DP −1 , where the diagonal entries of D are the distinct nonzero
eigenvalues of A. Since A2 = P D2 P −1 , the eigenvalues of A2 are the diagonal entries of D2 , which
are the squares of the eigenvalues of A. Since the eigenvalues of A are nonzero, we conclude that the
eigenvalues of A2 must all be positive.
   −1
  −1 − 32 − 13 0   −1 − 23 − 13 0
3 0 −2 −1 −1 0 0 0
 2 1
1   2 1 
 −1 2 5 4   2  0 0 0 0  2 1 
43.   = 3 3
    3 3

6 0 −5 −3  −3 −2 − 3 0 
2 0 0 1 0  −3 −2 − 3 0 2 
−6 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 2 2
2 2 3 0 2 2 3 0
   
0 −1 −1 −1 1 0 0 0
 10 3 2 −4   0 1 0 0 
44. det  − λ = λ4 − 2λ3 + 17λ2 + 28λ − 44
−8 −2 −1 −5  0 0 1 0 
−4 2 ( 2 0 ) 0 0 0 1
= (λ − 1) (λ + 2) λ2 − 3λ + 22 . Since λ2 − 3λ + 22 does not have real roots, the matrix is not
diagonalizable.
 
2 −1 0 1 0
 −4 3 0 −5 −4 
 
45.  5 −2 −1 1 −1 
 −6 2 0 −4 −2 
2 −1 0 1 0
Section 6.3: Complex Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 545
   −1
0 0 2
2 4   0 0 2
2 4

3
−2 0 0 0 0 3
 4 0 − 23 −2 −8  
  0 −1 0 0 0   4 0 −3
2
−2 −8 

   
= 4 1 4
4 8  0 0 0 0 0  4 1 4
4 8 
 3  0 0 0 1 0 
3 
 4 0 −2 −4 −8   4 0 −2 −4 −8 
4
0 0 0 0 2 4
0 0 3 2 4 0 0 3 2 4
   
3 −5 3 2 −3 1 0 0 0 0
 5 −7 3 1 1   0 1 0 0 0 
   
46. det  6 −6 2 −1 5  − λ  0 0 1 0 0  = −λ5 + λ4 + 8λ3 − 8λ2 − 16λ + 16 =
 0 0 0 1 3   0 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1
2 2
− (λ − 1) (λ − 2) (λ + 2) , so λ = 2 is an eigenvalue. But
       1 0 −3 0 0 
3 −5 3 2 −3 1 0 0 0 0 1 −5 3 2 −3 4
 5 −7 3 1 1   0 1 0 0 0   5 −9 3 1 1   0 1 − 3
0 0 
     
5 ˜ ,
4
 6 −6 2 −1 5 −2  0 0 1 0 0  =  6 −6 0 −1  0 0 0 1 0 
 0 3   0 0 0 1 0   0 3   0 0
0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 1 
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 3 

 
 43 
 
 4  
 
so a basis for the eigenspace is  1  . The multiplicity of the eigenvalue λ = 2 is two, which ex-

 


 
 0  
0
ceeds the dimension of its eigenspace. Thus the matrix is not diagonalizable.

1. (a) z1 − z2 = (2 + i) − (5 − 3i) = (2 − 5) + (1 − (−3)) i = −3 + 4i
(b) 4z1 + 3z2 = 4 (2 + i) + 3 (5 − 3i) = (4 (2) + 3 (5)) + (4 (1) + 3 (−3)) i = 23 − 5i
(5−3i)(2−i)
(c) z2
z1 = 5−3i
2+i = (2+i)(2−i) = 7−11i
5 = 7
5 − 11
5 i
√ √
(d) |z1 | = |2 + i| = 22 + 11 = 5
(e) z2 = 5 − 3i = 5 + 3i
(f) Re (z1 z2 ) = Re ((2 + i) (5 − 3i)) = Re (13 − i) = 13
([ ] [ ])
2 −3 1 0
2. (a) Characteristic polynomial: det −λ =
3 2 0 1
([ ])
2−λ −3
= λ2 − 4λ + 13.
3 2−λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 4λ + 13 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 2 + 3i, and λ2 = 2 − 3i.
Eigenspace of λ1 = 2 + 3i:
[ ] [ ]
−3i −3 1 −i
A − (2 + 3i) I2 = ∼ ,
3 −3i 0 0
{[ ]}
i
1
{[ ]}
−i
A basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = 2 − 3i = λ1 is .
1
([ ] [ ])
1 2 1 0
(b) Characteristic polynomial: det −λ =
−5 4 0 1
([ ])
1−λ 2
det = λ2 − 5λ + 14.
−5 4−λ
√ √
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 5λ + 14 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 5
+ 31
2 i, and λ2 = 5
− 31
2 i.
√ 2 2
Eigenspace of λ1 = 52 + 231 i:
 √  [ √ ]
( √ ) − 32 − 31
2 i 2 1 − 10
3 31
+ 10 i
A− 5
+ 31
i I2 = √ ∼ ,
2 2
−5 3
2 − 31
2 i 0 0
{[ √ ]}
3
10 − 31
10 i
1
{[ √ ]}
√ 3 31
+ 10 i
A basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = 5
2 − 31
2 i = λ1 is 10 .
1
3. (a) An √eigenvalue is√λ = 4 + i. So the rotation is by tan−1 (1/4) ≈ 0.245 radians, and the dilation is
by 42 + 12 = 17.
(b) An eigenvalue
√ is λ√= 2 + 5i. So the rotation is by tan−1 (5/2) ≈ 1.190 radians, and the dilation
2 2
is by 2 + 5 = 29.
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 −1 1 0 1−λ −1
4. (a) Solve det −λ = det = λ2 − 2λ + 4 = 0 ⇒ λ =
3 1 0 1 3 1−λ
[ √ ]
√ 1 − 3
1 ± 3i. The rotation–dilation matrix is B = √ .
3 1
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
2 5 1 0 2−λ 5
(b) Solve det −λ = det = λ2 − 3λ + 27 = 0 ⇒ λ =
−5 1 0 1 −5 1−λ
[ √ ]
√ 3
− 3 211
2 ±
3 3 11 2
√
2 i. The rotation–dilation matrix is B = .
3 11 3
2 2
6.3 Complex Eigenvalues

1. (a) z1 + z2 = (5 − 2i) + (3 + 4i) = (5 + 3) + (−2 + 4) i = 8 + 2i
(b) 2z1 + 3z2 = 2 (5 − 2i) + 3 (3 + 4i) = (10 − 4i) + (9 + 12i) = (10 + 9) + (−4 + 12) i = 19 + 8i
(c) z1 − z2 = (5 − 2i) − (3 + 4i) = (5 − 3) + (−2 − 4) i = 2 − 6i
(d) z1 z2 = (5 − 2i) (3 + 4i) = (5(3) − (−2)(4)) + (5(4) + (−2)(3)) i = 23 + 14i
2. (a) −4z1 = −4 (5 − 2i) = −20 + 8i
(b) 3z1 + 2z2 = 3 (5 − 2i) + 2 (3 + 4i) = (15 − 6i) + (6 + 8i) = (15 + 6) + (−6 + 8) i = 21 + 2i
(c) z2 − z1 = (3 + 4i) − (5 − 2i) = (3 − 5) + (4 − (−2)) i = −2 + 6i
(d) (−5z1 ) (3z2 ) = (−5) (3) (5 − 2i) (3 + 4i) = (−15) [(5(3) − (−2)(4)) + (5(4) + (−2)(3)) i]
= (−15) (23 + 14i) = −345 − 210i
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
3 1 1 0 3−λ 1
3. Characteristic polynomial: det −λ = det = λ2 − 4λ + 8.
−5 1 0 1 −5 1−λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 4λ + 8 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 2 + 2i and λ2 = 2 − 2i.
[ ] [ ]
1 − 2i 1 −5 −1 − 2i
A − (2 + 2i) I2 = ˜ ,
−5 −1 − 2i 0 0
{[ ]}
1 + 2i
−5
{[ ]}
1 − 2i
−5
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 −1 1 0 1−λ −1
2 3 0 1 2 3−λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 4λ + 5 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 2 + i and λ2 = 2 − i.
Eigenspace of λ1 = 2 + i:
[ ] [ ]
−1 − i −1 2 1−i
A − (2 + i) I2 = ˜ ,
2 1−i 0 0
{[ ]}
−1 + i
2
{[ ]}
−1 − i
A basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = 2 − i = λ1 is .
2
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 −2 1 0 1−λ −2
1 3 0 1 1 3−λ
Eigenvalues: λ − 4λ + 5 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 2 + i and λ2 = 2 − i.
2
[ ] [ ]
−1 − i −2 1 1−i
A − (2 + i) I2 = ˜ ,
1 1−i 0 0
{[ ]}
1−i
−1
{[ ]}
1+i
−1
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 3 1 0 1−λ 3
6. Characteristic polynomial: det −λ = det = λ2 −2λ+10.
−3 1 0 1 −3 1−λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 2λ + 10 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1 + 3i and λ2 = 1 − 3i.
[ ] [ ]
−3i 3 1 i
A − (1 + 3i) I2 = ˜ ,
−3 −3i 0 0
{[ ]}
i
−1
{[ ]}
−i
−1
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
4 2 1 0 4−λ 2
7. Characteristic polynomial: det −λ = det = λ2 −6λ+10.
−1 2 0 1 −1 2−λ
Eigenvalues: λ − 6λ + 10 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 3 + i and λ2 = 3 − i.
2
[ ] [ ]
1−i 2 1 1+i
A − (3 + i) I2 = ˜ ,
−1 −1 − i 0 0
{[ ]}
1+i
−1
{[ ]}
1−i
−1
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
5 2 1 0 5−λ 2
8. Characteristic polynomial: det −λ = det = λ2 −4λ+
−5 −1 0 1 −5 −λ − 1
5.
[ ] [ ]
3−i 2 5 3+i
A − (2 + i) I2 = ˜ ,
−5 −3 − i 0 0
{[ ]}
3+i
−5
{[ ]}
3−i
−5
−1
9. An √ is λ = 2 + i. So the rotation is by tan (1/2) ≈ 0.4636 radians, the dilation is by
√ eigenvalue
2 2
2 + 1 = 5.
−1
10. An √ is λ = 3 + 2i. So the rotation is by tan (2/3) ≈ 0.5880 radians, the dilation is by
√ eigenvalue
32 + 22 = 13.
√
11. An eigenvalue is λ = 1 + i. So the rotation is by tan−1 (1/1) = π4 radians, the dilation is by 12 + 12 =
√
2.
−1
√ eigenvalue is λ = 3 + 4i. So the rotation is by tan (4/3) ≈ 0.9273 radians, the dilation is by
12. An
2 2
4 + 3 = 5.
−1
√ eigenvalue is λ = 4 − 3i. So the rotation is by tan (−3/4) ≈ −0.6435 radians, the dilation is by
13. An
2 2
4 + 3 = 5.
−1
14. An
√ eigenvalue√ is λ = 5 − 2i. So the rotation is by tan (−2/5) ≈ −0.3805 radians, the dilation is by
52 + 22 = 29.
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
3 1 1 0 3−λ 1
15. Solve det −λ = det = λ2 − 4λ + 8 = 0 ⇒ λ = 2 ± 2i.
−5 1 0 1 −5 1−λ
[ ]
2 −2
The rotation-dilation matrix is B = .
2 2
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 −1 1 0 1−λ −1
16. Solve det −λ = det = λ2 − 4λ + 5 = 0 ⇒ λ = 2 ± i.
2 3 0 1 2 3−λ
[ ]
2 −1
1 2
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 −2 1 0 1−λ −2
1 3 0 1 1 3−λ
[ ]
2 −1
1 2
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
1 3 1 0 1−λ 3
18. Solve det −λ = det = λ2 −2λ+10 = 0 ⇒ λ = 1±3i.
−3 1 0 1 −3 1−λ
[ ]
1 −3
3 1
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
4 2 1 0 4−λ 2
−1 2 0 1 −1 2−λ
[ ]
3 −1
1 3
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
5 2 1 0 5−λ 2
20. Solve det −λ = det = λ2 − 4λ + 5 = 0 ⇒ λ=
−5 −1 0 1 −5 −λ − 1
[ ]
2 −1
2 ± i. The rotation-dilation matrix is B = .
1 2
21. Since roots occur in complex conjugate pairs, the other roots are (1 + 2i) = 1 − 2i and (3 − i) = 3 + i.
Since there are 5 roots and the polynomial has degree 5, the multiplicity of each root must be one.
22. Since roots occur in complex conjugate pairs, the other roots are (−2 + i) = −2 − i, (5 + i) = 5 − i,
and i = −i. Since there are 7 roots and the polynomial has degree 7, the multiplicity of each root must
be one.
√ √
23. Set z = a + ib√and a = 2b. Then |z| =√ |2b +√ib| = 5b2 = 5 |b|. Set this equal to 3 to obtain
b = ± √35 = ± 3 5 5 . So, for example, z = 6 5 5 + 3 5 5 i.
√ √
24. Set z = a + ib√and 2a = −b. Then |z| √
= |a − √
i (2a)| = 5a2 = 5 |a|. Set this equal to 5 to obtain
a = ± √55 = ± 5. So, for example, z = 5 − 2 5i.
[ ]
−b
a
25. We set B = and require that a = 0 and b > 0 for a rotation of 90◦ . For a dilation by 2 we
b a
[ ]
√ √ 0 −2
need a2 + b2 = 02 + b2 = 2, hence b = 2. Thus B = .
2 0
[ ]
a −b
26. We set B = and require b/a = tan (−45◦ ) = −1 for a rotation of 45◦ , with a > 0 and
b a
√ √ √ √
2
b < 0. Thus b = −a. For a dilation by 12 we need a2 + b2 = a2 + (−a) = 2 |a| = 2a = 12 , hence
√
[ √ √ ]
2 √2/4 √2/4
a = 4 . Thus B = .
− 2/4 2/4
[ ][ ][ ]−1 [ ]
1 1 1 −2 1 1 3 −4
27. We may obtain A as = .
0 1 2 1 0 1 2 −1
[ ][ ][ ]−1 [ ]
1 1 3 −1 1 1 4 −2
0 1 1 3 0 1 1 2
[ ]
i i
29. For example, A = has characteristic polynomial det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 , hence real eigenvalue
−i −i
0 of multiplicity 2.
 
1 −1 0 0
 1 1 0 0  ( )2
30. For example, A =  has characteristic polynomial λ2 − 2λ + 2 , hence complex
0 0 1 −1 
0 0 1 1
roots 1 ± i, each of multiplicity 2.
31. (a) True, by considering z and w in polar form.
[ ]
1 0
(b) False. A needs to be a real matrix with complex eigenvalues. For example, A = does not
0 2
have a rotation-dilation matrix hidden within it.
32. (a) False. For example, if z = 1 and w = −1, then |z + w| = |1 + (−1)| = |0| = 0, but |z | |w| =
|1| |(−1)| = 1 (1) = 1.
(1+i)(1+i)
(b) False. Suppose z = 1 + i, then z
z = 1+i
1+i
= 1+i
1−i = (1−i)(1+i) = 2i
2 =i∈
/ R.
33. (a) False. One can have real eigenvalues and complex eigenvectors by multiplying any real eigenvector
by a complex scalar z.
√ √ √
2
(b) True, since |z| = |x + iy| = x2 + y 2 and |z| = |x − iy| = x2 + (−y) = x2 + y 2 .
√ √ √
34. (a) False. For example, |(1 + i) + (1 − i)| = |2| = 2, and |1 + i| + |1 − i| = 2 + 2 = 2 2.
√
(b) True, since the dilation is a2 + b2 = |a ± ib| = |λ| where λ = a ± ib is an eigenvalue of A.
35. (a) True, since z = x + iy = x − iy = x + iy = z.

(b) True, as A rotates all vectors by the same angle, the angle between x0 and Ax0 will be constant.
36. (a) True, since a rotation-dilation matrix has eigenvalues which occur as complex conjugates, λ2 = λ1 ,
hence |λ1 | = |λ2 |.
[ ]
i i √
(b) False. For example, the eigenvalues of are λ = ± 2i.
i −i
37. (a) Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv. Then z + w = (x + iy) + (u + iv) = (x + u) + i (y + v) =

(x + u) − i (y + v) = (x − iy) + (u − iv) = (x + iy) + (u + iv) = z + w.
(b) Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv. Then zw = (x + iy) (u + iv) = (xu − yv) + i (xv + yu) =
(xu − yv) − i (xv + yu) = (x − iy) (u − iv) = (x + iy)(u + iv) = zw.
( )
38. (a) Let z = x + iy. Then zz = (x + iy) (x + iy) = (x + iy) (x − iy) = x2 + y 2 + i (−xy + xy) =
(√ )2
2
x2 + y 2 = x2 + y 2 = |z| .
w wz wz
(b) = = 2 for z ̸= 0.
z zz |z |
2+i (2 + i) (4 − 3i) (2 + i) (4 + 3i) 5 + 10i
(c) = = = = 15 + 25 i.
4 − 3i |4 − 3i|
2 42 + 32 25
       
v1 v1 cv1 cv1
39. Let v =  ... , where each vj is complex. Then c · v = c ·  ...  =  ...  =  ...  =
vn vn cvn cvn
    
cv1 v1
 ..  = c  ..  = cv.
. .
cvn vn
40. Let A = [ a1 · · · an ], where aj are complex column vectors. Then Av = v1 a1 + · · · + vn an ,where

vj are the complex entries of v. Thus
Av = v1 a1 + · · · + vn an
= v1 a1 + · · · + vn an
= v1 a1 + · · · + vn an
= Av
since A has columns aj and v has entries vj .
41. Let λ = a + ib. Then eλt = e(a+ib)t = e(a−ib)t = eat−i(bt) = eat (cos (−bt) + sin (−bt) i)
= eat (cos (bt) − i sin (bt)) = eat cos (bt)−ieat sin (bt) = eat cos (bt) + ieat sin (bt) = eat (cos (bt) + i sin (bt)) =
eat+i(bt) = e(a+ib)t = eλt .
( )
42. (a) Let z = x + iy. Then 1
2 (z + z) = 1
2 (x + iy) + (x + iy) = 1
2 ((x − iy) + (x + iy)) = 1
2 (2x) =
x = Re (z).
( )
(b) Let z = x + iy. Then 1
2i (z − z) = 1
2i (x + iy) − (x + iy) = 1
2i ((x + iy) − (x − iy)) = 1
2i (2y) i =
y = Im (z).
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
a −b 1 0 −ib −b
43. det (A − (a + ib) I2 ) = det − (a + ib) = det = 0, so λ =
b a 0 1 b −ib
a + ib is an eigenvalue of A.
44. If n is odd, then det (A − λIn ) is a polynomial of degree n with real coefficients. Since any complex
roots must occur in conjugate pairs, and since by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra there are
exactly n roots counting multiple roots, one of the roots must be real. Since this real root is an
eigenvalue of A, we have Au = cu for some nonzero vector u.
45. (a) Let u = x + iy. Then A (Re (u)) = A (Re (x + iy)) = Ax = Re (Ax + iAy) = Re (A (x + iy)) =
Re (Au). And A (Im (u)) = A (Im (x + iy)) = Ay = Im (Ax + iAy)
= Im (A (x + iy)) = Im (Au).
(b) Au = λu ⇒ A (Re (u) + i Im (u)) = (a − ib) (Re (u) + i Im (u)) ⇒ A (Re (u))+iA (Im (u)) =
(a Re (u) + b Im (u)) + (−b Re (u) + a Im (u)). Now equate the real and imaginary parts to obtain
A (Re (u)) = a Re (u) + b Im (u) and A (Im (u)) = −b Re (u) + a Im (u).
(c) AP = A [ Re (u) Im (u) ] = [ A (Re (u)) A (Im (u)) ] [ ]
a −b
= [ a Re (u) + b Im (u) −b Re (u) + a Im (u) ] = [ Re (u) Im (u) ] = P C.
b a
46. Assume Re (u) and Im (u) are linearly dependent, so that Re (u) = c Im (u) for some real scalar c.
(a) u = Re (u) + i Im (u) = c Im (u) + i Im (u) = (c + i) Im (u). Hence λu = λ (c + i) Im (u).

(b) A (Re (u)) = Re (Au) = Re (λu) and A (c Im (u)) = cA (Im (u)) = c Im (Au) = c Im (λu). Since
we are assuming that Re (u) = c Im (u), we have A (Re (u)) = A (c Im (u)), and we conclude that
Re (λu) = c Im (λu).
(c) In general, for any complex vector v = x + iy where x and y are real vectors, we have v =
Re (v) + i Im (v). Setting v = λu, we have λu = Re (λu) + i Im (λu). Thus, from part (b),
λu = c Im (λu) + i Im (λu) = (c + i) Im (λu).
(d) From parts (a) and (c) we have λ (c + i) Im (u) = λu = (c + i) Im (λu). Since c is real, c + i ̸= 0,
and hence λ Im (u) = Im (λu). Since both Im (u) and Im (λu) are real vectors, the eigenvalue λ
must be real.
(e) Since we are assuming that λ is complex, we have a contradiction. Hence we conclude that Re (u)
and Im (u) are linearly independent.
47. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI3 ) = −λ3 + λ2 + 21λ + 55. Eigenvalues: −λ3 + λ2 + 21λ + 55 =
0 ⇒ λ1 = −2.507 + 1.692i, λ2 = −2.507 − 1.692i, and λ3 = 6.013, with bases for their eigenspaces:
{[ ]} {[ ]}
0.2373 ± 0.3607i 0.5837
λ1,2 = −2.507 ± 1.692i ⇒ 0.0862 ∓ 0.2878i , λ3 = 6.013 ⇒ 0.6889 .
−0.8505 0.4298
48. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI3 ) = −λ3 +8λ2 −53λ+109. Eigenvalues: −λ3 +8λ2 −53λ+109 =
0 ⇒ λ1 = 2.5784+5.6294i, λ2 = 2.5784−5.6294i, and λ3 = 2.8431, with bases for their eigenspaces:
{[ ]} {[ ]}
0.1809 ± 0.3579i −0.9310
λ1,2 = 2.5784 ± 5.6294i ⇒ 0.7610 , λ3 = 2.8431 ⇒ −0.2817 .
0.0112 ± 0.5098i 0.2321
49. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI4 ) = λ4 − 13λ3 − 25λ2 + 322λ − 500. Eigenvalues: λ4 − 13λ3 −
25λ2 + 322λ − 500 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 2.5948 + 0.4119i, λ2 = 2.5948 − 0.4119i, λ3 = 13.2693, and
λ4 = −5.4589, with bases for their eigenspaces:
 


0.6638 

 0.1906 ± 0.2156i 
λ1,2 = 2.5948 ± 0.4119i ⇒ 
0.0472 ∓ 0.2804i 
,

 
−0.6280 ∓ 0.0368i
   


0.0639 
 

0.6812 

 0.1441   −0.3472 
λ3 = 13.2693 ⇒   , λ4 = −5.4589 ⇒   .
 0.3504 
   −0.5476 
 
0.9232 0.3399
50. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI4 ) = λ4 − 4λ3 + 33λ2 − 356λ + 188. Eigenvalues: λ4 − 4λ3 +
33λ2 − 356λ + 188 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = −1.5608 + 7.0107i, λ2 = −1.5608 − 7.0107i, λ3 = 6.5666, and
λ4 = 0.5550, with bases for their eigenspaces:
 
 0.0307 ± 0.4178i 
 
 0.7374 
λ1,2 = −1.5608 ± 7.0107i ⇒   ,
 0.1363 ∓ 0.3162i 
 
0.2392 ∓ 0.3240i
   
 −0.5546   0.0455 
   
 0.0351   −0.2809 
λ3 = 6.5666 ⇒   , λ4 = 0.5550 ⇒   .
 −0.5906 
   −0.7062 
 
−0.5851 0.6483

[ ] [ ]
1 −t 5
1. (a) y = c1 e 4t
+ c2 e ⇒ y1 = c1 e4t + 5c2 e−t and y2 = −2c1 e4t + 2c2 e−t .
−2 2
[
] [ ] [ ]
1 −1 2
(b) y = c1 e−2t −2 +c2 et 0 +c3 et −3 ⇒ y1 = c1 e−2t −c2 et +2c3 et , y2 = −2c1 e−2t −
1 1 0
3c3 et , and y3 = c1 e−2t + c2 et .
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
3 2 3 2
(c) y = c1 cos (t) − sin (t) + c2 sin (t) + cos (t) ⇒
1 1 1 1
y1 = (3c1 + 2c2 ) cos t + (−2c1 + 3c2 ) sin t and y2 = (c1 + c2 ) cos t + (−c1 + c2 ) sin t.
[ ]
1 −2
2. (a) To solve y′ = Ay = y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
4 1
√
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 − 2λ + 9 = 0 ⇒ λ = 1 ± 2 2i.
[ √ ] [ √ ]
√ 2 √ − 2
λ = 1 + 2 2i ⇒ u = 2 i , λ = 1 − 2 2i ⇒ u = 2 i
1 1
( √ ( √ ) √ ( √ ))
Thus, y1 = − 22 c1 sin 2 2t + 22 c2 cos 2 2t et ,
( ( √ ) ( √ ))
and y2 = c1 cos 2 2t + c2 sin 2 2t et .
[ ]
1 2 −1
(b) To solve y′ = Ay = −3 −1 1 y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A,
5 2 −2
Section 6.4: Systems of Differential Equations 553
from the characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI3 ) = λ3 + 2λ2 + 8λ + 1 = 0.

[ ] [ ]
0.206 0.493
λ = −0.128 ⇒ u = 0.342 , λ ≈ −0.936 + 2.624i ⇒ u = −0.224 − 0.365i ,
0.917 0.507 + 0.563i
[ ]
0.493
λ ≈ −0.936 − 2.624i ⇒ u = −0.224 + 0.365i
0.507 − 0.563i
Thus,
y1 = (0.206) c1 e−0.128t + e−0.936t ((0.493) c2 cos (2.624t) + (0.493) c3 sin (2.624t))

y2 = (0.342) c1 e−0.128t + c2 ((−0.224) cos (2.624t) + (0.365) sin (2.624t)) e−0.936t
+c3 ((−0.224) sin (2.624t) − (0.365) cos (2.624t)) e−0.936t
y3 = (0.917) c1 e−0.128t + c2 ((0.507) cos (2.624t) − (0.563) sin (2.624t)) e−0.936t
+c3 ((0.507) sin (2.624t) + (0.563) cos (2.624t)) e−0.936t
[ ]
1 2
3. (a) To solve y′ = Ay = y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
−1 −1
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 + 1.
[ ] [ ]
−1 − i −1 + i
λ=i⇒u= , λ = −i ⇒ u =
1 1
Thus,
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
−1 −1 −1 −1
y = c1 cos (t) − sin (t) t
+ c2 e sin (t) + cos (t) .
1 0 1 0
Thus, y1 = c1 (− cos t + sin t) + c2 (− cos t − sin t) and y2 = c1 cos t + c2 sin t.

Setting y1 (0) = −2 and y2 (0) = 1, we obtain
−c1 − c2 = −2
c1 = 1
Thus, c1 = 1 and c2 = 1. Therefore, y1 = −2 cos t and y2 = cos t + sin t.

[ ]
1 −3 −1
′
(b) To solve y = Ay = 2 1 2 y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from
3 −2 1 ( )
the characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = −λ λ2 − 3λ + 16 .
   √ 
− 75 √ 1
2 + 55
10 i
3 55  √ 
λ = 0 ⇒ u =  − 47  , λ = + i⇒u= 1
− 55 ,
2 2 2 10 i
1 1
 1 √55 
2 − 10 i
3 1 √  √ 
λ = − i 55 ⇒ u =  1 + 55 i 
2 2 2 10
1
Thus,
( (√ ) √ ( √ ))
−5 1 55 55 55 3
y1 = c1 + c2 cos t − sin t e2t
7 2 2 10 10
( (√ ) √ ( √ ))
1 55 55 55 3
+c3 sin t + cos t e2t
2 10 10 2
( (√ ) √ ( √ ))
−4 1 55 55 55 3
y2 = c1 + c2 cos t + sin t e2t
7 2 2 10 10
( (√ ) √ ( √ ))
1 55 55 55 3
+c3 sin t − cos t e2t
2 10 10 2
(√ ) (√ )
55 3 55 3
y3 = c1 + c2 cos t e 2 t + c3 sin t e2t
2 10
Setting y1 (0) = −2, y2 (0) = 1, and y3 = 3, we obtain

√
−5 1 55
c1 + c2 + c3 = −2
7 2 √10
4 1 55
− c1 + c2 − c3 = 1
7 2 10
c1 + c2 = 3
√
− 55
Thus, c1 = 74 , c2 = 54 , and c3 = 4 . Therefore,
(√ ) √ ( √ )
5 3 55 3 55 55 3
y1 = − − cos t e2t − sin t e2t
4 4 2 4 10
(√ )
55 3
y2 = −1 + 2 cos t e2t
2
(√ ) √ (√ )
7 5 55 3 55 55 3
y3 = + cos t e2t − sin t e2t
4 4 2 4 10
6.4 Systems of Differential Equations

[ ] ][
1 1
1. y = c1 e−t + c2 e2t ⇒ y1 = c1 e−t + c2 e2t and y2 = c1 e−t − c2 e2t .
1 −1
[ ] [ ]
2 3
2. y = c1 et + c2 e3t ⇒ y1 = 2c1 et + 3c2 e3t and y2 = −c1 et + c2 e3t .
−1 1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
4 1 2
3. y = c1 e2t 3 + c2 e−2t 2 + c3 e−2t 3 ⇒ y1 = 4c1 e2t + c2 e−2t + 2c3 e−2t , y2 = 3c1 e2t +
1 0 1
2c2 e−2t + 3c3 e−2t , and y3 = c1 e2t + c3 e−2t .
[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 1 2
4. y = c1 e3t 1 + c2 5 + c3 1 ⇒ y1 = c1 e3t + c2 + 2c3 , y2 = c1 e3t + 5c2 + c3 , and
0 1 4
y3 = c2 + 4c3 .
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
1 1 1 1
5. y = c1 cos (2t) − sin (2t) + c2 sin (2t) + cos (2t)
2 −1 2 −1
⇒ y1 = c1 (cos 2t − sin 2t) + c2 (cos 2t + sin 2t) and y2 = c1 (2 cos 2t + sin 2t) − c2 (cos 2t − 2 sin 2t).
( [ ]) ( [ ])
2 2
6. y = c1 e3t − sin (t) + c2 e3t cos (t) ⇒ y1 = (−2c1 sin t + 2c2 cos t) e3t and y2 =
1 1
(−c1 sin t + c2 cos t) e3t .
[ ] ( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
3 4 1 4 1
7. y = c1 e 4t 1 + c2 e cos (t) 0 − sin (t) −2
t
+ c3 e sin (t) 0 + cos (t) −2
t
⇒
5 3 1 3 1
y1 = 3c1 e4t − c2 (sin t − 4 cos t) et + c3 (cos t + 4 sin t) et , y2 = c1 e4t − 2c3 (cos t) et + 2c2 (sin t) et , and
y3 = 5c1 e4t − c2 (sin t − 3 cos t) et + c3 (cos t + 3 sin t) et .
[ ] ( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
1 2 −1 2 −1
8. y = c1 e−t 0 + c2 cos (3t) 1 − sin (3t) 1 + c3 sin (3t) 1 + cos (3t) 1 ⇒
3 0 7 0 7
y1 = c1 e−t + c2 (2 cos t + sin t) − c3 (cos t − 2 sin t), y2 = c2 (cos (3t) − sin (3t)) + c3 (cos (3t) + sin (3t)),
and y3 = 3c1 e−t − 7c2 sin (3t) + 7c3 cos (3t).
   
6 1
t 2  4t  2 
9. y = c1 e 
5 
+ c2 e  
3
0 2
         
3 2 3 2
  6   0    6   0 
+c3 et cos (t)   − sin (t) 
−3 
+ c4 et sin (t) 
2 
+ cos (t) 
2 −3 
0 −5 0 −5
⇒ y1 = 6c1 et +c2 e4t +c3 (3 cos t − 2 sin t) et +c4 (2 cos t + 3 sin t) et , y2 = 2c1 et +2c2 e4t +6c3 (cos t) et +
6c4 (sin t) et , y3 = 5c1 et + 3c2 e4t + c3 (2 cos t + 3 sin t) et − c4 (3 cos t − 2 sin t) et , and y4 = 2c2 e4t +
5c3 (sin t) et − 5c4 (cos t) et .
   
3 4
−2t  0   2 
10. y = c1 e  1  + c2  1 
2 1
         
−5 0 −5 0
  4   3    4   3 
+c3 cos (4t)  − sin (4t) 
0  3 
+ c4 sin (4t) 
0 
+ cos (4t) 
3 
1 −1 1 −1
⇒ y1 = 3c1 e−2t + 4c2 − 5c3 cos 4t − 5c4 sin 4t, y2 = 2c2 + c3 (4 cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) + c4 (3 cos 4t + 4 sin 4t),
y3 = c1 e−2t + c2 + 3c4 cos 4t − 3c3 sin 4t, and y4 = 2c1 e−2t + c2 + c3 (cos 4t + sin 4t) − c4 (cos 4t − sin 4t).
[ ]
′ 1 4
11. To solve y = Ay = y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the charac-
1 1
teristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = (λ + 1) (λ − 3).
[ ] [ ]
2 2
λ = −1 ⇒ u = ,λ=3⇒u=
1 −1
Hence y1 = 2c1 e−t + 2c2 e3t , and y2 = −c1 e−t + c2 e3t .

[ ]
′ 4 2
6 3
teristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ (λ − 7).
[ ] [ ]
−1 2
λ=0⇒u= ,λ=7⇒u=
2 3
Hence y1 = −c1 + 2c2 e7t , and y2 = 2c1 + 3c2 e7t .

[ ]
′ 7 −8
13. To solve y = Ay = y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
4 −5
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = (λ + 1) (λ − 3).
[ ] [ ]
1 2
λ = −1 ⇒ u = ,λ=3⇒u=
1 1
Hence y1 = c1 e−t + 2c2 e3t , and y2 = c1 e−t + c2 e3t .

[ ]
7 −10
14. To solve y′ = Ay = y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
2 −2
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = (λ − 2) (λ − 3).
[ ] [ ]
2 5
λ=2⇒u= ,λ=3⇒u=
1 2
Hence y1 = 2c1 e2t + 5c2 e3t , and y2 = c1 e2t + 2c2 e3t .

[ ]
3 1
−5 1
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 − 4λ + 8
[ ] [ ]
−1 − 2i −1 + 2i
λ = 2 + 2i ⇒ u = , λ = 2 − 2i ⇒ u =
5 5
Hence
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
−1 −2 −1 −2
y = c1 e2t cos (2t) − sin (2t) + c2 e2t sin (2t) + cos (2t) .
5 0 5 0
Thus y1 = −c1 (cos 2t − 2 sin 2t) e2t − c2 (2 cos 2t + sin 2t) e2t , and y2 = 5c1 (cos 2t) e2t + 5c2 (sin 2t) e2t .
[ ]
1 −1
2 3
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 − 4λ + 5
[ ] [ ]
−1 + i −1 − i
λ=2+i⇒u= , λ=2−i⇒u=
2 2
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
−1 1 −1 1
Hence y = c1 e 2t
cos (t) − sin (t) + c2 e 2t
sin (t) + cos (t) . Thus y1 =
2 0 2 0
−c1 (cos t + sin t) e + c2 (cos t − sin t) e , and y2 = 2c1 (cos t) e + 2c2 (sin t) e .
2t 2t 2t 2t
[ ]
7 2 −8
′
17. To solve y = Ay = −3 0 3 y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
6 2 −7
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI3 ) = λ (λ + 1) (λ − 1)
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 1 −1
λ=0⇒u= 1 , λ = −1 ⇒ u = 0 ,λ=1⇒u= 3
2 1 0
Thus y1 = 2c1 + c2 e−t − c3 et , y2 = c1 + 3c3 et , y3 = 2c1 + c2 e−t .

[ ]
0 1 −1
18. To solve y′ = Ay = 1 0 1 y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
1 −1 2
2
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI3 ) = λ (λ − 1)
{[ ]} {[ ] [ ]}
−1 1 −1
λ = 0 ⇒ Basis: 1 , λ = 1 ⇒ Basis: 1 , 0
1 0 1
Thus y1 = −c1 + (c2 − c3 ) et , y2 = c1 + c2 et , y3 = c1 + c3 et .
[ ]
8 −10
5 −7
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = (λ + 2) (λ − 3).
[ ] [ ]
1 2
λ = −2 ⇒ u = ,λ=3⇒u=
1 1
Hence y1 = c1 e−2t + 2c2 e3t , and y2 = c1 e−2t + c2 e3t .

Setting y1 (0) = 4 and y2 (0) = 1, we solve the system
c1 + 2c2 = 4
c1 + c2 = 1
to obtain c1 = −2 and c2 = 3. Thus y1 = −2e−2t + 6e3t , and y2 = −2e−2t + 3e3t .
[ ]
′ −4 10
−3 7
[ ] [ ]
2 5
λ=1⇒u= ,λ=2⇒u=
1 3
Hence y1 = 2c1 et + 5c2 e2t , and y2 = c1 et + 3c2 e2t .

Setting y1 (0) = 1 and y2 (0) = 1, we solve the system
2c1 + 5c2 = 1
c1 + 3c2 = 1
to obtain c1 = −2 and c2 = 1. Thus y1 = −4et + 5e2t , and y2 = −2et + 3e2t .
[ ]
′ 1 3
−3 1
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 − 2λ + 10.
[ ] [ ]
−i i
λ = 1 + 3i ⇒ u = , λ = 1 − 3i ⇒ u =
1 1
Hence
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
0 −1 0 −1
t
y = c1 e cos (3t) − sin (3t) t
+ c2 e sin (3t) + cos (3t) .
1 0 1 0
Thus y1 = c1 (sin 3t) et − c2 (cos 3t) et and y2 = c1 (cos 3t) et + c2 (sin 3t) et .
Setting y1 (0) = 2 and y2 (0) = −1, we obtain
−c2 = 2
c1 = −1
Thus c1 = −1 and c2 = −2. Therefore y1 = − (sin 3t) et + 2 (cos 3t) et , and y2 = − (cos 3t) et −
2 (sin 3t) et .
[
]
′ 2 4
−2 −2
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 + 4.
[ ] [ ]
−1 − i −1 + i
λ = 2i ⇒ u = , λ = −2i ⇒ u =
1 1
Hence
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
−1 −1 −1 −1
y = c1 cos (2t) − sin (2t) + c2 sin (2t) + cos (2t) .
1 0 1 0
Thus y1 = −c1 (cos 2t − sin 2t) − c2 (cos 2t + sin 2t) and y2 = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t.
Setting y1 (0) = −1 and y2 (0) = 3, we obtain
−c1 − c2 = −1
c1 = 3
Thus c1 = 3 and c2 = −2. Therefore y1 = −3 (cos 2t − sin 2t) + 2 (cos 2t + sin 2t) = 5 sin 2t − cos 2t and
y2 = 3 cos 2t − 2 sin 2t.
[ ]
2 −1 −1
23. To solve y′ = Ay = 6 3 −2 y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
6 −2 −3
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = (λ − 1) (λ − 2) (λ + 1).
[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 1 1
λ = 1 ⇒ u = −1 , λ = 2 ⇒ u = −2 , λ = −1 ⇒ u = 0
2 2 3
Hence y1 = c1 et + c2 e2t + c3 e−t , y2 = −c1 et − 2c2 e2t , and y3 = 2c1 et + 2c2 e2t + 3c3 e−t .
Setting y1 (0) = −1, y2 (0) = 0, and y3 = −4 we obtain
c1 + c2 + c3 = −1
−c1 − 2c2 = 0
2c1 + 2c2 + 3c3 = −4
Thus c1 = 2, c2 = −1, and c3 = −2. Therefore y1 = 2et − e2t − 2e−t , y2 = −2et + 2e2t , and
y3 = 4et − 2e2t − 6e−t .
[ ]
3 −2 0
′
24. To solve y = Ay = 5 −3 0 y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from the
1 1 −1 ( )
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = (λ + 1) λ2 + 1 .
[ ] [ ] [ ]
0 4 + 6i 4 − 6i
λ = −1 ⇒ u = 0 ,λ=i⇒u= 9 + 7i , λ = −i ⇒ u = 9 − 7i
1 13 13
Hence
[ ] ( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
0 4 6 4 6
−t
y = c1 e 0 + c2 cos (t) 9 − sin (t) 7 + c3 sin (t) 9 + cos (t) 7 .
1 13 0 13 0
Thus y1 = c2 (4 cos t − 6 sin t) + c3 (6 cos t + 4 sin t), y2 = c2 (9 cos t − 7 sin t) + c3 (7 cos t + 9 sin t), and
y3 = c1 e−t + 13c2 cos t + 13c3 sin t.

Setting y1 (0) = 1, y2 (0) = −1, and y3 = 2 we obtain
4c2 + 6c3 = 1
9c2 + 7c3 = −1
c1 + 13c2 = 2
Thus c1 = 17 2 , c2 = − 2 , and c3 = 2 . Therefore y1 = − 2 (4 cos t − 6 sin t) + 2 (6 cos t + 4 sin(t) =

1 1 1 1
17 −t
) cos t +
5 sin t,
( ) 2 y = − 1
2 (9 cos t − 7 sin t) + 1
2 (7 cos t + 9 sin t) = 8 sin t − cos t, and y 3 = 2 e + 13 − 1
2 cos t +
17 −t
13 12 sin t = 13 2 sin t − 13
2 cos t + 2 e .
[ ]
′ −0.1 0.2
−0.3 −0.6
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 + 0.7λ + 0.12 = (λ + 0.3) (λ + 0.4).
[ ] [ ]
1 2
λ = −0.3 ⇒ u = , λ = −0.4 ⇒ u =
−1 −3
Hence y1 = c1 e(−0.3)t + 2c2 e(−0.4)t , and y2 = −c1 e(−0.3)t − 3c2 e(−0.4)t .

[ ]
−0.44 0.12
26. To solve y′ = Ay = y, we determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, from
−0.08 −0.16
the characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 + 0.6λ + 0.08 = (λ + 0.2) (λ + 0.4).
[ ] [ ]
1 3
λ = −0.2 ⇒ u = , λ = −0.4 ⇒ u =
2 1
Hence y1 = c1 e(−0.2)t + 3c2 e(−0.4)t , and y2 = 2c1 e(−0.2)t + c2 e(−0.4)t .

27. Using the result from Exercise 25, y1 = c1 e(−0.3)t + 2c2 e(−0.4)t , and y2 = −c1 e(−0.3)t − 3c2 e(−0.4)t , and
the initial condition y1 (0) = 10 and y2 (0) = 20, we have the equations
c1 + 2c2 = 10
−c1 − 3c2 = 20
Hence c1 = 70 and c2 = −30. Thus y1 = 70e(−0.3)t + 2 (−30) e(−0.4)t = 70e−0.3t − 60e−0.4t , and
y2 = −70e(−0.3)t − 3 (−30) e(−0.4)t = 90e−0.4t − 70e−0.3t .
28. Using the result from Exercise 26, y1 = c1 e(−0.2)t + 3c2 e(−0.4)t , and y2 = 2c1 e(−0.2)t + c2 e(−0.4)t , and
the initial condition y1 (0) = 15 and y2 (0) = 50, we have the equations
c1 + 3c2 = 15
2c1 + c2 = 50
Hence c1 = 27 and c2 = −4. Thus y1 = 27e(−0.2)t + 3 (−4) e(−0.4)t = 27e−0.2t − 12e−0.4t , and
y2 = 2 (27) e(−0.2)t + (−4) e(−0.4)t = 54e−0.2t − 4e−0.4t .
[ ]
−3 5
4 −4
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 + 7λ − 8 = (λ + 8) (λ − 1).
[ ] [ ]
−1 5
λ = −8 ⇒ u = ,λ=1⇒u=
1 4
Hence y1 = −c1 e−8t + 5c2 et , and y2 = c1 e−8t + 4c2 et . As t gets large, y1 ≈ 5c2 et and y2 ≈ 4c2 et , and
hence the ratio y1 /y2 ≈ 5/4.
[ ]
′ 1 1
4 1
teristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 − 2λ − 3 = (λ + 1) (λ − 3).
[ ] [ ]
−1 1
λ = −1 ⇒ u = ,λ=3⇒u=
2 2
Hence y1 = −c1 e−t + c2 e3t , and y2 = 2c1 e−t + 2c2 e3t . As t gets large, y1 ≈ c2 e3t and y2 ≈ 2c2 e3t , and
hence the ratio y1 /y2 ≈ 1/2.
31. Using the result from Exercise 29, y1 = −c1 e−8t + 5c2 et , and y2 = c1 e−8t + 4c2 et , and the initial
condition y1 (0) = 1 and y2 (0) = 2, we have the equations
−c1 + 5c2 = 1
c1 + 4c2 = 2
( ) ( )
Hence c1 = 23 and c2 = 13 . Thus y1 = − 23 e−8t + 5 13 et = 53 et − 32 e−8t , and y2 = 23 e−8t + 4 13 et =
4 t 2 −8t
3e + 3e .
32. Using the result from Exercise 30, y1 = −c1 e−t + c2 e3t , and y2 = 2c1 e−t + 2c2 e3t , and the initial
condition y1 (0) = 4 and y2 (0) = 1, we have the equations
−c1 + c2 = 4
2c1 + 2c2 = 1
( ) ( ) ( )
( 9 ) 3ct1 = 9−3t4 and
Hence 7
c2 = 94 . Thus y1 = − − 74 e−t + 94 e3t = 74 e−t + 94 e3t , and y2 = 2 − 74 e−t +
2 4 e = 2 e − 27 e−t .
33. For example, y1′ = −3y1 and y2′ = 2y2 .
34. For example, y1′ = y1 and y2′ = −2y2 .
35. For example,
y1′ = 10y1 + 6y2
y2′ = −18y1 − 11y2
36. For example,

y1′ = 34y1 − 105y2
y2′ = 10y1 − 31y2
37. For example,

y1′ = −6y1 + 4y2 + 7y3
y2′ = −7y1 + 5y2 + 7y3
y3′ = −4y1 + 4y2 + 5y3
38. For example,

y1′ = y1 + 2y2
y2′ = −y1 − y2
39. (a) True, y = cekt is established as a solution, and it can be shown using calculus that every solution
has this form for some c.
(b) False. The case where there is not a basis of eigenvectors is not presented.
40. (a) False. If each eigenvalue is pure imaginary, then solutions involve only combinations of trigono-
metric functions.
′
(b) True, since (ca ya + cb yb ) = ca ya′ + cb yb′ = ca (Aya ) + cb (Ayb ) = A (ca ya + cb yb ).
41. det (A − λI3 ) = −λ3 + λ2 + 27λ + 112 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ 7.0652, λ2 ≈ −3.0326 + 2.5798i, λ3 ≈

−3.0326 − 2.5798i.
[ ] [ ]
−0.7811 −0.7041
λ1 ≈ 7.0652 ⇒ u ≈ 0.4471 , λ2,3 ≈ −3.0326 ± 2.5798i ⇒ u ≈ −0.1528 ± 0.4597i
−0.4359 0.5141 ∓ 0.0729i
Hence
[ ]
−0.7811
y ≈ c1 e(7.0652)t
0.4471
−0.4359
( [
] [ ])
−0.7041 0
+ c2 e(−3.0326)t
cos (2.5798t) −0.1528 − sin (2.5798t) 0.4597
0.5141 −0.0729
( [ ] [ ])
−0.7041 0
+ c3 e (−3.0326)t
sin (2.5798t) −0.1528 + cos (2.5798t) 0.4597 .
0.5141 −0.0729
Thus
y1 ≈ −0.7811c1 e7.065t − 0.7041c2 (cos 2.580t) e(−3.033t) − 0.7041c3 (sin 2.580t) e(−3.033t)
y2 ≈ 0.4471c1 e7.065t − c2 (0.1528 cos (2.580t) + 0.4597 sin (2.580t)) e(−3.033t)
− c3 (0.1528 sin (2.580t) − 0.4597 cos (2.580t)) e(−3.033t)
y3 ≈ −0.4359c1 e7.065t + c2 (0.5141 cos (2.580t) + 0.0729 sin (2.580t)) e(−3.033t)
+ c3 (0.5141 sin (2.580t) − 0.0729 cos (2.580t)) e(−3.033t)
( ) √ √
42. det (A − λI3 ) = (λ − 8) λ2 − 9λ + 21 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 8, λ2 = 9
2 + 21 i 3, λ3 = 9
2 − 21 i 3.
[ ]  √ 
11 9 1 √ −1 ∓ i√3
λ1 = 8 ⇒ u = 2 , λ2,3 = ± i 3 ⇒ u =  1 ± i 3 .
7 2 2
2
Hence
[ ] 
(√ ) [ ] ( √ )  √ 
11 3 −1 3  −√3 
y = c1 e8t 2 + c2 e(9/2)t cos t 1 − sin t 3
7 2 2 2
0
 (√ ) [ ] ( √ )  √ 
3 −1 3  −√3 
+ c3 e(9/2)t sin t 1 + cos t 3 .
2 2 2
0
Thus
( √ √ ) ( √ √ )
3t √ 3t 9 3t √ 3t 9
y1 = 11c1 e + c2 − cos
8t
+ 3 sin e 2 + c3 − sin
t
− 3 cos e2t
2 2 2 2
( √ √ ) ( √ √ )
3t √ 3t 9 3t √ 3t 9
y2 = 2c1 e8t + c2 cos − 3 sin e 2 t + c3 sin + 3 cos e2t
2 2 2 2
( √ ) ( √ )
8t 3t 9
t 3t 9
y3 = 7c1 e + 2c2 cos e 2 + 2c3 sin e2t
2 2
43. det (A − λI4 ) = λ4 − 6λ3 + 3λ2 + 8λ − 722 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ −4.114, λ2 ≈ 7.297, λ3 ≈ 1.408 + 4.698i,
λ4 ≈ 1.408 − 4.698i
   
−0.8167 1.139
 −0.8101   0.1064 
λ1 ≈ −4.114 ⇒ u ≈  , λ ≈ 7.297 ⇒ u ≈ 
0.5896  2 0.39 
1 1
 
−0.5848 ∓ 0.2576i
 2.858 ± 2.336i 
λ3,4 ≈ 1.408 ± 4.698i ⇒ u ≈  .
−2.385 ± 1.314i
1
Hence
   
−0.8167 1.139
 −0.8101   0.1064 
y ≈ c1 e(−4.114)t  + c2 e(7.297)t 
0.5896  0.39 
1 1
    
−0.5848 −0.2576
  2.858   2.336 
+ c3 e(1.408)t cos (4.698t)  − sin (4.698t) 
−2.385  1.314 
1 0
    
−0.5848 −0.2576
  2.858   2.336 
+ c4 e(1.408)t sin (4.698t) 
−2.385 
+ cos (4.698t) 
1.314 
1 0
Thus
y1 ≈ −0.8167c1 e−4.114t + 1.139c2 e7.297t + c3 (0.2576 sin (4.698t) − 0.5848 (cos 4.698t)) e1.408t
− c4 (0.2576 cos (4.698t) + 0.5848 sin (4.698t)) e1.408t
y2 ≈ −0.8101c1 e−4.114t + 0.1064c2 e7.297t − c3 (2.336 sin (4.698t) − 2.858 cos (4.698t)) e1.408t
+ c4 (2.336 cos (4.698t) + 2.858 sin (4.698t)) e1.408t
y3 ≈ 0.5896c1 e−4.114t + 0.39c2 e7.297t − c3 e1.408t (2.385 cos (4.698t) + 1.314 sin (4.698t))
− c4 e1.408t (2.385 sin (4.698t) − 1.314 cos (4.698t))
y4 ≈ c1 e−4.114t + c2 e7.297t + c3 cos (4.698t) e1.408t + c4 sin (4.698t) e1.408t
44. det (A − λI4 ) = λ4 + 11λ3 + 38λ2 + 180λ + 252 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ −8.621, λ2 ≈ −1.78, λ3 ≈ −0.2996 +
4.041i, λ4 ≈ −0.2996 − 4.041i

   
−0.5235 −0.0477
 0.8114   −1.367 
λ1 ≈ −8.621 ⇒ u ≈  , λ ≈ −1.78 ⇒ u ≈ 
1.762  2 −1.949 
1 1
 
1.371 ± 1.579i
 −0.1570 ∓ 1.131i 
λ3 ,4 ≈ −0.2996 ± 4.041i ⇒ u ≈ 
−1.801 ± 0.2477i 
.
1
Hence
   
−0.5235 −0.0477
 0.8114   −1.367 
y ≈ c1 e(−8.621)t  + c2 e(−1.78)t 
1.762  −1.949 
1 1
    
1.371 1.579
  −0.157   −1.131 
+ c3 e(−0.2996)t cos (4.041t)  − sin (4.041t) 
−1.801  0.2477 
1 0
    
1.371 1.579
  −0.157   −1.131 
+ c4 e(−0.2996)t sin (4.041t) 
−1.801 
+ cos (4.041t)   .
0.2477
1 0
Thus
y1 ≈ −0.5235c1 e−8.621t − 0.0477c2 e−1.78t + c3 (1.371 cos (4.041t) − 1.579 sin (4.041t)) e−0.2996t
+ c4 (1.579 cos (4.041t) + 1.371 sin (4.041t)) e−0.2996t
y2 ≈ 0.8114c1 e−8.621t − 1.367c2 e−1.78t + c3 (1.131 sin (4.041t) − 0.157 cos (4.041t)) e−0.2996t
− c4 (1.131 cos (4.041t) + 0.157 sin (4.041t)) e−0.2996t
y3 ≈ 1.762c1 e−8.621t − 1.949c2 e−1.78t − c3 (1.801 cos (4.041t) + 0.2477 sin (4.041t)) e−0.2996t
− c4 (1.801 sin (4.041t) − 0.2477 cos (4.041t)) e−0.2996t
y4 ≈ c1 e−8.621t + c2 e−1.78t + c3 (cos (4.041t)) e−0.2996t + c4 (sin (4.041t)) e−0.2996t
45. det (A − λI3 ) = λ3 − 2λ2 − 56λ + 63 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ 8.0096, λ2 ≈ 1.1055, λ3 ≈ −7.1151.

[ ] [ ]
−0.6278 0.8310
λ1 ≈ 8.0096 ⇒ u ≈ 0.0341 , λ2 ≈ 1.1055 ⇒ u ≈ −0.2998 ,
−0.7777 −0.4685
[ ]
0.2591
λ3 ≈ −7.1151 ⇒ u ≈ 0.8596 .
−0.4403
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−0.6278 0.8310 0.2591
Thus y ≈ c1 e (8.0096)t 0.0341 + c2 e (1.1055)t −0.2998 + c3 e (−7.1151)t 0.8596 . Hence
−0.7777 −0.4685 −0.4403
y1 ≈ −0.627 8c1 e8. 01t + 0.831 c2 e1. 106t + 0.259 1c3 e−7. 115t
y2 ≈ 0.034 1c1 e8. 01t − 0.299 8c2 e1. 106t + 0.859 6c3 e−7. 115t
y3 ≈ −0.777 7c1 e8. 01t − 0.468 5c2 e1. 106t − 0.440 3c3 e−7. 115t
Using the initial conditions we have
−0.6278c1 + 0.831c2 + 0.2591c3 = −1

0.0341c1 − 0.2998c2 + 0.8596c3 = −4
−0.7777c1 − 0.4685c2 − 0.4403c3 = 3
and obtain c1 ≈ −0.9152, c2 ≈ −0.4106, c3 ≈ −4.76. Substituting, we obtain
y1 ≈ 0.5746e8.01t − 0.3412e1.106t − 1.233e−7.115t

y2 ≈ −0.03121e8.01t + 0.1231e1.106t − 4.092e−7.115t
y3 ≈ 0.7118e8.01t + 0.1924e1.106t + 2.096e−7.115t
46. det (A − λI3 ) = −λ3 + 4λ2 + 30λ − 113 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ −5.4089, λ2 ≈ 5.8181, λ3 ≈ 3.5908.
[ ] [ ]
−0.9420 0.5904
λ1 ≈ −5.4089 ⇒ u ≈ 0.0978 , λ2 ≈ 5.8181 ⇒ u ≈ 0.8018 ,
0.3211 0.0923
[ ]
−0.5362
λ3 ≈ 3.5908 ⇒ u ≈ −0.7113 .
0.4545
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−0.9420 0.5904 −0.5362
Thus y ≈ c1 e(−5.4089)t 0.0978 + c2 e(5.8181)t 0.8018 + c3 e(3.5908)t −0.7113 . Hence
0.3211 0.0923 0.4545
y1 ≈ −0.942c1 e−5.409t + 0.5904c2 e5.818t − 0.5362c3 e3.591t

y2 ≈ 0.0978c1 e−5.409t + 0.8018c2 e5.818t − 0.7113c3 e3.591t
y3 ≈ 0.3211c1 e−5.409t + 0.0923c2 e5.818t + 0.4545c3 e3.591t
−0.942c1 + 0.5904c2 − 0.5362c3 = 1

0.0978c1 + 0.8018c2 − 0.7113c3 = −5
0.3211c1 + 0.0923c2 + 0.4545c3 = 2
and obtain c1 ≈ −4.709, c2 ≈ 1.012 , c3 ≈ 7.522. Substituting, we obtain
y1 ≈ 4.436e−5.409t + 0.5975e5.818t − 4.033e3.591t

y2 ≈ 0.8114e5.818t − 0.4605e−5.409t − 5.350e3.591t
y3 ≈ 0.09341e5.818t − 1.512e−5.409t + 3.419e3.591t
47. det (A − λI4 ) = λ4 − 6λ3 − 66λ2 − 196λ − 32 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ −0.1732, λ2 ≈ 12.5312, λ3 ≈ −3.1790 +

2.1534i, λ4 = −3.1790 − 2.1534i.
   
−0.9559 0.3788
 −1.3511   0.3130 
λ1 ≈ −0.1732 ⇒ u ≈  , λ ≈ 12.5312 ⇒ u ≈ 
0.6732  2 0.1085 
1 1
 
−1.255 ∓ 0.1926i
 −0.9193 ∓ 0.1079i 
λ3,4 ≈ −3.1790 ± 2.1534i ⇒ u ≈ 
0.0871 ± 0.5377i 
.
1
Hence
   
−0.9559 0.3788
 −1.3511   0.3130 
y ≈ c1 e(−0.1732)t  + c2 e(12.5312)t 
0.6732  0.1085 
1 1
    
−1.255 −0.1926
  −0.9193   −0.1079 
+ c3 e(−3.1790)t cos (2.153t)  − sin (2.153t) 
0.0871  0.5377 
1 0
    
−1.255 −0.1926
  −0.9193   −0.1079 
+ c4 e(−3.1790)t sin (2.153t) 
0.0871 
+ cos (2.153t)   .
0.5377
1 0
Thus
y1 ≈ −0.9559c1 e−0.1732t + 0.3788c2 e(12.53t) + c3 (−1.255 cos (2.153t) + 0.1926 sin (2.153t)) e−3.179t
− c4 (1.255 sin (2.153t) + 0.1926 cos (2.153t)) e−3.179t
y2 ≈ −1.3511c1 e−0.1732t + 0.313c2 e(12.53t) + c3 (−0.9193 cos (2.153t) + 0.1079 sin (2.153t)) e−3.179t
− c4 (0.1079 cos (2.153t) + 0.9193 sin (2.153t)) e−3.179t
y3 ≈ 0.6732c1 e−0.1732t + 0.1085c2 e(12.53t) + c3 (0.0871 cos (2.153t) − 0.5377 sin (2.153t)) e−3.179t
+ c4 (0.5377 cos (2.153t) + 0.0871 sin (2.153t)) e−3.179t
y4 ≈ c1 e−0.1732t + c2 e(12.53t) + c3 (cos (2.153t)) e−3.179t + c4 (sin (2.153t)) e−3.179t
−0.9559c1 + 0.3788c2 − 1.255c3 − 0.1926c4 =7

−1.3511 (4.3494) + 0.313c2 − 0.9193c3 − 0.1079c4 =2
0.6732 (4.3494) + 0.1085c2 + 0.0871c3 + 0.5377c4 = −2
(4.3494) + c2 + c3 = −5
and obtain c1 ≈ 4.349 4, c2 ≈ −1.249 , c3 ≈ −8.101, c4 ≈ −7.601. Substituting, we obtain
y1 ≈ 11.63 (cos 2.153t) e−3.179t − 0.4729e12.53t − 4.158e−0.1732t + 7.978 (sin 2.153t) e−3.179t
y2 ≈ 8.266 (cos 2.153t) e−3.179t − 0.3908e12.53t − 5.876e−0.1732t + 6.113 (sin 2.153t) e−3.179t
y3 ≈ 2.928e−0.1732t − 0.1355e12.53t − 4.792 (cos 2.153t) e−3.179t + 3.693 (sin 2.153t) e−3.179t
y4 ≈ 4.349e−0.1732t − 1.249e12.53t − 8.101 (cos 2.153t) e−3.179t − 7.601 (sin 2.153t) e−3.179t
48. det (A − λI4 ) = λ4 −7λ3 +27λ2 −177λ+373 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ 2.770, λ2 ≈ 5.697, λ3 ≈ −0.7333+4.806i,

λ4 = −0.7333 − 4.806i.
   
1.448 5.891
 1.116   3.924 
λ1 ≈ 2.770 ⇒ u ≈   , λ2 ≈ 5.697 ⇒ u ≈  1.019 
−0.3557
1 1
 
−0.1552 ± 0.5788i
 1.337 ± 1.045i 
≈ −0.7333 ± 4.806i ⇒ u ≈ 
0.6859 ∓ 0.4172i 
λ3,4 .
1
Hence
   
1.448 5.891
 1.116   3.924 
y ≈ c1 e(2.770)t  + c2 e(5.697)t 
−0.3557  1.019 
1 1
    
−0.1552 0.5788
  1.337   1.045 
+ c3 e(−0.7333)t cos (4.806t)  − sin (4.806t) 
0.6859  −0.4172 
1 0
    
−0.1552 0.5788
  1.337   1.045 
+ c4 e(−0.7333)t sin (4.806t) 
0.6859 
+ cos (4.806t) 
−0.4172 
1 0
Thus
y1 ≈ 1.448c1 e2.77t + 5.891c2 e5.697t + c3 (−0.1552 cos (4.806t) − 0.5788 sin (4.806t)) e−0.7333t
+ c4 (0.5788 cos (4.806t) − 0.1552 sin (4.806t)) e−0.7333t
y2 ≈ 1.116c1 e2.77t + 3.924c2 e5.697t + c3 (1.337 cos (4.806t) − 1.045 sin (4.806t)) e−0.7333t
+ c4 (1.045 cos (4.806t) + 1.337 sin (4.806t)) e−0.7333t
y3 ≈ −0.3557c1 e2.77t + 1.019c2 e5.697t + c3 (0.6859 cos (4.806t) + 0.4172 sin (4.806t)) e−0.7333t
+ c4 (−0.4172 cos (4.806t) + 0.6859 sin (4.806t)) e−0.7333t
y4 ≈ c1 e2.77t + c2 e5.697t + c3 (cos (4.806t)) e−0.7333t + c4 (sin (4.806t)) e−0.7333t
1.448c1 + 5.891c2 − 0.1552c3 + 0.5788c4 =2
1.116c1 + 3.924c2 + 1.337c3 + 1.045c4 = −9
−0.3557c1 + 1.019c2 + 0.6859c3 − 0.4172c4 = −4
c1 + c2 + c3 =3
and obtain c1 ≈ 8.603, c2 ≈ −1.121, c3 ≈ −4.482, c4 ≈ −7.855. Substituting, we obtain
y1 ≈ 12.46e2.77t − 6.609e5.697t − 3.851 (cos 4.806t) e−0.7333t + 3.813 (sin 4.806t) e−0.7333t
y2 ≈ 9.601e2.77t − 4.401e5.697t − 14.20 (cos 4.806t) e−0.7333t − 5.819 (sin 4.806t) e−0.7333t
y3 ≈ −3.060e2.77t − 1.143e5.697t + 0.2030 (cos 4.806t) e−0.7333t − 7.258 (sin 4.806t) e−0.7333t
y4 ≈ 8.603e2.77t − 1.122e5.697t − 4.482 (cos 4.806t) e−0.7333t − 7.855 (sin 4.806t) e−0.7333t

[ ][ ] [ ]
3 −1 1 3
1. (a) x1 = Ax0 = = ,
1 2 0 1
[ ][ ] [ ]
3 −1 3 8
x2 = Ax1 = = .
1 2 1 5
[ ][ ] [ ]
2 0 3 0 0
(b) x1 = Ax0 = 1 1 4 1 = 1 ,
0 −1 −7 0 −1
[ ][ ] [ ]
2 0 3 0 −3
x2 = Ax1 = 1 1 4 1 = −3 .
0 −1 −7 −1 6
Section 6.5: Approximation Methods 567
[ ][ ]] [
1 1 0 1
2. (a) Ax0 = = , s1 = 1,
−2 1 1 1
[ [ ]]
1 1
x1 = s11 Ax0 = 11 = .
1 1
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 1 1 2
Ax1 = = , s2 = 2,
−2 1 1 −1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 1 1.00
x2 = s12 Ax1 = 21 = = .
−1 − 21 −0.50
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 −1 −2 0 −2
(b) Ax0 = 2 0 3 0 = 3 , s1 = 3,
−1 2 1 1 1
[ ] [ ]
−2 −0.67
x1 = s11 Ax0 = 31 3 = 1.00 .
1 0.33
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 −1 −2 −0.67 −2.33
Ax1 = 2 0 3 1.00 = −0.35 , s2 = 3.00,
−1 2 1 0.33 3.00
[ ] [ ]
−2.33 −0.78
x2 = s12 Ax1 = 3.00
1
−0.35 = −0.12 .
3.00 1.00
6.5 Approximation Methods

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 −3 1 1 1 −3 1 −2
1. x1 = Ax0 = = , x2 = Ax1 = = , x3 = Ax2 =
1 5 0 1 1 5 1 6
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 −3 −2 −20
= .
1 5 6 28
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−2 4 0 4 −2 4 4 −12
2. x1 = Ax0 = = , x2 = Ax1 = = , x3 =
3 −1 1 −1 3 −1 −1 13
[ ][ ] [ ]
−2 4 −12 76
Ax2 = = .
3 −1 13 −49
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
6 −3 7 1 6 6 −3 7 6 52
3. x1 = Ax0 = 4 1 5 0 = 4 , x2 = Ax1 = 4 1 5 4 = 48 , x3 = Ax2 =
4 −3 9 0 4 4 −3 9 4 48
[ ][ ] [ ]
6 −3 7 52 504
4 1 5 48 = 496 .
4 −3 9 48 496
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−2 5 −7 1 3 −2 5 −7 3 18
4. x1 = Ax0 = −2 11 −13 1 = 9 , x2 = Ax1 = −2 11 −13 9 = 54 ,
−2 5 −7 0 3 −2 5 −7 3 18
[ ][ ] [ ]
−2 5 −7 18 108
x3 = Ax2 = −2 11 −13 54 = 324 .
−2 5 −7 18 108
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−1 5 2 1 3 5 −1 2 3 9
5. x1 = Ax0 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 , x2 = Ax1 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 ,
−1 2 5 −1 −3 2 −1 5 −3 −9
[ ][ ] [ ]
5 −1 2 9 27
x3 = Ax2 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 .
2 −1 5 −9 −27
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 0 −7 −1 2 −7 −7 −3
6. x1 = Ax0 = −10 2 2 0 = 2 , x2 = Ax1 = −10 2 2 2 = 78 ,
−10 2 2 1 2 −10 2 2 2 78
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 −3 −387
x3 = Ax2 = −10 2 2 78 = 342 .
−10 2 2 78 342
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2 −1 0 −1 −1 −1
7. Ax0 = = , s1 = 1, x1 = s11 Ax0 = 11 = .
0 1 1 1 1 1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2 −1 −1 −3 −3 1 1.00
Ax1 = = , s2 = −3, x2 = s12 Ax1 = −3 1
= = .
0 1 1 1 1 − 13 −0.33
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
3 1 −1 −2 −2 1
8. Ax0 = = , s1 = −2, x1 = s1 Ax0 = −2
1 1
= .
2 0 1 −2 −2 1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
3 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 1.00
Ax1 = = , s2 = 4, x2 = s2 Ax1 = 4 = 1 = .
2 0 1 2 2 2
0.50
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]  
−1 0 2 0 0 0 0
9. Ax0 = 1 1 0 1 = 1 , s1 = −2, x1 = s11 Ax0 = −2 1
1 =  − 21  =
0 −2 1 0 −2 −2 1
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
0.00 −1 0 2 0.00 2.00 2.00
−0.50 . Ax1 = 1 1 0 −0.50 = −0.50 , s2 = 2, x2 = s12 Ax1 = 12 −0.50 =
1.00 0 −2 1 1.00 2.00 2.00
[ ]
1.00
−0.25 .
1.00
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]   [ ]
−2 1 1 −1 3 3 1 1.00
10. Ax0 = 0 3 −2 1 = 1
3 , s1 = 3, x1 = s1 Ax0 = 3 1
3 =  1 =  1.00
2 0 0 0 −2 −2 − 23 −0.67
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 1 1 1.00 −1.67 −1.67
. Ax1 = 0 3 −2 1.00 = 4.34 , s2 = 4.34, x2 = s12 Ax1 = 4.34 1
4.34 =
2 0 0 −0.67 2.00 2.00
[ ]
−0.38
1.00 .
0.46
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]   [ ]
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
11. Ax0 = −1 3 0 1 = 3 , s1 = 3, x1 = s11 Ax0 = 13 3 = 1 = 1.00
2 −1 1 −1 −2 −2 − 23 −0.67
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
. Ax1 = −1 3 0 1.00 = 1
3.00 , s2 = 3.00, x2 = s2 Ax1 = 3.00 1
3.00 =
2 −1 1 −0.67 −1.67 −1.67
[ ]
0.00
1.00 .
−0.56
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]  1  [ ]
0 2 −1 −1 1 1 3 0.33
12. Ax0 = 0 2 1 1 = 3 , s1 = 3, x1 = s11 Ax0 = 31 3 = 1 = 1.00 .
2 0 0 1 −2 −2 − 23 −0.67
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
0 2 −1 0.33 2.67 2.67 1.00
1 1
Ax1 = 0 2 1 1.00 = 1.33 , s2 = 2.67, x2 = s2 Ax1 = 2.67 1.33 = 0.50 .
2 0 0 −0.67 0.66 0.66 0.25
13. The Power Method will converge, with eigenvalue λ = 7.
14. The Power Method will converge, with eigenvalue λ = −4.

15. The Power Method will converge, with eigenvalue λ = −6.
18. The Power Method may possibly not converge, since the largest eigenvalues in magnitude have opposite
signs.
[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 1 0 −3 2
19. B = A − 4I2 = −4 = .
3 2 0 1 3 −2
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−1 0 1 0 −4 0
20. B = A − 3I2 = −3 = .
2 3 0 1 2 0
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 1 0 0 −10 2 −7
21. B = A − 9I3 = −10 2 2 − 9 0 1 0 = −10 −7 2 .
−10 2 2 0 0 1 −10 2 −7
[ ] [ ] [ ]
5 −1 2 1 0 0 −1 −1 2
22. B = A − 6I3 = 2 2 2 −6 0 1 0 = 2 −4 2 .
2 −1 5 0 0 1 2 −1 −1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−3 1 1 0 −7 1
23. B = A − 4I2 = −4 = .
5 2 0 1 5 −2
[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 1 0 6 2
24. B = A − (−5) I2 = − (−5) = .
3 4 0 1 3 9
[ ] [ ] [ ]
3 1 4 1 0 0 4 1 4
25. B = A − (−1) I3 = 1 5 9 − (−1) 0 1 0 = 1 6 9 .
2 6 1 0 0 1 2 6 2
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 7 1 1 0 0 −1 7 1
26. B = A − 3I3 = 8 2 8 − 3 0 1 0 = 8 −1 8 .
1 8 2 0 0 1 1 8 −1
1 1
27. We have lim sk = 4.
Since this is the Inverse Power Method, the eigenvalue is 1/4 = 4. The
k→∞
[ ]
1
eigenvector is lim xk = 1/2 .
k→∞
0
28. We have lim sk = 12 . Since this is the Shifted Inverse Power Method, the eigenvalue is 1/2 1
+ 3 = 5.
k→∞
[ ]
1/2
The eigenvector: lim xk = 1/10 .
k→∞
1
[ ] [ ]
1 0 1
29. For example, A = and x0 = .
0 0 0
[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 1
30. For example, A = 0 0 0 and x0 = 0 .
0 0 0 0
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
0 1 1 0 1
31. For example, A = and x0 = . Then x1 = , x2 = , and hence we obtain
1 0 0 1 0
x0 = x2 = · · · , x1 = x3 = · · · , and x0 ̸= x1 .
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
0 1 0 1 0 1
32. For example, A = 1 0 0 and x0 = 0 . Then x1 = 1 , x2 = 0 , and hence we obtain
0 0 0 0 0 0
x0 = x2 = · · · , x1 = x3 = · · · , and x0 ̸= x1 .
[ ] [ ]
0 −1 1
33. For example, A = and x0 = . Then the Power Method without scaling produces
1 −1 0
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0 −1 1
x0 = , x1 = , x2 = , x3 = , ... .
0 1 −1 0
[ ] [ ]
0 −1 0 1
34. For example, A = 1 −1 0 and x0 = 0 . Then the Power Method without scaling produces
0 0 0 0
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0 −1 1
x0 = 0 , x1 = 1 , x2 = −1 , x3 = 0 , . . . .
0 0 0 0
35. (a) True. By Theorem 6.17, a dominant eigenvalue is needed.
(b) False. One can apply the Inverse Power Method to A by applying the Power Method to A−1 .
[ ]
2 0
36. (a) False. For instance, if A = , then λ = 2 is the dominant eigenvalue. But if we start with
0 −1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
0 0 0
x0 = , then x1 = , x2 = , ..., which does not converge.
1 −1 1
(b) False. In general the Power Method is not sensitive to round-off error.
37. (a) True, as the Inverse Power Method requires that A−1 exists.
(b) False. It typically converges to the eigenvector
[ ] of the dominant
[ ] eigenvalue, but not for certain
2 0 1
initial vectors x0 . For instance, if A = , then x0 = yields a sequence that converges
0 1 0
[ ] [ ]
1 0
immediately to the eigenvector u = , while x0 = yields a sequence that converges imme-
0 1
[ ]
0
diately to the eigenvector u = .
1
38. (a) True.
[ ] [ ]
1 0 1
(b) False. For instance, A = has λ1 = λ2 = 1 for eigenvalues, and x0 = will yield a
0 1 0
sequence that converges to an eigenvector.
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
39. Ax0 = = , s1 = 1, x1 = s1 Ax0 = 1 = .
0 −1 1 −1 −1 −1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 1 1 0 0 0
Ax1 = = , s2 = 1, x2 = s12 Ax1 = 11 = .
0 −1 −1 1 1 1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 1 0 1 1 1
Ax2 = = , s3 = 1, x3 = s13 Ax2 = 11 = .
0 −1 1 −1 −1 −1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 1 1 0 0 0
Ax3 = = , s4 = 1, x4 = s14 Ax3 = 11 = .
0 −1 −1 1 1 1
The sequence xk does not converge, it alternates. The eigenvalues of A are λ = 1 and λ = −1, and so
there is no dominant eigenvalue, and convergence is not assured.
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 0 1 −2 −2 1
40. Ax0 = = , s1 = −2, x1 = s1 Ax0 = −2
1 1
= .
1 2 0 1 1 −1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ 2 ]
−2 0 1 −2 −2 1
Ax1 = = , s2 = −2, x2 = s12 Ax1 = −2 1
= .
1 2 − 12 0 0 0
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 0 1 −2 −2 1
Ax2 = = , s3 = −2, x3 = s3 Ax2 = −2
1 1
= .
1 2 0 1 1 −1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ 2 ]
−2 0 1 −2 −2 1
Ax3 = = , s4 = −2, x4 = s14 Ax3 = −2
1
= .
1 2 − 21 0 0 0
The sequence xk does not converge, it alternates. The eigenvalues of A are λ = 2 and λ = −2, and so
there is no dominant eigenvalue, and convergence is not assured.
[ ][ ] ] [ [ ] [ 1 ]
1 0 −1 −1 −1 −2
41. Ax0 = = , s1 = 2, x1 = s11 Ax0 = 12 = .
2 2 2 2 2
[ ][ 1 ] [ 1 ] [ 1 ] [ 11 ]
1 0 −2 −2 −2 −2
Ax1 = = , s2 = 1, x2 = s12 Ax1 = 11 = .
2 2 1 1 1 1
Since x2 = x1 , the sequence converges, and we will obtain sk = 1 for all k > 1. Thus, an eigenvalue is
given by lim sk = 1. We did not obtain the dominant eigenvalue because x0 is an eigenvector of A
k→∞
associated with eigenvalue λ = 1.
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 −1 1 1 1
42. Ax0 = = , s1 = 1, x1 = s11 Ax0 = 11 = .
2 1 1 −1 −1 −1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 1 −1 −1 −1
Ax1 = = , s2 = 1, x2 = s12 Ax1 = 11 = .
2 1 −1 1 1 1
Since x2 = x0 ̸= x1 , the sequence alternates, and xk does not converge. We cannot estimate an
eigenvalue using the Power Method.
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 −3 1 1 1 −3 1 −2
43. x1 = = , x2 = = ,
1 5 0 1 1 5 1 6
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 −3 −2 −20 1 −3 −20 −104
x3 = = , x4 = = ,
1 5 6 28 1 5 28 120
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 −3 −104 −464 1 −3 −464 −1952
x5 = = , x6 = = .
1 5 120 496 1 5 496 2016
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−2 4 0 4 −2 4 4 −12
44. x1 = = , x2 = = ,
3 −1 1 −1 3 −1 −1 13
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−2 4 −12 76 −2 4 76 −348
x3 = = , x4 = = ,
3 −1 13 −49 3 −1 −49 277
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−2 4 −348 1804 −2 4 1804 −8892
x5 = = , x6 = = .
3 −1 277 −1321 3 −1 −1321 6733
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
6 −3 7 1 6 6 −3 7 6 52
45. x1 = 4 1 5 0 = 4 , x2 = 4 1 5 4 = 48 ,
4 −3 9 0 4 4 −3 9 4 48
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
6 −3 7 52 504 6 −3 7 504 5008
x3 = 4 1 5 48 = 496 , x4 = 4 1 5 496 = 4992 ,
4 −3 9 48 496 4 −3 9 496 4992
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
6 −3 7 5008 50016 6 −3 7 50016 500032
x5 = 4 1 5 4992 = 49984 , x6 = 4 1 5 49984 = 499968 .
4 −3 9 4992 49984 4 −3 9 49984 499968
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−2 5 −7 1 3 −2 5 −7 3 18
46. x1 = −2 11 −13 1 = 9 , x2 = −2 11 −13 9 = 54 ,
−2 5 −7 0 3 −2 5 −7 3 18
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−2 5 −7 18 108 −2 5 −7 108 648
x3 = −2 11 −13 54 = 324 , x4 = −2 11 −13 324 = 1944 ,
−2 5 −7 18 108 −2 5 −7 108 648
[ ][ ] [ ]
−2 5 −7 648 3888
x5 = −2 11 −13 1944 = 11664 ,
−2 5 −7 648 3888
[ ][ ] [ ]
−2 5 −7 3888 23328
x6 = −2 11 −13 11664 = 69984 .
−2 5 −7 3888 23328
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
5 −1 2 1 3 5 −1 2 3 9
47. x1 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 , x2 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 ,
2 −1 5 −1 −3 2 −1 5 −3 −9
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
5 −1 2 9 27 5 −1 2 27 81
x3 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 , x4 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 ,
2 −1 5 −9 −27 2 −1 5 −27 −81
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
5 −1 2 81 243 5 −1 2 243 729
x5 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 , x6 = 2 2 2 0 = 0 .
2 −1 5 −81 −243 2 −1 5 −243 −729
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 0 −7 −1 2 −7 −7 −3
48. x1 = −10 2 2 0 = 2 , x2 = −10 2 2 2 = 78 ,
−10 2 2 1 2 −10 2 2 2 78
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 −3 −387
x3 = −10 2 2 78 = 342 ,
−10 2 2 78 342
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 −387 −1323
x4 = −10 2 2 342 = 5238 ,
−10 2 2 342 5238
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 −1323 −24867
x5 = −10 2 2 5238 = 34182 ,
−10 2 2 5238 34182
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 2 −7 −24867 −146043
x6 = −10 2 2 34182 = 385398 .
−10 2 2 34182 385398
49. Applying the Power Method, we obtain

k xk sk
5 (−1.0000, 0.0323) 2.0667
10 (−1.0000, 0.0010) 2.0020
15 (−1.0000, 0.0000) 2.0001
We conclude that there is an eigenvalue λ = lim sk = 2, with eigenvector
[ ] k→∞
−1
lim xk = .
k→∞ 0

k xk sk
5 (1.0000, 0.5618) 3.5600
10 (1.0000, 0.5616) 3.5616
15 (1.0000, 0.5616) 3.5616
We conclude that there is an eigenvalue λ = lim sk = 3.5616, with eigenvector
[ ] k→∞
1
lim xk = .
k→∞ 0.5616

Supplementary Exercises 573
k xk sk
5 (−0.0042, 1.0000, −0.6983) 4.0170
10 (−0.0649, 1.0000, −0.6446) 4.2776
15 (−0.0569, 1.0000, −0.6529) 4.2412
20 (−0.0580, 1.0000, −0.6517) 4.2465
25 (−0.0579, 1.0000, −0.6519) 4.2457
30 (−0.0579, 1.0000, −0.6518) 4.2458
[ ] k→∞
−0.0579
lim xk = 1.0000 .
k→∞
−0.6518
k xk sk
20 (1.0000, −0.4853, −0.7765) −2.5757
40 (1.0000, −0.2553, −0.6940) −2.8817
60 (1.0000, −0.2340, −0.6864) −2.9138
80 (1.0000, −0.2319, −0.6856) −2.9169
100 (1.0000, −0.2317, −0.6856) −2.9173
120 (1.0000, −0.2317, −0.6856) −2.9173
We conclude that there is an eigenvalue λ = lim sk = −2.9173, with eigenvector
[ ] k→∞
1
lim xk = −0.2317 .
k→∞
−0.6856
k xk sk
5 (0, 1.0000, −0.5021) 3
10 (0, 1.0000, −0.5000) 3
15 (0, 1.0000, −0.5000) 3
[ ] k→∞
0
lim xk = 1 .
k→∞
−1/2
k xk sk
10 (0.6549, 1.0000, 0.5708) 2.4171
20 (0.6096, 1.0000, 0.4862) 2.4851
30 (0.6074, 1.0000, 0.4882) 2.4885
40 (0.6075, 1.0000, 0.4883) 2.4883
50 (0.6075, 1.0000, 0.4883) 2.4883
k→∞
[ ]
0.6075
lim xk = 1 .
k→∞
0.4883
Chapter 6 Supplementary Exercises

[ ] [ ]
−4 2 1 − 21
−6 3 0 0
[ 1 ] {[ 1 ]}
1 1
[ ] [ ]
9 −6 1 − 23
2. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − I2 = ˜ . Solving, we obtain
18 −12 0 0
[ 3 ] {[ 3 ]}
1 1
[ ] [ ]
−4 −10 6 1 0 1
3. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − (−1) I3 = 6 12 −6 ˜ 0 1 −1 . Solving,
5 8 −3 0 0 0
[ ] {[ ]}
−1 −1
1 1
[ ] [ ]
4 −1 1 1 0 0
4. We row-reduce to obtain the null space of A − (−2) I3 = −4 10 −10 ˜ 0 1 −1 . Solving,
−4 7 −7 0 0 0
[ ] {[ ]}
0 0
1 1
([ ] [ ])
0 1 1 0
−2 3 0 1
([ ])
−λ 1
= det = λ2 − 3λ + 2.
−2 3 − λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 − 3λ + 2 = (λ − 1) (λ − 2) = 0 ⇒ λ = 1 and λ = 2.
−1 1 1 −1
A − I2 = ˜ ,
−2 2 0 0
{[ ]}
1
1
−2 1 1 − 21
A − 2I2 = ˜ ,
−2 1 0 0
{[ 1 ]}
1
([ ] [ ])
−5 6 1 0
−3 4 0 1
([ ])
−λ − 5 6
= det = λ2 + λ − 2.
−3 4 − λ
Eigenvalues: λ2 + λ − 2 = (λ + 2) (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −2 and λ = 1.
−3 6 1 −2
A − (−2) I2 = ˜ ,
−3 6 0 0
{[ ]}
2
1
−6 6 1 −1
A − I2 = ˜ ,
−3 3 0 0
{[ ]}
1
1
([ ] [ ])
1 −2 2 1 0 0
7. Characteristic polynomial: det (A − λI3 ) = det −1 −1 1 −λ 0 1 0
−1 0 0 0 0 1
([ ])
1−λ −2 2
= det −1 −λ − 1 1 = λ − λ3 .
−1 0 −λ
Eigenvalues: λ − λ3 = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, λ = 1, and λ = −1.
[ ] [ ]
1 −2 2 1 0 0
A − 0I3 = −1 −1 1 ˜ 0 1 −1 ,
−1 0 0 0 0 0
{[ ]}
0
1
[ ] [ ]
0 −2 2 1 0 1
A − I3 = −1 −2 1 ˜ 0 1 −1 ,
−1 0 −1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
−1
1
[ ] [ ]
2 −2 2 1 0 −1
A − (−1) I3 = −1 0 1 ˜ 0 1 −2 ,
−1 0 1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
1
1
([ ] [ ])
0 −1 0 1 0 0
−1 −1 1 0 0 1
([ ])
−λ −1 0
= det 0 1−λ 0 = −λ3 + 2λ2 − λ.
−1 −1 1 − λ
2
Eigenvalues: −λ3 + 2λ2 − λ = −λ (λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0 and λ = 1.
[ ] [ ]
0 −1 0 1 0 −1
A − 0I3 = 0 1 0 ˜ 0 1 0 ,
−1 −1 1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
1
1
[ ] [ ]
−1 −1 0 1 1 0
A − I3 = 0 0 0 ˜ 0 0 0 ,
−1 −1 0 0 0 0
{[ ] [ ]}
−1 0
0 1
[
][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 3
9. x1 = Ax0 = = , x2 = Ax1 = = , x3 = Ax2 =
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 2
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 3 7
= .
1 1 2 5
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 5 0 5 1 5 5 10
10. x1 = Ax0 = = , x2 = Ax1 = = , x3 = Ax2 =
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 11
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 5 10 65
= .
2 1 11 31
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 0 2 1 1 1 0 2 1 1
11. x1 = Ax0 = −1 2 −1 0 = −1 , x2 = Ax1 = −1 2 −1 −1 = −3 ,
0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 0 2 1 1
x3 = Ax2 = −1 2 −1 −3 = −7 .
0 0 −1 0 0
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
−1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0
12. x1 = Ax0 = 2 1 −1 1 = 1 , x2 = Ax1 = 2 1 −1 1 = 1 , x3 =
0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0
[ ][ ] [ ]
−1 0 0 0 0
Ax2 = 2 1 −1 1 = 1 .
0 0 −1 0 0

k xk sk
5 (1.0000, 0.6664) 2.9891
10 (1.0000, 0.6667) 3.0000
[ ] k→∞
1
lim xk = .
k→∞ 2/3

k xk sk
5 (1.0000, 0.5970) 2.2000
10 (1.0000, 0.6001) 1.9942
15 (1.0000, 0.6000) 2.0002
[ ] k→∞
1
lim xk = .
k→∞ 3/5

k xk sk
5 (1.0000, −0.9959, −0.9959) 3.0000
10 (1.0000, −1.0000, −1.0000) 3.0000
[ ] k→∞
1
lim xk = −1 .
k→∞
−1

k xk sk
5 (0.4848, 1.0000, 0.5152) 2.2000
10 (0.5005, 1.0000, 0.4995) 1.9942
15 (0.5000, 1.0000, 0.5000) 2.0002
20 (0.5000, 1.0000, 0.5000) 2.0000
k→∞
[ ]
1/2
lim xk = 1 .
k→∞
1/2
([ ] [ ]) [ ]
−4 10 1 0 −4 10
17. det −λ = λ2 − 3λ + 2 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 2. Because −
−3 7 0 1 −3 7
[ ] [ ] [ ] {[ ]}
1 0 −5 10 1 −2 2
(1) = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 1 is . Be-
0 1 −3 6 0 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ 5 ]
−4 10 1 0 −6 10 1 −3
cause − (2) = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = 2 is
−3 7 0 1 −3 5 0 0
{[ ]}
5/3
.
1
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
−4 10 2 5/3 1 0 2 5/3
We thus have = .
−3 7 1 1 0 2 1 1
([ ] [ ]) [ ]
−5 2 1 0 −5 2
18. det −λ = λ − 1 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1 and λ2 = −1. Because
2
−
−12 5 0 1 −12 5
[ ] [ ] [ ] {[ ]}
1 0 −6 2 1 − 13 3
(1) = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 1 is . Because
0 1 −12 4 0 0 1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−5 2 1 0 −4 2 1 − 21
− (−1) = ˜ , a basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = −1 is
−12 5 0 1 −12 6 0 0
{[ ]}
2
.
1
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]− 1
−5 2 3 2 1 0 3 2
We thus have = .
−12 5 1 1 0 −1 1 1
([ ] [ ])
−5 8 4 1 0 0
19. det −2 3 2 −λ 0 1 0 = λ − λ3 = −λ (λ − 1) (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 0, λ2 = 1, and
−3 5 2 0 0 1
λ3 = −1.[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−5 8 4 1 0 0 −5 8 4 1 0 −4
Because −2 3 2 − (0) 0 1 0 = −2 3 2 ˜ 0 1 −2 ,
−3 5 2 0 0 1 −3 5 2 0 0 0
{[ ]}
4
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−5 8 4 1 0 0 −6 8 4 1 0 −2
Because −2 3 2 −1 0 1 0 = −2 2 2 ˜ 0 1 −1 ,
−3 5 2 0 0 1 −3 5 1 0 0 0
{[ ]}
2
1
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
−5 8 4 1 0 0 −4 8 4 1 0 −1
Because −2 3 2 − (−1) 0 1 0 = −2 4 2 ˜ 0 1 0 ,
−3 5 2 0 0 1 −3 5 3 0 0 0
{[ ]}
1
a basis for the eigenspace of λ3 = −1 is 0 .
1
[ ] [ ][ ][ ]−1
−5 8 4 4 2 1 0 0 0 4 2 1
We thus have −2 3 2 = 2 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 .
−3 5 2 1 1 1 0 0 −1 1 1 1
([ ] [ ])
−5 2 2 1 0 0
2
20. det −2 0 1 −λ 0 1 0 = −λ3 − 2λ2 − λ = −λ (λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 0 and
−8 4 3 0 0 1
λ2 = −1.  
[ ] [ ] [ ] 1 0 − 12
−5 2 2 0 1 0 −5 2 2
 
Because −2 0 1− (0) 0 = −2 0 1 ˜  0 1 − 41 ,
0 1
−8 4 3 1 0 0 −8 4 3 0 0 0
 

 2 
1

 
a basis for the eigenspace of λ1 = 0 is  14  .

 

1
[ ] [ ] [ ]  1 −1 −1 
−5 2 2 1 0 0 −4 2 2 2 2
Because −2 0 1 − (−1) 0 1 0 = −2 1 1 ˜  0 0 0 ,
−8 4 3 0 0 1 −8 4 4 0 0 0
 1   1 
 2 2 
a basis for the eigenspace of λ2 = −1 is  1  ,  0  .
 
0 1
 1 1 1   
[ ] [ ] 1 1 1 −1
−5 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 2
   
We thus have −2 0 1 =  14 1 0  0 −1 0  41 1 0  .
−8 4 3 1 0 1 0 0 −1 1 0 1
[ ][ ][ ]−1 [ ]
1 2 2 0 1 2 − 47 6
7
3 −1 0 −1 3 −1 9
7
11
7
[ ][ ][ ]−1  
2 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 −1 2 1
= −1 .
1 1
22. We may obtain A as 1 −1 −1 0 −2 0 1 −1 −1 2 2
0 1 2 0 0 −2 0 1 2 0 0 −2
23. (a) z1 + z2 = (3 + 2i) + (4 − i) = (3 + 4) + (2 − 1) i = 7 + i

(b) 3z1 + 2z2 = 3 (3 + 2i) + 2 (4 − i) = (6 + 6i) + (8 − 2i) = (6 + 8) + (6 − 2) i = 14 + 4i
(c) z2 − 2z1 = (4 − i) − 2 (3 + 2i) = (4 − i) − (6 + 4i) = −2 − 5i
(d) z1 z2 = (3 + 2i) (4 − i) = (3(4) − (2)(−1)) + (3(−1) + (2)(4)) i = 14 + 5i
24. (a) z1 + 2z2 = (3 + 2i) + 2 (4 − i) = (3 + 8) + (2 − 2) i = 11
(b) z1 − 2z2 = 3 (3 + 2i) − 2 (4 − i) = (9 + 6i) − (8 − 2i) = (9 − 8) + (6 + 2) i = 1 + 8i
(c) z2 + 4z1 = (4 − i) + 4 (3 + 2i) = (4 − i) + (12 + 8i) = 16 + 7i
(d) z12 = (3 + 2i) (3 + 2i) = (3(3) − (2)(2)) + (3(2) + (2)(3)) i = 5 + 12i
([ ] [ ]) ([ ])
2 1 1 0 2−λ 1
−1 2 0 1 −1 2 − λ
[ ] [ ]
−i 1 1 i
A − (2 + i) I2 = ˜ ,
−1 −i 0 0
{[ ]}
−i
1
{[ ]}
i
1
] [ ([ ]) ([ ])
3 1 1 0 3−λ 1
−1 3 0 1 −1 3 − λ
[ ] [ ]
−i 1 1 i
A − (2 + i) I2 = ˜ ,
−1 −i 0 0
{[ ]}
−i
1
{[ ]}
i
1
−1
27. An √ is λ = 2 + i. So the rotation is by tan (1/2) ≈ 0.4636 radians, the dilation is by
√ eigenvalue
2 2
2 + 1 = 5.
−1
28. An
√ eigenvalue √ is λ = 1 + 4i. So the rotation is by tan (4/1) ≈ 1. 3258 radians, the dilation is by
12 + 42 = 17.
[ ] [ ]
1 −3
29. y = c1 e−t + c2 e2t ⇒ y1 = c1 e−t − 3c2 e2t and y2 = −c1 e−t + c2 e2t .
−1 1
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−2 1 −1
−t −t
30. y = c1 3 + c2 e 0 + c3 e 3 ⇒ y1 = −2c1 + c2 e−t − c3 e−t , y2 = 3c1 + 3c3 e−t ,
−1 3 −2
and y3 = −c1 + 3c2 e−t − 2c3 e−t .
( [ ] [ ]) ( [ ] [ ])
0 2 0 2
31. y = c1 cos (3t) − sin (3t) + c2 sin (3t) + cos (3t)
0 −1 0 −1
⇒ y1 = −2c1 sin (3t) + 2c2 cos (3t) and y2 = c1 sin (3t) − c2 cos (3t).
[ ] ( [ ] [ ])
0 1 1
32. y = c1 e t 2 + c2 e t
cos (2t) 0 − sin (2t) −1 +
−1 3 2
( [] [ ])
1 1
c3 et sin (2t) 0 + cos (2t) −1 ⇒ y1 = c2 et (cos (2t) − sin (2t))+c3 et (cos (2t) + sin (2t)) ,
3 2
y2 = 2c1 et +c2 et sin (2t)−c3 et cos (2t), and y3 = −c1 et +c2 et (3 cos (2t) − 2 sin (2t))+c3 et (2 cos (2t) + 3 sin (2t)) .
] [
−5 6
−3 5
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI2 ) = λ2 − 7.
[ √ ] [ √ ]
√ 5
+ 1
7 √ 5
− 1
7
λ=− 7⇒u= 3 3 ,λ= 7⇒u= 3 3
1 1
(5 √ ) √ ( √ ) √ √ √
Hence y1 = 3 + 1
3 7 c1 e− 7t + 53 − 31 7 c2 e 7t , and y2 = c1 e− 7t + c2 e 7t .
[ ]
′ −4 10
−3 7
[ ] [ 5 ]
2
λ=1⇒u= ,λ=2⇒u= 3
1 1
Hence y1 = 2c1 et + 53 c2 e2t , and y2 = c1 et + c2 e2t .

[ ]
−5 8 4
′
−3 5 2
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI3 ) = −λ (λ − 1) (λ + 1).
[ ] [ ] [ ]
4 2 1
λ=0⇒u= 2 ,λ=1⇒u= 1 , λ = −1 ⇒ u = 0
1 1 1
Hence y1 = 4c1 + 2c2 et + c3 e−t , y2 = 2c1 + c2 et , and y3 = c1 + c2 et + c3 e−t .

[ ]
−5 2 2
′
−8 4 3
2
characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI3 ) = −λ (λ + 1)
     1 

 2 
1
  12 
  2
λ = 0 ⇒ Basis:  14  , λ = −1 ⇒ Basis:  1  ,  0 

 
  0 
1 1
(1 )
Thus y1 = 12 c1 + 2 c2 + 12 c3 e−t , y2 = 14 c1 + c2 e−t , y3 = c1 + c3 e−t .
Another random document with
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men are at present enthusiastic riders; for where the girls are there
shall the men be also.
HALLOWE’EN.
(October 31st.)
I.
At Hallowe’en, so calm and still,

All frisky spirits are astir:
The fairies haunt the vale and hill,
And witch-like elves meet to confer.
II.
But we can well keep free from those,

For by the fireside round about
Sweet rosy maids meet with their beaux
To spell their future fortune out.
III.
Chestnuts or walnuts, pair by pair,

Are put upon the living coals,
And if they lie contented there
They represent two happy souls.
IV.
Some eat an apple, while they stare

Within the telltale looking glass:
And as they eat and comb their hair
The fated face is sure to pass
V.
Before their eyes. Some pull the kale;

Some try the oats, or size the sack;
Some seek the rivulet in the vale,
Some hemp seed sow for answer back.
VI.
Ah, me! How many spells of old

To tell our fortunes I have seen;
No sweeter charm does memory hold,
Than those past hours of Hallowe’en.
A LIFE’S SPECULATIONS.
When a wee child I used to wonder why
The bright stars fell not from the bending sky,
For I no sky line saw to hold them by,
When told of angels up beyond the blue,
I used to wonder if the winged crew
Flew races, when they’d nothing else to do.
A little later, as around I played,

And saw that young girls were so frail and ’fraid,
I wondered why on earth a maid was made.
No mortal use the timid things could be
That a philosopher of six could see—
So great a mystery was the sex to me.
A few years more, when youth’s expansive flame

Put my philosophy of six to shame,
A greater mystery the sex became.
Next into college I for knowledge went
And wondered at the time so vainly spent—
Four years for learning things not worth a cent!
A year of lounging in that sacred place,

Then round the world to see the human race
I wandered, and my wonder grew apace.
More than seven marvels had the world for me,
And this the greatest: why the poor should be
Slaves of the rich men, when they might be free.
But having had sufficient time to cool

My fancy in this tough world’s roughest school
I give up life’s conundrums—as a rule.
Yet such is habit—howsoe’er we try—
The other day I fell to wondering why
In Yankee taverns they serve cheese with pie.
Henry W. Austin.
AN ACCIDENTAL ROMANCE.
By Matthew White, Jr.
His friends called Radnor Hunt a cynic. He laughed lightly when
accused of being cold and unresponsive, and declared that he must
have imbibed the trait unconsciously from the nature of his work, for
winter landscapes were his specialty. But now and then when he
was alone, in the little studio over the stable in Fifty Fifth Street,
where he worked by day and slept by night, he would look at himself
in the mirror over his dressing case and—laugh again, such a hard,
bitter laugh, that sometimes he shuddered on hearing it, and glanced
fearfully around him as if dreading to see the author of the sound.
“I, a cynic, a woman hater!” he would mutter, putting his hand
above his eyebrows and leaning forward to peer more closely at
himself in the glass. “Bah! how blind the world is! Who would believe
from this what rages here?”
And with a quick motion he would sweep his hand across his face
and place it for an instant over his heart. Then, as if in utter disgust
with himself, he would hastily turn out the light, fling himself on his
bed, just as he was, and sleep thus till morning.
And yet Radnor Hunt was reckoned a moderately fortunate young
man. He had come to New York knowing no one, and now, after a
two years’ residence, he had had a picture in the Water Color which
brought him orders for three others, while half a dozen periodicals
were always ready to pay well for his “pot boilers,” the pen and ink
work which Radnor despised.
He was an only child. His father had been a country doctor in a
Connecticut town, who, contrary to the usual rule, had been proud of
his son’s artistic tastes and had encouraged him in them. This,
instead of being grateful for it, Radnor frequently recalled with bitter
regret.
“If he had only laughed at my first attempt, taken my paints away
from me and put me to some business,” he would sigh. “Then
perhaps——”
But here he usually broke off his reflections, while a strange light
would come into his eyes. It was in this mood that he frequently
sprang up from his work to jam his hat fiercely over his brows and go
out to take a long walk that was utterly aimless.
Mr. and Mrs. Hunt had both died within a few months of one
another the winter before Radnor left home. He was twenty three
then, and that summer he had passed with his cousin, Mrs. Stilton
Barnes, in the Adirondacks. Mrs. Stilton Barnes was a Philadelphian
who lived south of Market Street and who had at once conceived a
great fondness for the handsome young relative whom she met for
the first time in thirteen years at his mother’s funeral.
Radnor well remembered having worshiped her at a respectful
distance when he was a small boy. She was then a happy hearted
girl just leaving her teens behind her, and with her head too full of
lovers, one of whom might turn out to be a husband, to pay much
attention to the little fellow in knickerbockers whom she often caught
looking at her with unveiled admiration in his great blue eyes.
Now positions were reversed. Camilla Hunt had become Mrs.
Stilton Barnes, the wife of the well to do jeweler. The plumpness that
had been the beauty of her youth had transformed itself into a
buxomness that positively shocked Radnor when he first beheld it.
He wondered how he could ever have found this woman charming
and—here she was becoming really enthusiastic over him.
“My dear cousin,” she exclaimed, “why did you not let me know
what I was missing? Why, you would have been a treasure indeed at
my Friday evenings last winter,” and she would put up her lorgnettes
for another survey which sent the blood surging to poor Radnor’s
cheeks and made him look handsomer than ever.
Camilla Barnes was thoroughly candid and outspoken. Before she
left Cheltenham she told Radnor that if she had had the slightest
idea that he had developed into such a presentable specimen of
humanity she would have had him out of that sleepy old town long
before.
“It’s too late in the season to do anything now,” she added, “but I
must insist on your spending the month of August with us at Lorimac.
We shall then have plenty of opportunity to talk over the future.”
Nor would she go away until Radnor had given his consent. After
all, she was his cousin, and if she chose to extend to him the
hospitality of a hotel, why should he not accept it, as he would have
done at her own home?
Radnor’s pride was the most notable element in his make up. It
was indomitable, unyielding. Even as a boy it permeated his life, and
made him miserable whenever in his studies he fell short of the high
standard he had set for himself.
But for the reasons given he finally decided to accept his cousin
Camilla’s invitation. If he could have read the future and foreseen the
consequences of that Adirondack visit, he would have shunned the
place as a plague spot.
At least this was what he told himself almost always when he
recalled it. At other times he felt that he would not have had the
experience left out of his life for all the joys that the entire span of
three score and ten might have in store for him.
Even before this period he had gained some fame and a little
money as an illustrator of children’s books, and now that the last tie
that bound him to Cheltenham was severed by his mother’s death,
he decided that he would take the step which the nature of his work
rendered almost a necessity—settlement in some city close to his
markets.
However, this could now easily be deferred till fall, and meantime
he had the estate to close up, and then the month with Mrs. Barnes
would doubtless do much toward the shaping of his plans.
Radnor had traveled but little, still he possessed that quality of
adaptiveness that made him seem easy and at home wherever he
was. His mother had been a Bournie, of Huguenot descent, and of
the most delicate refinement. Radnor inherited this quality from her
in very large degree, tempered with the rugged persistency and vigor
of his father.
Her cousin’s arrival at the Lorimac House created all the sensation
Mrs. Stilton Barnes could have wished. With the tact of a true
diplomatist she had said but little about him beforehand.
Expectations too fully roused, she well knew, were almost invariably
doomed to disappointment. So she had merely told a few of her most
particular friends that she expected a cousin of hers from New
England.
“A young artist,” she added, “who has recently lost his mother, so I
shall not be expected to give him a gay time.”
Men, of course, were scarce at this distance from the cities. There
were any number of boys in their teens, and several dudes, who
spent almost as much time as the ladies in devising new
combinations of sash and hat bands, outing jackets and shirts. This
fact had been uppermost in Camilla Barnes’s mind when she asked
Radnor to come to Lorimac. She felt that he would tower head and
shoulders above all the other males at the hotel.
“And who knows but he may make a rich catch?” she even
whispered to herself.
It was a reversal of things, she knew, this exploiting of a man, but
then the very uniqueness of the process added zest to it for this
woman whose nature craved excitement of this sort above all other
things.
When Radnor’s train came in she walked across the road to the
station to meet him. She had seen to it that he took the express,
which would bring him to Lorimac just before the supper hour, when
everybody was on the piazzas, looking out for the new arrivals.
“You are very welcome, Radnor,” she said, when he came up to
her amid the crowd.
She gave him both her hands, forcing him to drop his valise while
he took them for a moment. Then they walked across to the hotel
together, and while he registered, Mrs. Barnes tapped her jeweled
fingers together and glanced half carelessly around the great office,
with its big fire place in one corner and the many groups scattered
about. And she saw in that apparently casual glance all she wanted,
and knew that the first impression Radnor had made was an
extremely favorable one.
That evening, however, she introduced him to no one. They sat
together in a remote corner of the piazza, talking over old times, the
future, the walks and drives around Lorimac.
Radnor said but very little. It was not necessary. His cousin was
fond of talking, and she certainly found Radnor a most attentive
listener. The only fault she had to find with him was that he did not
ask questions enough. There were dozens of pretty girls in the dining
room at supper time, in a few of whom it might be supposed he
would have some little interest. But he always allowed Camilla to
speak of them first, except in one instance, and then he asked about
a young lady whom she did not know and had not observed.
“She came up on the train with me,” Radnor explained then, and
Mrs. Barnes made a resolve to find out the entire facts about the
new comer before she went to sleep that night.
This was not difficult to do. Pleading fatigue from his journey,
Radnor went to his room before ten, leaving his cousin to join a
group of ladies who each evening occupied the same corner of the
drawing room, and gossiped—gossiped of all that went on before
their eyes, and of much else that never went on at all, with
indefatigable zeal.
“Oh, didn’t you see her?” exclaimed Mrs. General Barentham
when Mrs. Barnes mentioned the matter. “Ah, of course, you were
absorbed in that charming cousin of yours. I trust you are not going
to make a practice of keeping him entirely to yourself. But about Miss
Bellman; you must have heard of her coming. She is that New York
girl who is so immensely wealthy in her own right, and with it all is so
sublimely beautiful. Did you ever, Mrs. Penford, see more exquisite
coloring?”
“Never,” was Mrs. Penford’s emphatic acquiescence.
“And such repose of manner,” went on Mrs. Barentham.
“Are you sure about that heiress part of it?” inquired Mrs. Barnes
earnestly. “You know how often these rumors get out without one
particle of foundation.”
“Oh, that is perfectly trustworthy, my dear,” rejoined the general’s
wife. “The Bellman estate in New York is one of the best known of
the vested interests in the metropolis.”
“With whom is she here?” Mrs. Barnes now wanted to know.
“With her uncle’s family, the Grants; very distinguished people, too.
The McBrintons know them, so I suppose we shall all be presented
tomorrow.”
It was very seldom that Camilla Barnes’s conscience troubled her,
and on this particular night it was not that which kept her awake long
after she had sought rest. The single instance of Radnor’s
manifestation of interest in the girls of the Lorimac, the exalted
position financially occupied by Olive Bellman, the coincidence of
their having come up on the same train—these three facts combined
kept Camilla’s brain in busy ferment for many hours.
“But I must be cautious,” she kept reminding herself. “I must make
haste very slowly. I wonder how long they are going to stay—how
much time they will give me?”
She was introduced to the Grants the next morning by Miss
McBrinton, while the ladies were all gathered with their fancy work in
a shady corner of the piazza. Olive was included in the presentation,
but she seemed scarcely to heed the ceremony.
She had no work in her lap, but sat there with one hand on the
railing of the piazza, while her eyes were fixed most of the time on
the hills across the lake.
Radnor had gone by himself for a row. Mrs. Barnes never ventured
on the water except for a few minutes in the evening. She had told
him where to look for her when he came back. Everything had turned
out so far exactly as she had planned. She hoped he would not stay
out too long. With this one thought she returned to active
participation in the discussion of Mrs. Dorrington’s nursemaid, who
insisted on calling herself a governess, and hence declared that she
had a perfect right to sit at the first table with the others.
Olive rose presently and walked towards the front door, where she
remained standing for a while, evidently drinking in to the full the
exquisite view of the lake from this point.
“My dear,” called her aunt, “you are in the sun. Let me send for
your hat.”
“Don’t bother, Aunt Elizabeth. I was just going up stairs, and I’ll get
it myself.”
The girl disappeared, and at that moment Mrs. Barnes caught
sight of Radnor returning in his boat.
And the same thing happened during the next two days. It seemed
as if fate had decreed that the two were not to meet.
But Camilla had ascertained that the Grants were to remain
through the month, and she endeavored to possess her soul in
patience, feeling that after all this was the very best of beginnings.
“How like him she is,” she said to herself more than once, when
noticing traits in Olive that made her seem different from the other
girls. “They say that men always find their ideal in their opposites,
but then it is the exceptions that prove the rule.”
Of Olive herself she never once spoke to Radnor, but then so far
as the girl’s position and prospects went there was no need for her to
say a word. By nightfall of the day succeeding her arrival the facts
were known throughout the hotel. Radnor had played two or three
games of billiards with General Barentham, and the general was
almost as great a gossip as his wife.
It was not until the third evening that the meeting took place, and
then, oddly enough, it came about without the agency of Camilla at
all, and while she was working hard to compass it in an entirely
different way—seated in the writing room with Mr. McBrinton trying to
persuade him to join her in getting up a launch party.
Radnor meanwhile was in the parlor, entertaining a large company
of boys with stories of his bicycling experiences. It was while thus
engaged that Mrs. McBrinton touched him on the shoulder and
asked him if he would not make up a hand at whist.
When Mrs. Barnes came in a few moments later she caught her
breath quickly on beholding her cousin seated vis-a-vis to Olive
Bellman at the card table.
After that the acquaintance progressed as rapidly as she could
have desired. Nearly every morning found the two on the tennis
courts, where they were the most evenly matched pair of players that
the Lorimac had seen that season. Then in Olive Radnor found as
enthusiastic a lover of the water as himself, and the afternoons were
devoted to exploring tours around the shores of the lake.
Mrs. Grant or Mrs. McBrinton generally accompanied them on
these expeditions, and it was odd to hear them sing Radnor’s
praises among themselves.
He was naturally chivalric towards all, and the little attentions he
bestowed on the chaperones were so self evidently spontaneous
and disinterested that the hearts of the old ladies were completely
won.
Mrs. Barnes felt as though she were on wings. It was a real effort
for her to keep her exultation under. Indeed, even now she never
trusted herself to mention Olive’s name to her cousin.
Thus affairs went on till the last week in August, when the grand
Venetian Carnival was held on the lake. General Barentham took the
greatest possible interest in the celebration and was determined that
the Lorimac House should outdo all competitors in the grand
procession. He constructed a Lohengrin swan boat out of his
naphtha launch, and after begging and entreating for three days,
almost on his knees, succeeded in obtaining Olive Bellman’s
consent to be the Venus who should sail in it.
“But you don’t want a Venus, General Barentham,” she protested.
“Venus belongs to Tannhaeuser. You want a Lohengrin if you are
going to have a swan boat.”
“I want nothing of the kind,” the general responded. “I want you,
and I am going to have you,” and in the end he triumphed.
Radnor was selected to be Olive’s companion in the launch and
do the steering in the dress of the Swan Knight, while the engineer,
concealed as deftly as possible by the counterfeited wings, was
tucked away in the stern. General Barentham was here, there and
everywhere, managing the rest of his flotilla, and the guests of the
Lorimac not in the “show,” as Radnor insisted on terming it, were
accommodated on the steam launch Meteor.
The procession started at four o’clock to make the tour of the lake,
and the plaudits that greeted the swan barge everywhere were loud
and prolonged. But the engine of the launch worked badly, and once
the engineer was forced to run ashore to see what he could do at
easing matters.
This put them behind, and when they started on again it was
already beginning to grow dark.
The wind was rising too, and presently the boat was tossing in
quite a sea. Radnor took off his coat and insisted on wrapping it
around the “Venus,” and they both cowered behind the windward
wing of the Swan to escape as much as possible the pelting rain that
now began to descend.
Not a very romantic situation truly, but nevertheless Radnor found
in it his perilous turning point. Olive was so brave, so patient, so
confident in his ability to bring them safely into port, showed to him,
in short, a side of her character that had not yet been presented to
him, that—well, he went down before it as so many men before him
have done before their fates, and when he helped a wet, bedraggled
Venus out of the boat at the Lorimac pier he realized that the sooner
he got out of the Adirondack woods the better for his peace of mind.
It had all come on him like a lightning stroke, or, as he preferred to
compare it himself, with the swiftness of the flash in night time
photography. He had gone on so joyously, so confidently, with no
thought beyond the contentment of the present.
“But why should I not go on and be happy?” he asked himself that
night as he tried calmly to review the situation.
To be sure there were Miss Bellman’s millions, contrasted with his
own poverty. The world would be sure to talk, but then he would wait
and work, and perhaps some day he would feel that the gulf between
them was not too wide to be spanned by their clasped hands. And
with this ravishing possibility for his last waking thought he fell
asleep.
He woke early, and with the new hope strong within him, he felt he
could not endure the confinement of four walls until his customary
rising time. He dressed and went out to walk beside the lake, which
now reflected back the overshadowing hills from a mirror-like surface
that it seemed could not be the same on which the swan boat had
been so rudely tossed but yesterday. He had never seen the Lorimac
so peaceful; all was quiet in the early morning; even the birds
seemed to have hushed their music for the moment. There was not a
sound but the tiniest lap of the ripples against the stony shore at his
feet and—yes, here was a jarring discord overhead as his walk
brought him just beneath the summer house.
Two French nursemaids were sitting there, talking in their own
language, in which Radnor was well versed.
“See there!” one of them exclaimed. “Here he comes now.
Madame Barnes arranged it well, did she not, that they go off in the
swan boat? Such a fortune is not to be trapped every day, and as
she couldn’t marry it herself, she wanted to have it in the family
somewhere. It’s the talk of the house how she’s been playing off the
handsome cousin for the——”
But by this time Radnor was out of hearing, his cheeks flaming
with indignation, his teeth set fiercely together, his fingers tightly
pressed against his palms.
So he had been a puppet in the hands of the scheming Camilla. “A
very docile and obedient little puppet,” as he told himself, for he had
gone and done the very thing expected of him.
As he would have scorned and loathed another man who would
have deliberately lent himself to such a scheme, he now scorned
and loathed himself, all innocent as he was. And his cousin Camilla?
He felt that he could not bring himself even to see her again.
The common talk of the house, forsooth! Aye, this was easily
believable, for had he not heard it with his own ears from the very
nursemaids? The Bournie pride rose tumultuously in Radnor’s
breast. He wanted to get away from Lorimac, from men and women,
from himself, from everything that could remind him of his
humiliation.
His walk had now brought him to the fence which separated the
hotel grounds from the forest adjoining. Placing his hands on the
topmost rail Radnor vaulted lightly over and plunged into the
underbrush, taking a certain sort of satisfaction in trampling down the
low bushes that lay in his path.
For an hour he roamed on, by some instinct always holding the
lake in view. It seemed that he must keep in motion or be
overwhelmed by the wild, maddening thoughts that were surging
through his brain.
He could liken himself only to Tantalus, about to drink of the life
giving draught, to have it dashed from his very lips. But in his own
case another cup had been substituted—a cup so bitter and revolting
that, strong man as he was, he shuddered at the realization of its
existence.
When or why he turned around he knew not, but presently he
found himself approaching the hotel again. As soon as he caught
sight of its outlines he paused, half determined to strike off into the
deeper woods. And at that instant he heard his name called.
It was his cousin Camilla. She had been out looking for him, and
now came forward, keen anxiety on her face and in her voice, as she
exclaimed: “My dear Radnor, what has come over you? I have been
really concerned about you. Here it is almost ten and you have not
been to breakfast yet. A maid said you had come into the woods,
and you can imagine how eager I was to find you when I ventured
here myself.”
She held up her gown, to the trimming of which a many forked twig
had fastened itself, shaking it at him suggestively. But he neither
answered her smile with another, nor made any motion to disengage
the dress. His face took on a hard, stern look Camilla had never
seen on it before, and if Radnor had not been too fully preoccupied
to notice it he would have been interested in observing the fading out
of the smile on hers and the creeping into its place of a strange
expression of commingled fear and defiance.
There was a moment’s pause, the silence broken only by the
stirring of the leaves overhead in the gentle breeze that had just
sprung up, and by the shrill voice of one of the Carew boys calling
out—“Love, fifteen,” on the tennis grounds. Then Radnor spoke.
“Why did you do this, Camilla?” he said. “No,” he went on
hurriedly, as she opened her eyes in real or assumed mystification.
“You need not waste time in asking what. I shall tell you all. You
wanted me to marry rich, deliberately planned to have me do it, as
any silly match making mother with a daughter to get off her hands
would have done, and now the whole scheme is the talk of the
servants’ hall and the sculleries. I am sorry to have to disoblige a
lady, but under the circumstances I must make my adieux to you at
once.”
He lifted his hat and struck off towards the hotel.
“Radnor, you are mad,” Camilla called after him, but he never
turned his head; and it was the talk of the house for the rest of the
day that Radnor Hunt and his cousin had breakfasted separately.
But the gossips had a yet richer feast in store. Radnor left on the
noon train, and—how it got out no one exactly knew—but it was
rumored for a fact that he had insisted on paying his own bill. Mrs.
Stilton Barnes took her departure almost immediately afterwards,
and the following week the Grants left for Au Sable Chasm, Miss
Bellman of course accompanying them.
All this, as has been explained, happened two years previous to
the opening of the present account of Radnor Hunt. He had gone
straight from Lorimac to New York, and plunged into work with
desperate earnestness. And so well had he succeeded that, starting
in the metropolis without a friend, he had now not only a comfortable
income, but would have been warmly welcomed at a dozen homes
had he chosen to accept the invitations he received.
He was even chary of companionship with his own sex. It seemed
as if his faith in the entire human species had been shaken, and
while his fellow artists and the literary men with whom he came in
contact, all liked him, none ever succeeded in becoming more than
an acquaintance.
And thus, lonesome as a hermit, Radnor lived on, taking his
successes without enthusiasm, for there was no one else to reap the
benefit of them. He suffered as one without hope, for no matter now
what fame or riches he might attain, he felt that after what had
happened he could never make any attempt to secure the only thing
in the world that was precious to him.
Sometimes during his long solitary vigils in the studio he would try
and plan how things might have gone if he had not chanced to
understand French. Already before the Carnival he had received an
invitation to call if he made up his mind to settle in New York. He
might have been very intimate at the great house on Madison
Avenue by this time. He passed it now and then in his walks, and
once he met Olive just as she was crossing the sidewalk to step into
the carriage.
She smiled as she bowed, and turned partially as if she expected
he was going to stop, but he walked on rapidly, and always after that
avoided the avenue whenever possible.
The first summer after his settlement in New York he spent in
Europe, traveling and sketching; the second he went to Labrador
with a scientific expedition. From this he had now returned, as the
early October frosts were sending the reddened leaves skurrying to
earth, and the out of town sojourners were hurrying back to their city
homes.
Radnor experienced a strange feeling of gladness when he caught
sight of the uneven roof lines of the Knickerbocker town as he
steamed up the bay. And yet he expected no one to meet him, and
anticipated taking up the old life just where he had left off.
Nevertheless this sense of odd contentment abided with him all
through the turmoil and confusion of arriving, and sent him for the
night to one of the new palace hotels instead of to his lonely quarters
in the studio.
Had time cured the old wound, he asked himself? But no; he knew
that could not be, and he expected to wake up the next morning his
old self again.
But the morrow found him still with the same inexplicable
buoyancy of spirit, and the business friends whom he called on
during the forenoon congratulated him on the great good his trip had
done him. Among the orders he received was one for a sketch in
Central Park, and early in the afternoon he went up to the city’s great
pleasure ground to refreshen his memory of it.
It was Saturday, and children were everywhere. A crowd of them
of all sizes were eagerly gathering around the Lohengrin boats as
Radnor strolled along the path that skirts the pond.
The swan-like craft sent the young man’s mind backward with a
rush; and yet in his present mood he did not try to stem the current
of thought. On the other hand, he astonished himself by stepping
aboard one of the boats for a sail. A nurse with three young charges
occupied the seat with him, and had her hands and eyes fully
occupied in keeping them all out of the water. Radnor took pity on
her at length, and offered to take one of them, a little girl, on his
knee.
This arrangement delighted the child, to say nothing of relieving
the nurse, and presently the little thing began to prattle away to
Radnor as though he were an old acquaintance.
“I’ve seen you before,” she presently announced, turning her gaze
from the water in front of them to look up earnestly into his face.
“Oh, I guess not,” he answered, smiling down into the deep blue
eyes, the brows of which now began to knit in perplexed thought. “I
never saw you in my life before today, so how could you see me?”
“Yes, I did!” she persisted, “and it was in a boat with a swan to it
just like this.”
Radnor started. What could the child mean? She was certainly not
over six. It was not possible she could remember that Lake Lorimac
incident of two years before.
“Where was it?” he asked. “Here in Central Park?”
“Oh no, it was in a picture, and Cousin Olive wouldn’t tell me
where the boat was, but she was in it too, all dressed in white and—
why, then you must know Cousin Olive. I wonder if you like her as
well as I do. Only she was cross—almost, when Flo and I found that
picture. It was all wrapped up and—oh dear, she told me never to tell
anybody and it would be all right, and now I’ve told you. But you
won’t tell, will you?”
Radnor, however, was not compelled to make a promise. The boat
at this point reached the landing stage again, and the nurse carried
all her charges ashore with small ceremony, the “polite gentleman”
seeming scarcely to notice that they were gone.
He sat there perfectly still while the boat made another tour of the
lake. He was recalling incidents which he had thought never to
recollect again. One of them, that of the photograph Miss Carew took
of the swan boat just before they started. So Olive Bellman had kept
this secretly as a treasure, not as a forbidden object. Radnor had
met Mr. Grant more than once and had been asked why he did not
call. What if—well, what if there were two sides to the picture, and
money were to stand in the way of the happiness of the one who
possessed it because of pride in the other?
How should he, Radnor Hunt, deal with the problem?
This was the question that kept the young artist’s thoughts active
as he strode homewards that afternoon. The air was coming on chill
as the sun dipped towards the west, and the dead leaves blew up
about him spitefully as he walked rapidly along, but somehow it
seemed to Radnor, as one struck him in the face now and then, as if
they were not the withered remnants of a dead summer, but the
hopeful blossoms of a dawning spring.

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Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

6.1 Practice Problems

6. (a) False. The zero vector is not an eigenvector.

6.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

45. The characteristic polynomial is det (A − λI) =

46. The characteristic polynomial is det (A − λI) =

51. Since λ = 1 is an eigenvalue of A, det (A − λI) = det (A − I) = 0. Thus A − I is singular.

53. If Au = λ1 u = λ2 u, then (λ1 − λ2 ) u = 0. Since u is an eigenvector, u ̸= 0, and hence λ1 − λ2 = 0.

56. Consider the case where A is upper triangular,

) λ ̸= 0. (Let u be)an eigenvector of A associated with λ, so Au = λu. Multiply by

64. We have Au = λu, and consider (A − cIn ) u = Au − cu = λu − cu = (λ − c) u. Thus λ − c is an

det (A − λIn ) = (a11 − λ) C11 + a12 C12 + · · · + a1n C1n

6.2 Practice Problems

6.3 Practice Problems

6.3 Complex Eigenvalues

35. (a) True, since z = x + iy = x − iy = x + iy = z.

37. (a) Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv. Then z + w = (x + iy) + (u + iv) = (x + u) + i (y + v) =

40. Let A = [ a1 · · · an ], where aj are complex column vectors. Then Av = v1 a1 + · · · + vn an ,where

since A has columns aj and v has entries vj .

(a) u = Re (u) + i Im (u) = c Im (u) + i Im (u) = (c + i) Im (u). Hence λu = λ (c + i) Im (u).

6.4 Practice Problems

from the characteristic polynomial, det (A − λI3 ) = λ3 + 2λ2 + 8λ + 1 = 0.

y1 = (0.206) c1 e−0.128t + e−0.936t ((0.493) c2 cos (2.624t) + (0.493) c3 sin (2.624t))

Thus, y1 = c1 (− cos t + sin t) + c2 (− cos t − sin t) and y2 = c1 cos t + c2 sin t.

Thus, c1 = 1 and c2 = 1. Therefore, y1 = −2 cos t and y2 = cos t + sin t.

Setting y1 (0) = −2, y2 (0) = 1, and y3 = 3, we obtain

6.4 Systems of Diﬀerential Equations

Hence y1 = 2c1 e−t + 2c2 e3t , and y2 = −c1 e−t + c2 e3t .

Hence y1 = −c1 + 2c2 e7t , and y2 = 2c1 + 3c2 e7t .

Hence y1 = c1 e−t + 2c2 e3t , and y2 = c1 e−t + c2 e3t .

Hence y1 = 2c1 e2t + 5c2 e3t , and y2 = c1 e2t + 2c2 e3t .

Thus y1 = 2c1 + c2 e−t − c3 et , y2 = c1 + 3c3 et , y3 = 2c1 + c2 e−t .

Hence y1 = c1 e−2t + 2c2 e3t , and y2 = c1 e−2t + c2 e3t .

Hence y1 = 2c1 et + 5c2 e2t , and y2 = c1 et + 3c2 e2t .

y3 = c1 e−t + 13c2 cos t + 13c3 sin t.

Thus c1 = 17 2 , c2 = − 2 , and c3 = 2 . Therefore y1 = − 2 (4 cos t − 6 sin t) + 2 (6 cos t + 4 sin(t) =

Hence y1 = c1 e(−0.3)t + 2c2 e(−0.4)t , and y2 = −c1 e(−0.3)t − 3c2 e(−0.4)t .

Hence y1 = c1 e(−0.2)t + 3c2 e(−0.4)t , and y2 = 2c1 e(−0.2)t + c2 e(−0.4)t .

36. For example,

37. For example,

38. For example,

41. det (A − λI3 ) = −λ3 + λ2 + 27λ + 112 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ 7.0652, λ2 ≈ −3.0326 + 2.5798i, λ3 ≈

4.041i, λ4 ≈ −0.2996 − 4.041i

45. det (A − λI3 ) = λ3 − 2λ2 − 56λ + 63 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ 8.0096, λ2 ≈ 1.1055, λ3 ≈ −7.1151.

Using the initial conditions we have

−0.6278c1 + 0.831c2 + 0.2591c3 = −1

and obtain c1 ≈ −0.9152, c2 ≈ −0.4106, c3 ≈ −4.76. Substituting, we obtain

y1 ≈ 0.5746e8.01t − 0.3412e1.106t − 1.233e−7.115t

y1 ≈ −0.942c1 e−5.409t + 0.5904c2 e5.818t − 0.5362c3 e3.591t

Using the initial conditions we have

−0.942c1 + 0.5904c2 − 0.5362c3 = 1

and obtain c1 ≈ −4.709, c2 ≈ 1.012 , c3 ≈ 7.522. Substituting, we obtain

y1 ≈ 4.436e−5.409t + 0.5975e5.818t − 4.033e3.591t

47. det (A − λI4 ) = λ4 − 6λ3 − 66λ2 − 196λ − 32 = 0 ⇒ λ1 ≈ −0.1732, λ2 ≈ 12.5312, λ3 ≈ −3.1790 +